= CONCEPT AND STRUCTURE. st that has shown signs of life. Our planet that was since its evolution and today it has emerged forces have given rise to an environment that forces have gained a perfect of balance ‘on each other. Now the earth looked ‘organism. The Greeks called the earth as Gaia or the nsible for the well being of her domain ‘of human evolution the earth is looked upon as @ ies have observed their surroundings and the planets d and understood them and if possible use them in their day environment is a result of evolution of the earth’s forces ‘and modifying itself to make it suitable for living. th due to its unique characteristics has developed natural , from one place to another. These systems operate from: vel, but the most interesting part of it is that, although these ‘micro level they form a part of the whole system that is other. The evolution of various ecosystems is dependent on in a given area. These physical conditions that influence rainfall, sunshine ete. cology is the study of organisms in relation to the ich they live”. Or in other words “The study of the the living organisms in a given area with its natural ing is known as Ecology”. The word ecology was first ogist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. It comes from two Greek ing home and ‘logos’ meaning understanding, Haeckel the domestic side of organic life and the knowledge of the lorganisms to the surrounding outer world, to organic and stence. ‘STEMS is thought to have composed of ammonia, methane, es. When these gases are subjected to electricity, “chemical reaction occur that produce amino acids. aplex molecules that are the building material of~ protei cjymes and many other components of lif Se cade. Te ae organizational unit of life is cell. Th: muscles, hair and skin. The ie of protocells. ", cl ino acids can form cell like struct & protocells Siiad a tia igle celled organisms such as years ag sn oon fe ed cate kit ‘A major change occurred about 1.5 Years go when more complex cells, called eukaryotes evolved. Multi organism, including sponge and jelly fish appeared in oceans by 1 billion y ro. About 570. million years ago the fossil record shows ago. f diversification sometimes called the explosion of life took place. ‘These organisms began to adjust themselves in the environments Every organism gradually developed @ relationship for its survival environment in which it found t0 be best, This gave rise to the evo various ecosystems operating in various environments. 7 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM. ‘A community consist ofall populations that inhibit a certain area, of this area can ranges from few square metres to thousands of square kil An ecosystem is the community plus its physical environ: study of ecosystems often tends to focus on the movement of components, such as the flow of energy and the cycling matter ‘system. This approach is often called the "functional" view, In contra Communities consist only of organisms, one can focus on desea ‘rzanisms are distributed in communities through time . 4s called “structural” approach. There are hundreds of eosystems existing on earth. The most basic kinds 8) Terrestrial or land ecosystem : Taiga, Temperate forest , Tropical forest, ©) Aquatic or water ecosystem ; Such « ecosystem. BIOTIC STRUCTURE A. Producers These are also called as autoty the organic compounds producersenvironment EUS 92 wn the refuse and deag live 01 Tmewade scavengers Such ay Iv) Detrtivores : These are organisms that organic matter in the ecosystem. Detritivores crabs and vultures that eat the remains of dead animals: re ¥) Decomposers : Such as funé! reria that bres down la debris, animal droppings an’ ar ter era the important function of rele: in their form, back to the environment. SE a components of the enVirOnk It ee coral, latitude and altitude ‘a soils. These factors ity of an econystens In ternaa i the number and vari ms found ina particular ecosystem. Chemical like oxyge” 4c. influence the functioning of ecosystem. ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOSYSTEM Food Chain made up of food chains that begin with energy —ie, ‘and converted into organic Sing animals) synthesize a portion ofthe Hof the herbivore provides nutrition ang smmals). Thus energy is passed on from) thus establishing a link, These links ‘All ecosystems are sunlight extracted from ‘matter by plants. Herbivores (plant eal plant material in their bodies, The fies Energy to the carnivore (flesh eating 30 fone organism to another step by steP» together form a food chain. the physical environment‘Web Food chain represents an isolated relationship between the producers and . In reality or in the environment all elements are inter-related and er-dependent and hence we find that the elements of different food chains are elated and inter-dependent on the elements of other food chains. Such a of integrated food chains or the combination of different food chains isFig. 04: Tropic Level Mr the diagram depicting the biomass pyramid we find that ite of animals in cach successive level drops rapidly. This is due ‘oa That almost 90% of the energy if lost at each level. All living or biotic organisms) 9k ‘carry out certain functions. They require energy to carry out functions. This. ‘energy is obtained through the food, which they consume. Much of the energy is lost or released due to respiration of the organisms. Respiration represents the maintenance process of plants and animals. In_ ‘most ecosystems it accounts for a discharge of 90% or more of the energy loss each trophic level. The energy discharged is mainly heat, which passes in to atmosphere. So the amount of energy reduces considerably as it passes from trophic level to another. Hence, the number of consumers at every stage that five comfortably is always less than at its previous stage. Energy flow in ec is often characterized as an energy pyramid in which the layers or esented by the trophic levels shrink rapidly towards the apex of the pyrami Dic aaey Pee are on dependent upon the kinds of plants andMAJOR ECO: © “Major Beosatoms ofthe world © mraduction, types, characterise Jeunes siauctre and MCIIN of