Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-019-01015-6

Exploring Mindfulness for Perceived Teacher Stress and Classroom

Climate
Cynthia F. DiCarlo1 · Ashley B. Meaux2 · Erin H. LaBiche3

Published online: 21 December 2019

© Springer Nature B.V. 2019

Abstract
Teaching has been identified as the most stressful profession in the human service industry (Greenberg in Teacher stress
and heal the effects on teachers, students, and schools, Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, 2016). Elevated teacher stress not only affects the teacher’s well-being and likelihood of burn-
out, but also the classroom climate of young children. The purpose of the present study was to assess whether mindfulness
practices can increase positive classroom climate and decrease perceived stress in early childhood teachers. Participating
teachers were selected based on results of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, Cohen in Journal of Health and Social Behavior,
24:285–396, 1983). Data were collected on the positive and negative climate objectives from the Classroom Assessment
Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta in Classroom assessment scoring system (CLASS) manual, pre-K, Paul H. Brookes Pub.
Co., Baltimore, 2008), which were operationally defined. The Mindfulness Practices Intervention included yoga poses,
intentional breathing, and guided mediation (Harris in Mindfulness 7:143–154, 2015), which were implemented within the
school day during arrival, mid-morning, lunch, mid-afternoon, and after work in the evening. Perceived Stress Scale scores
decreased for two of the participating teachers; all three teachers’ increased positive climate and decreased negative climate.
Results of the current study suggest that this low-cost, low labor-intensive intervention was effective in improving classroom
conditions for both teachers and young children.

Keywords Mindfulness · Teacher stress · Classroom climate · Perceived stress scale · Yoga · Guided meditation

Introduction organization, high job demands, and lack of support and

autonomy (Greenberg et al. 2016). A recent Gallup Poll
Children spend the majority of their waking hours in educa- determined that 46% of teachers reported high daily stress
tional environments. ranking teaching as one of the highest in occupational stress
Having authoritative caregivers early in education, who (Gallup 2014, p. 24). Perceived stress can lead to negative
are highly responsive, resilient, able to cope with stress, and classroom environments and poor academic outcomes for
model effective coping strategies is imperative for young students, as well as negatively affect teacher well-being
children’s social-emotional and academic development (Kidger et al. 2009; Osher et al. 2018; Schonert-Reichl 2017,
(Cohen 2012; Schonert-Reichl 2017). However, classroom 2019; Flook et al. 2013). The purpose of this paper is to
teachers often perceive high levels of stress (e.g., Greenberg explore a low cost, low labor-intensive mindfulness-based
et al. 2016). Occupational sources of stress include school intervention in two early childhood education classrooms
to assess the impact of teacher stress on classroom climate.

* Cynthia F. DiCarlo
[email protected] Impact of Stress in Academic Environment
1
School of Education, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, LA 70806, USA Preparing Teachers for Teaching‑Related Stress
2
School of Speech, Language, Hearing and Occupational
Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, USA The National Association for the Education of Young Chil-
3
dren (NAEYC) Commission on the Accreditation of Early
Iberia Parish Public Schools, New Iberia, USA

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486 Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

Childhood Higher Education Programs awards accreditation to “measures the degree to which situations in one’s life
to early childhood teacher preparation programs that dem- are appraised as stressful” (p. 385). Perceived stress is also
onstrate adherence to the NAEYC Professional Preparation referred to as psychological stress, which is defined as the
Standards. While the NAEYC standards are comprehensive degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as
for teacher development, there is nothing that speaks to self- stressful. Understanding the level of stress teachers perceive
care or stress reduction, as in other disciplines (e.g., social is foremost in reducing teacher stress to promote a healthy
work; Moore et al. 2011). Research suggests that teachers’ environment and improve teacher well-being and teacher-
social and emotional well-being affects students and should student relationships (Flook et al. 2013).
be a part of teacher preparation and professional develop-
ment (Schonert-Reichl 2017). Research with early childhood Classroom Climate
educators found that establishing professional learning com-
munities contributes to teacher development (Castle 2012; Stress is detrimental not only to teachers, but also to the
Escamilla and Meier 2017). When undergraduate students in children in their care. When teachers have the personal
teaching preparatory programs participated in mindfulness resources to cope with the demands of their profession, they
intervention they illustrated greater beliefs about the impor- become more resilient (Skinner and Beers 2016), and thus
tance of reflective practices, reported more kindness in inter- teachers who possess meta-awareness can model resilient
actions, and exhibited developmentally supportive responses behavior in their classrooms. Cohen (2012) defined resil-
to infants and toddlers, as well as greater knowledge of early ience as “a person’s capacity to overcome stress or adver-
development, as compared to other undergraduate majors. sity” and explained that “resilience is not a trait that people
Many in the field understand that teacher’s social and emo- either have or do not have. It involves behaviors, thoughts,
tional well-being affects the classroom environment (Arens and actions that can—at least to some extent—be learned
and Morin 2016; Breeman et al. 2015; Flook et al. 2013); and developed in anyone” (p. 411). A positive classroom
positive classroom climate and teacher resiliency are corre- environment is imperative for young minds to develop and
lated with positive student development and academic out- learn; a negative environment results in student stress and
comes, as well as student social-emotional learning (Cohen misbehavior. Social-emotional development and academic
2012; Schonert-Reichl 2017). However, in light of a multi- learning are also both affected by interactions with teach-
tude of factors, teachers remain stressed. ers (Schonert-Reichl 2017). Teachers who are less stressed
are more effective educators and have positive impacts on
Teacher’s Perceived Stress classroom climate (Flook et al. 2013).
Teachers who are able to cope with stress are more
Research has shown teaching is ranked among the most equipped to provide care consistent with indicators on the
stressful professions in the human service industry (Johnson Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) (Pianta
et al. 2005; Kahn 1993; Sautelle et al. 2015; Schonert-Reichl et al. 2008) associated with positive classroom climate
2017; Travers and Cooper 1993; Young and Cooper 1999). (Flook et al. 2013). Previous research has established that a
High stress levels in teachers and their inability to cope, positive classroom climate results in better academic, social,
negatively influence social-emotional learning for students and emotional outcomes for young children (Cohen 2012;
(Jennings and Greenberg 2009; Merritt et al. 2012). Nega- Schonert-Reichl 2017). Mindfulness practice is an effective
tive outcomes of stress include excessive daytime sleepiness, coping strategy for stress. Mindfulness practices have been
atypical cortisol levels, negative classroom environments, shown to decrease stress and reactivity to negative stimuli
and poor student academic outcomes (Greenberg et al. and increase sleep quality, compassion, clarity of mind, and
2016). Not only are these high levels of teacher stress a det- relaxation (Davis and Hayes 2011; Frank et al. 2013; Höl-
riment to teachers’ physical and emotional well-being, but zel et al. 2011; Hwang et al. 2017). Teachers who are less
also lead to affecting students. Oberle and Schonert-Reichl stressed also have better relationships and exhibit more posi-
reported correlations between high levels of self-reported tive interactions with students (Jennings et al. 2013).
teacher burnout and high morning cortisol levels in fourth
and seventh grade students, thus concluding that “stress is Impact of Mindfulness on Teacher Stress
contagious.” and Classroom Climate
In order to address teacher stress, we must first be able
to identify stress. There are various ways to assess stress, Mindfulness is defined as “awareness that arises through
from self-reporting scales (e.g., questionnaires, surveys) to paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-
other methods considered to be more invasive (e.g., cor- judgmentally”. Mindfulness can be cultivated by focusing
tisol swabs, blood draws). For decades, researchers have attention on the breath, body, and mind from moment to
used the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen et al. 1983) moment. Examples of mindfulness practices include yoga

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Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496 487

poses, intentional breathing, and guided meditation (Har- et al. (2013) for full list), participants reported an increase
ris et al. 2015). Mindfulness practices decrease stress and in mindfulness and self-compassion, and improvement in
bring awareness to the body and mind (Hwang et al. 2017). observer-rated classroom behavior was observed (Flook
Programs that show evidence of effectiveness for decreasing et al. 2013). In this study, the CLASS was used to directly
teacher stress include teacher induction and mentoring pro- observe emotional support (including positive and negative
grams, school-workplace wellness promotion programs, stu- climate), classroom organization, and instructional support.
dent behavior and social and emotional learning programs, The data exhibited a significant decrease in psychological
and mindfulness and stress management-based professional symptoms, burnout, and attentional bias.
development programs (Greenberg et al. 2016). Reducing Several mindfulness training studies occurring over
teacher stress through resiliency and mindfulness training fewer weeks than Jennings et al. and Flook et al. (2013)
has also shown positive impacts on classroom climate. have also provided evidence that changes in teacher stress
yielded changes in classroom climate using mindfulness
Mindfulness and Teacher Stress strategies. For example, Flook et al. (2013) mimicked the
positive effects of mindfulness intervention on classroom
To measure physiological effects of stress on the body, climate by implementing a 12-week mindfulness interven-
Roeser et al. (2013) worked to reduce teacher stress and tion, the Kindness Curriculum (KC), with preschool chil-
burnout through mindfulness training. After completing dren, resulting in better grades for preschoolers on the end
the eight-week mindfulness training, teachers reported of year assessments on approaches to learning, health and
less occupational stress and less symptoms of anxiety and physical development, and social emotional development.
depression. But physiological measures are just the begin- Another study provided evidence that over the course of
ning of the effects stress has on teachers’ and students’ 8 weeks, a mindfulness intervention course mitigated nega-
well-being. tive impacts on teacher’s mental health and its effects on
The Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Educa- classroom climate.
tion (CARE) for Teachers program has been used to assess Positive affect, self-compassion, depersonalization, teach-
teacher stress, well-being, efficacy, burnout/time pressure, ing efficacy, and mindfulness have been positively correlated
and mindfulness (Jennings et al. 2013). Findings suggest with emotional climate (Jennings et al. 2013). Therefore, it
practicing mindful awareness resulted in greater compe- is important that teachers’ social and emotional well-being
tencies to regulate emotional reactivity, thus resulting in is nurtured to increase positive learning environments for
improved relationships with students, classroom manage- students. Previous research has shown positive effects on
ment, and classroom climate (Jennings et al. 2013). Addi- teacher stress and classroom climate through both long-term
tionally, teacher general well-being, resiliency, efficacy, mindfulness training programs (e.g., Flook et al. 2013) and
burnout/time pressure were all positively impacted by the short-term mindfulness training programs (e.g., Flook et al.
program, also resulting in improvements in student and 2013). Teachers exhibiting high perceived stress levels could
classroom outcomes (Jennings et al. 2013). Schussler et al. benefit from mindfulness interventions that assist them with
also found that CARE program supported teacher develop- remediating stress. As childcare facilities are busy places
ment and resiliency. However, each of these programs took with little down time, the purpose of the present study was
place over the course of several months requiring a large to determine if a short-term mindfulness intervention would
time commitment. decrease early childhood teachers perceived stress and also
increase positive classroom climate. Identifying low cost,
Mindfulness and Classroom Climate low labor-intensive interventions to decrease teacher per-
ceived stress is important in contributing to children’s over-
Several studies have explored the effects mindfulness teacher all development, can increase teacher well-being, and con-
training programs have on classroom climate. Extend- tribute to a positive classroom climate for young children.
ing investigations on the impact of the CARE program on
emotional competence to include classroom interactions in
a year-long study, Jennings et al. used the CLASS (Pianta Method
et al. 2008) observation tool and several questionnaires to
provide evidence of positive effects on emotional support, The present study sought to determine the effects of a mind-
classroom climate, and teacher sensitivity (consistent with fulness practices intervention on teacher stress and class-
previous findings). Similarly, in a modified Mindfulness- room climate by asking two research questions: (1) Do
Based Stress Reduction program to assess stress, burnout, mindfulness practices impact classroom climate? (2) Can
and teacher efficacy using physiological measures (i.e., implementing mindfulness practices decrease early child-
salivary cortisol levels) and questionnaires (see Flook hood teacher stress? The independent variable within the

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488 Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

present study is the intervention consisting of the mindful- classroom. Melanie’s classroom consisted of 12 children, six
ness practices implemented by the teachers. The dependent boys and six girls. Melanie was the lead teacher and had an
variables consist of the perceived teacher stress as measured assistant teacher’s support. Anna’s classroom consisted of
by the PSS (Cohen et al. 1983) to monitor teachers’ per- 14 children, six boys and eight girls. Anna had two graduate
ceived stress before and after the intervention and observa- assistants, one that helped in the morning and another who
tions of positive and negative climate taken from the CLASS helped in the afternoon. Linda’s classroom consisted of 15
(Pianta et al. 2008). children, seven girls and eight boys. Linda had a peer-lead
teacher in her classroom.
Participants Various learning formats were incorporated in each
classroom’s daily schedule. These formats included morn-
The participants included three early childhood teachers ing provocations, morning meeting, morning investigations
working at a campus-based childcare preschool in the south. (free choice centers), literacy time, small groups, and reflec-
All three female subjects taught children ages five and under. tion time. Each classroom arrangement was consistent with
Melanie was African American with 15 years’ experience; Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, organized into
13.5 years at this center. She taught three-year-old children learning centers. Breakfast and lunch were served family
and had an associate degree in early childhood education, a style in the classroom. Each day the teachers were given a
Bachelor of Science in administration, and a master’s degree 15-min break in the morning and the afternoon, as well as
in early childhood education. Anna was Caucasian with a 30-min lunch break. They also received a planning period
seven years’ experience; 1.5 years at this center. She taught once a week for an hour.
four- and five-year-old children and had a bachelor’s degree
in psychology. Linda was Caucasian with 14 years’ experi-
Perceived Stress Scale
ence; 8 years at this center. She taught four- and five-year-
old children and had a bachelor’s degree in merchandising.
The PSS is a self-report measure of perceived stress (Cohen
The subjects were chosen based on their PSS (Cohen et al.
et al. 1983) used prior to and following the implementation
1983) scores. To assess teachers’ perceived stress, the PSS
of the mindfulness intervention to assess the teachers’ level
was administered to a total of eight teachers. Data from the
of perceived stress. The PSS consists of a 10-item question-
pre-intervention measure of the PSS showed high and mod-
naire in which participants score each item on a scale from
erate levels of teacher stress for the three participants; other
0 to 4, never to very often respectively. Every item begins,
teachers’ PSS scores did not indicate perceived stress. Stress
“In the last month, how often have you…” For example, “In
level scores included 32, 35, and 16 for Melanie, Anna, and
the last month, how often have you dealt successfully with
Linda respectively. This study had the approval from the
irritating life hassles?” Another question asked, “In the last
university’s Institutional Review Board and teacher consent
month, how often have you found that you could not cope
was obtained.
with all the things that you had to do?” Scores are sum-
marized to determine a perceived stress score. Scores range
Setting
from 0 to 40. High scores range from 27 to 40; moderate
stress scores range from 14 to 26; low stress scores range
The study was conducted at a preschool located on a uni-
from 0 to 13. The reliability for the PSS was .84, .85, and
versity campus that served children from birth to Pre-K.
.86 for each of the samples (Cohen et al. 1983). It is a classic
The school followed an emergent curriculum inspired by
stress assessment instrument commonly used in mindfulness
the Reggio Emilia approach. The Reggio-inspired philo-
related stress research.
sophic approach embodies the ideal that children construct
their own knowledge through the help of intentional and
knowledgeable adults. Projects are developed based on the Behavior Definitions
children’s interest and provide the children with opportuni-
ties to learn important concepts naturally by engaging in The behavior definitions used in this study to assess the
investigations and provocations. effects of mindfulness intervention on classroom climate
The preschool operated as a full day program opening at were based on the positive and negative climate dimensions
7:15 am and closing at 5:15 pm each day. Melanie and Anna of the CLASS (Pianta et al. 2008). The overall categories
worked from 7:00 am to 4:00 pm. Linda worked from 8:15 observed include positive relationships, positive communi-
am to 5:15 pm. The teachers’ schedules along with the age cation, respect, positive affect, negative affect, punitive con-
groups served are not conducive to interactions between the trol, sarcasm/disrespect, and severe negativity. Under each of
participants. They do not share breaks or lunch times and do these main categories were behaviors that are indicative of
not communicate often. The number of children varied by each of the overall categories; these behaviors were defined

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Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496 489

using standard definitions from the dictionary (dictionary. Physical control was defined as kinesthetically exercising
com). restraint or direction over a child. Harsh punishment was an
Positive relationships included physical proximity, shared ungentle or unpleasant, physically uncomfortable, cruel, or
activities, peer assistance, matched affect, and social conver- severe discipline.
sation. Physical proximity maintained that the individual is Sarcasm/Disrespect includes sarcastic voice/statement,
within arm’s reach of another person. Shared activities were teasing, and humiliation. Sarcastic voice/statement was con-
defined as taking joint participation in a common activity. sidered if a harsh or bitter verbal expression, including a
Peer assistance was defined as giving or receiving help or sneering or cutting remark, was exhibited by the teacher.
support from the person of the same age. Matched affect Teasing was to irritate or provoke with persistent petty dis-
was defined as displaying equal expression of emotion. For tractions or annoyance. Humiliation was observed if the
example, if the teacher was smiling when the other person teacher caused a person a painful loss of pride, self-respect,
was smiling, or sad when the other individual was sad, it or dignity; or did something to mortify the other person.
was considered matched affect. Social conversation was Severe Negativity included victimization, bullying, and
defined as the informal interchange of thoughts with oth- physical punishment. Victimization referred to duping,
ers and was not marked during instructional conversation. swindling, cheating or persecuting another individual. Bul-
It only counted if the interchange of thoughts was informal lying was defined as exhibiting intimidating or domineer-
and casual. ing behavior. Physical Punishment was considered somatic
Positive Communication included verbal affection, physi- discipline.
cal affection, and positive expectations. Verbal affection was
scored if the vocal expression of positive emotion, feeling, or Data Collection
sentiment was observed. Physical affection consisted of the
kinesthetic display of emotion, feeling, or sentiment. This Positive and negative behaviors were scored using 15-s
included kind touches, such as a hug, placing hand on arm interval recording during 10-min observation sessions
or back, or a high five. Additionally, the observer marked (Kazdin 2011). Video recordings were taken for each of
positive communication if the teacher expressed positive the 10-min observation sessions for each participant. The
expectations in which she gave clear guidelines for behavior. observer scored the sessions using the video footage from
Respect included eye contact, warm, calm voice, respect- each session by marking on the data sheet. An overall posi-
ful language, and cooperation and/or sharing. Eye contact tive and negative climate score was calculated for each ses-
was marked if the teacher was looking directly into another sion, as well as each individually observed objective. The
person’s eyes. Speaking in a nurturing, low, even, tranquil, scores were calculated as a percent, which was calculated by
and cordial tone was also measured as a sign of respect. dividing the number of occurrences by the total opportuni-
If respectful language—using polite and courteous verbal ties. Data were collected from November to February.
communication, and cooperation and/or sharing—engaging
in a shared activity for mutual benefit (Dictionary.com) were Observation Procedure
observed, the main category of respect was marked.
Negative affect included irritability, anger, harsh voice, All sessions were recorded for 10-min using an iPad. The
peer aggression, and disconnected or escalating negativity. observer held the iPad and moved around to follow the
Irritability was observed as being readily excited to impa- teacher. The teacher was videoed from the front and within
tience or anger. Anger was defined as a strong feeling of an audible distance to capture eye contact, facial expres-
displeasure and belligerence aroused by a wrong. If the sions, tone of voice, and language. This was necessary to
teacher was observed using an ungentle and unpleasant ver- accurately assess the indicators measured on the data record-
bal expression it was considered to be a harsh voice. Peer ing sheet. The observer did not interact during recordings or
aggression was defined as any offensive action, attack, or give any feedback during or after.
procedure directed towards someone of the same age was
documented as such. Disconnected or escalating negativity Experimental Conditions
was recorded if the teacher displayed antagonistic behavior
that was seemingly irrational or increasing in intensity. Baseline
Punitive control included yelling, threats, physical con-
trol, and harsh punishment. Yelling is to cry out or speak During baseline, teachers were not given any instruction or
with a strong, loud, clear sound; shout. Threat was a decla- information other than to act as they would on any other
ration of an intention or determination to inflict punishment day. Melanie exhibited negative affect. Anna exhibited irri-
or injury in retaliation for or conditionally upon some action tability, and Linda lacked positive affect but was not overall
or course that a teacher used in interaction with children. negative. Although negativity scores were not always high,

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490 Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

no opportunity was often marked as a lack of being positive using the point-by-point reliability formula (Kazdin 2011).
or negative. Negative affect and sarcasm/disrespect were the The number of agreements was divided by agreements plus
most commonly observed negative climate behaviors during disagreements and then multiplied by one hundred to obtain
baseline. Punitive controls and severe negativity were never a percentage of reliability. For positive climate the average
observed from any of the subjects. reliability for occurrence was 91% (range, 84–100%), non-
occurrence was 86% (range, 55–100%), and overall reli-
Mindfulness Intervention ability was 95% (range, 90–100%). For negative climate the
average reliability for occurrence was 62%, (range, 0–100%),
This study used a multifaceted mindfulness-based inter- non-occurrence 97% (range, 87–100%), and overall reliabil-
vention that consisted of several practices in the literature ity was 97% (range, 90–100%).
found to be beneficial for decreasing stress. These practices
included yoga poses, intentional breathing, and guided medi- Experimental Design
tation (Harris et al. 2015). The subjects were given a proto-
col of mindfulness practices to be used at particular times A single subject research design was used to demonstrate
throughout the day (i.e., arrival, mid-morning, lunch, mid- the impact of a Mindfulness Practices Intervention on class-
afternoon, evening). The practices included in the interven- room climate. Specifically, a multiple baseline design across
tion consist of guided meditation, a three-minute breathing subjects was used (Kazdin 2011). Multiple baseline designs
space, and yoga. Protocol included a 5-min guided medita- allow for the staggered implementation of an intervention
tion video (Winston 2014) to complete each morning before systematically across subjects only when behavior change
work and evening before going to sleep. In the morning with occurs (Kazdin 2011). Single subject research methods are
the children, the participant took part in a three-minute video useful in applied settings as it allows for comparisons of
of mindfulness for children (GoNoodle). During the morning individual behavior across different conditions (baseline/
15-min break the participant was asked to complete a three- mindfulness mediation). This study followed the procedures
minute breathing space video (Segal 2016). Yoga was also for multiple baseline designs set forth in the Single Case
included in the protocol consisting of one to 2 min with the Technical Document, which stipulate that all phases have a
children each day. minimum of five data points (Kratochwill et al. 2010).

Fidelity Check
Results
The teachers were given a fidelity checklist in which they
were asked to indicate which mindfulness practices they The present study assessed the impact of mindfulness prac-
used each day. The participants were asked to fill out the tices on classroom climate and early childhood educator
fidelity checklist immediately following the exercise to mark perceived stress. Guiding research questions specifically
exactly what was or was not completed in each exercise. sought to determine if (1) teachers who implement mindful-
Melanie completed 86% of the intervention, consisting of ness practices daily exhibit higher positive climate and lower
165 min practicing mindfulness. Anna completed 81% of negative climate, and (2) the use of mindfulness practices
the intervention, consisting of 155 min practicing mindful- produce a change in perceived stress scores.
ness. Linda completed 100% of the intervention consisting
of 192 min practicing mindfulness. Research Question 1: Classroom Climate

Interobserver Agreement Research question 1 sought to determine if positive and

negative classroom climate would be altered through the
The reliability observer was a graduate assistant with a bach- use of the Mindfulness Practices Intervention (see Fig. 1).
elor’s degree in early childhood education. The reliability
observer was trained by reviewing the operational definitions Melanie
and through discussion with the researcher who answered
any questions and explained examples and non-examples Positive. During baseline Melanie’s positive climate aver-
of the behaviors. The two observers then scored the video aged 54% (range, 40–78%); when the Mindfulness Practices
recordings simultaneously using the same data sheet used Intervention was applied, Melanie’s positive climate aver-
for all other sessions until at least 80% reliability was aged 75% (range, 45–85%). This represents a 21-percentage
achieved. Interobserver reliability was calculated for 20% point increase in positive climate. Negative. During baseline,
of all observations across baseline and intervention condi- Melanie’s negative climate averaged 20% (range, 8–35%);
tions (Kratochwill et al. 2010). Reliability was calculated when the Mindfulness Practices Intervention was applied,

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Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496 491

Fig. 1  Results of positive and

100%
negative classroom climate for
baseline and intervention. The 90%
solid line represents positive 80%
climate and the dotted line 70%
represents negative climate 60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Melanie
0%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% Anna
0%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
Linda
10%
0%

Melanie’s negative climate averaged 9% (3–13%). This rep- averaged 1% (range, 0–3%). This represents a 28-percentage
resents an 11-percentage point decrease in negative climate. point decrease.

Anna Linda

Positive. During baseline, Anna’s positive climate averaged Positive. During baseline, Linda’s positive climate averaged
51% (range, 13–65%); when the Mindfulness Practices 45% (range, 43–50%). When the Mindfulness Practices
Intervention was applied, Anna’s positive climate averaged Intervention was applied, Linda’s positive climate averaged
76% (range, 63–88%). This represents a 25-percentage point 74% (range, 55–90%). This represents a 29-percentage point
increase. Negative. During baseline, Anna’s negative climate increase. Negative. During baseline, Linda’s negative cli-
averaged 29% (range, 15–48%). When the Mindfulness mate averaged 5% (range, 0–10%). When the Mindfulness
Practices Intervention was applied, Anna’s negative climate Practices Intervention was applied, Linda’s negative climate

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492 Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

averaged 0% (range, 0–0%). This represents a 5-percentage 2008). Previous research literature summarized by Hwang
point decrease. et al. (2017) maintained that mindfulness has several mental
benefits for teachers including coping with stress and emo-
Research Question 2: Perceived Stress tions, managing conflict, better awareness of experiences,
clarity of mind, relaxation, better reaction to challenges
Research question 2 sought to determine if the use of the or stressful stimuli, feelings of reduced stress, and better
Mindfulness Practices Intervention would decrease teacher classroom outcomes. Increased “classroom organization,
levels of perceived stress. The PSS was administered before emotion regulation, and use of positive affect words in the
baseline data collection and after the intervention was com- classroom” (Hwang et al., p. 40) were evident in mindful-
pleted (see Table 1). ness based intervention studies.

Melanie Research Question 1

Before baseline, Melanie’s perceived stress score was a 32, The results indicated that all three participants exhibited
which is considered a high stress score. After the Mind- increased positive climate and decreased negative climate
fulness Practices Intervention was completed, Melanie’s while implementing the Mindfulness Practices Intervention.
perceived stress score was a 30. This represents a 2-point It is important to note that the two teachers with stress
decrease; remaining in the high stress bracket. scores in the high range at baseline presented more nega-
tive climate than the teacher with moderate stress. This is
Anna consistent with findings from Jennings et al. (2013) in that
teacher stress is correlated with “higher levels of absentee-
Before baseline, Anna’s perceived stress score was a 35. ism, reduced quality performance, and frequent irritable
After the Mindfulness Practices Intervention was completed, mood” (p. 376). As the teachers implemented mindfulness,
Anna’s perceived stress score was a 32. This represents a their positive classroom climate increased and their per-
3-point decrease; remaining in the high stress bracket. ceived stress decreased.
Results from the present study showed that one partici-
Linda pant’s stress increased while her positive climate increased
and negative climate decreased. It is possible that moderate
Before baseline, Linda’s perceived stress score was a 16. stress does not affect negative classroom climate, however
After the Mindfulness Practices Intervention was completed, there is no current literature to support this hypothesis. It is
Linda’s perceived stress score was a 20. This represents a also possible that the PSS was not as sensitive of a tool for
4-point increase; remaining in the moderate stress bracket. only a two-week intervention because the tool captures the
participants general stress level over the past month. This is
not consistent with previous literature (Flook et al. 2013),
Discussion in which findings suggested that stress affects classroom cli-
mate and teacher efficacy. Mindfulness may be more signifi-
The purpose of the present study was to determine if positive cantly correlated to classroom climate than perceived stress.
and negative classroom climate would be impacted when However, this should be a topic for future research.
the Mindfulness Practices Intervention was implemented Consistent with previous literature (Hwang et al. 2017),
throughout the daily routine and if early childhood teach- the Mindfulness Practices Intervention had positive effects
ers would experience decreased levels of perceived stress. on classroom climate exhibited by the three teachers. Stud-
Data were collected on positive and negative classroom cli- ies such as Jennings et al. (2013) and Frank et al. (2013)
mates using indicators from the CLASS tool (Pianta et al. evaluated mindfulness interventions that were more time
consuming. The CARE program involved four sessions
over the course of four to six weeks equaling a total of 30 h
Table 1  Teacher’s scores on the perceived stress scale prior to and (Jennings et al. 2013). In the Mindfulness-Based Stress
following the mindfulness intervention Reduction (MBSR) intervention evaluated by Frank et al.
Participant Baseline After mindfulness Difference (2013) participants attended classes lead by a trained and
intervention experienced MBSR coach for eight weeks. Similar results
were found in the current study; however, this Mindfulness
Melanie 32 30 2-Point decrease
Practice Intervention is a more cost-efficient and manage-
Anna 35 32 3- Point decrease
able program. Not all schools have access to or funds to
Linda 16 20 4-Point increase
hire a mindfulness trainer/expert or time to attend group

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sessions. Although mindfulness benefits are supported by a trained mindfulness instructor. Perhaps interventions that
several research studies (Hwang et al. 2017), they are under- incorporate group sessions or longer time spent practicing
utilized in the field. Therefore, the Mindfulness Practices mindfulness would result in greater declines in perceived
Intervention implemented in the current study was created stress.
as a feasible mindfulness intervention due to its time and The baseline PSS scores indicated that only two of
cost-effective nature. Teachers can easily incorporate the the teachers who were administered the questionnaire
Mindfulness Practices Intervention in their daily routines experienced high levels of perceived stress. This may be
with or without their children. attributed to the Reggio Emilia philosophy that the center
follows. Beltman et al. (2011) stated, “Teacher resilience
Research Question 2 is a dynamic process or outcome that is the result of inter-
action over time between a person and the environment”
The PSS results indicated that two out of the three partici- (p. 188). Due to the nature of the Reggio Emilia inspired
pants experienced decreased levels of perceived stress after environment, which consists of a nature-based and calming
the Mindfulness Practices Intervention was completed. atmosphere, it is possible that teachers in Reggio Emilia
Various factors could have affected Linda’s stress score; for inspired schools experience less perceived stress. Future
example, during the intervention the teacher became aware studies should consider studying the connection between
that she might be moving to another classroom. This added the Reggio Emilia approach and teacher’s perceived stress.
potentially stressful news may have affected the results of the
Mindfulness Practices Intervention. It is also possible that
the participant became more aware of her stress as a result
of the study and this negatively impacted her perceived Limitations
stress. Reduced stress was found in other studies that imple-
mented a mindfulness practices intervention (Beshai et al. With every single case design there are threats to validity.
2016; Davis and Hayes 2011; Harris et al. 2015; Taylor et al. One consideration is the threat to history, which is a threat to
2016). However, these studies incorporated more longitudi- internal validity. The use of a multiple baseline design mini-
nal studies and perhaps more labor-intensive interventions. mizes this threat, as the Mindfulness Practices Intervention
Beshai et al. (2016) administered multiple self-report meas- was implemented at varying times across the three subjects.
ures, such as the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and This minimizes the chance that “any event occurring at the
the PSS and found an improvement in well-being as well as time of the experiment could influence the results or account
a decline in perceived stress. Perhaps incorporating multiple for the pattern of data” (Kazdin 2011, p. 30). Another threat
self-report measures, such as the Five Facet Mindfulness to internal validity controlled for in this study was the inter-
Questionnaire would determine if all participants acquired nal threat of instrumentation.
more mindful capabilities. It is possible that Linda did not External validity was also regarded in the current study
improve her mindfulness capacities and as a result her stress (Kazdin 2011). The subjects that participated in the study
was adversely affected. were of varying races, working with different age groups,
The PSS was chosen because of its reliability and its fre- and had varying years of experience. These characteristic
quency of use in current mindfulness literature. However, the differences indicate that a diverse population that could
nature of the PSS should also be considered when reviewing potentially benefit from the results of the Mindfulness
the perceived stress results from the current study. The PSS Practices Intervention. A fidelity checklist was provided to
asks questions about how a participant has felt within the ensure that participants implemented the intervention in the
last month. It is also possible that the PSS focuses only on way that it was written.
negative stress and does not account for good stress. Due to A threat to generality of setting is another threat to valid-
the short duration of the study it is possible that other stress ity which must be considered. All teachers in the present
questionnaires, such as a questionnaire created specifically study worked at the same school, however they were each in
for teacher stress may have shown different results. different classrooms that were designed differently, had dif-
Furthermore, two teachers experienced declines in per- ferent teaching assistants and peer-lead teacher support,
ceived stress, however they remained in the high stress different age groups in their care, and a varying number of
range. More longitudinal implementation of the Mindfulness children in their classroom. This allows for some control of
Practices Intervention may be needed to assess whether the generality of settings even though all teachers are working
participants would experience declines significant enough at the same program. Generality across time (Kazdin 2011)
to reduce perceived stress from the high stress range to the was a threat that was also controlled for. All observation ses-
moderate or low stress range. Beshai et al. (2016)’s interven- sions were conducted in the morning to account for behavior
tion consisted of nine sessions that were 75 min long with changes at different times of the day.

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494 Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496

A viable threat to external validity in the current research and the children. Positive classroom climate is associated with
is the threat of reactive assessment, defined as “[t]he extent effective learning environments for children (CLASS; Pianta
to which subjects are aware that their behavior is being et al. 2008). Administrators should consider how to incorpo-
assessed and that this awareness may influence how they rate mindfulness practices within professional development
respond” (Kazdin 2011, p. 33). This threat is possibly due and other policies. Teachers should be instructed about the
to participants’ knowledge that they were being recorded positive effects of mindfulness practices and its related benefits
on video. Participants may have exhibited behavior deemed within the classroom. They could also be taught proper mind-
acceptable because of their knowledge of being on camera. fulness practices and techniques. Previous research claims that
They may, therefore, have avoided unacceptable, negative children of resilient teachers are more likely to attain posi-
climates knowing their behavior was being recorded. This tive outcomes than children with less resilient teacher models
threat should be taken into consideration when evaluating (Cohen 2012; Hwang et al. 2017).
the observation data for this study.
Another viable limitation is the short duration of the pre- Future Research
sent study. The individuals only implemented the interven-
tion for 2 weeks. Many studies, such as Beshai et al. (2016), Since the Mindfulness Practices Intervention implemented
have evaluated mindfulness interventions that are more lon- in the present study was a package intervention consisting
gitudinal. Current literature suggests that it takes approxi- of yoga, guided breathing space, and guided meditation, we
mately 6 weeks for a behavior change to occur (Chu et al. cannot be sure which components of the intervention are
2016). Although the time frame was sufficient for changes responsible for the change of behavior. Future research could
to teachers’ positive climate practices, the duration may not study the effects of each individual practices on classroom
have been long enough to impact teachers’ perceptions of climate and perceived stress, in order to determine which
stress, as many questions asked teachers to think back on elements are