npg) © Forest Ecomstom © Grassland Eeosssem Desert Econstom see FOREST ECOSYSTEM A. Tropical forest Tropical forests are characterized by the greatest diversity of species. They occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes 23.5 degrees Nor and 23.5 degrees South One of the major characteristics of tropical forests jy their distinct seasonality : winter is absent, and only two seasons are presen, (rainy and dry), The length of daylight is 12 hours and varies little From left : Olympic Peninsula rain forest, Patria River, Costa Rica; Ranoms Park, Madaga ywaiian forest Fig. 10.1 : Tropical Forest Ecosystem, @ Temperature is an average 20-25° C and varies little throughout the year : the average temperatures of the three warmest and three coldest ‘months do not differ by more than 5 degrees. © Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, with annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm. @ Soil is nutrient-poor.and acidic. Decomposition is rapid and soils are subject to heavy leaching. Canopy in tropical fe little light penetrati- yajor Boasystems of the World “sar 97 @ Fauna include numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects Further subdi ‘of rainfall. @ Evergreen rainforest : No dry season. © Seasonal rainforest : Short dry period in a very wet tropical ri The forest exhibits definite seasonal changes as trees undergs developmental changes simultaneously, but the general character of vegetation remains the same as in evergreen rainforests. © Semi evergreen forest : Longer dry season The upper tree story consists of deciduous trees, while the lower story is still evergreen. © Moist / dry deciduous forest (monsoon) : The length of the dry season increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous). More than one half of tropical forests have already been destroyed due to suman activities. 'B, Temperate forest Temperate forests occur in easter North America, northeastern Asia, and esiem and central Europe. Well-defined seasons with a distinct winter this forest biome. Moderate climate and a growing season of 200 days during 4-6 frost-free months distinguish temperate forests. This est is located between 233° ‘ons of this group are determined by seasonal distribution 664° North and south of the equator. | Tom ets Wisconsin woods a frest along California's north coast, the forested bil ofthe : ‘Adirondacks, New York. Fig. 102 Temperate Forest Ecosystem. 8 ‘Temperature varies from — 30° C to 30° C. © Precipitation (75-150 cm) is distributed evenly throughout the year. Soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter. "Canopy is moderately dense and allows light to penetrate, resulting in ied under story vegetation and is characterized by 3-4 tree species per square kilometre. Trees distinguished by broad leaves that are lost annually and include ‘as oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, willow, and spring-flowering herbs. ‘by squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, : er wolf, fox, and black bear.emi community che alt ee ganar 8 sol of arine Ecosystem : aeons further from the Lands basically the hough it is hard to give @ general in the pelagie zone includes ® cies of fish and some mamm2 ss nels Mfged onthe abundant plankton 7 , Many fend an the nt pelow the pelagic zone, but coms not include Epics pao ra ‘ocean, The bottom of the Zone consists of sand, slit, the very deepest parts of si : 4 ‘organi eases as depth increases toward are ts the deeper water. Flora are ery nutrient-rich, ‘while the fauna, since it is sea stars, and sea anemones, WOMS, es ne ‘The deep ocean is the abyssal zone. ‘The water in this region is very cold (around 3° C), highly pressured, high in oxygen ‘content, but low in nutritional content. The abyssal zone supports many species of invertebrates and fishes. Mid-ocean ridges often with hydrothermal vents are found in the abyssal zones vvong the ocean floors. Chemosynthetic bacteria thrive near these vents because of the large amounts of hydrogen sulfide and other minerals they emit. These rctoria are thus the start of the food web as they are eaten by invertebrates and fishes. 2. Coral reefs : Coral reefs are widely distributed in warm shallow waters, They can be found as barriers along continents (e.g., the Great Bart Reef off Australia), fringing islands, and atolls. Naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals, Corals are interesting since they consist of both algae (zooanthellae) and tissues of animal polyp. Since reef waters tend 10 be nutritionally poor, corals obtain nutrients throu: i Photosynthesis and also by extending tentacles to obtain plankton vemter, Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars.Boarostems of the Work | Feef life in the Gulf of Sissel Aqaba, Red Sea; a ~— Pacifica reef in the Florida Keys ny Fig. 10.6 Coral Reef fy 3. Estuaries : Estua: Imerge with the ocean. Thi concentrations creates a very intere algae, and macroflora, such as seaweeds, marsh grasse, {only in the tropics), can be found here. Estuaries su including a variety of worms, oysters, crabs, and waterfo THE FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration —_ than 1%, Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt c {ic ocean). There are different types of freshwater regions Lakes. 2. Streams and Rivers 3. Wetlands. font sara an ali he centra pPort a diverse fauna, wl. usually Tess the low salt ‘oncentration 1. Ponds and Fig, 10.7 : Freshwater Lake 1. Ponds and Lakes : These regions range in size from just a few square es to thousands of square kilometres. Scattered throughout the earth, several femnants from the Pleistocene glaciations. Ponds and lakes have limited diversity since they are isolated from one another and from other water like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three different Which are usually determined by depth and distance ftom the shoreline, ‘The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This ‘the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun's heat. It @ fairly diverse community, which can include several species of algae s), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects,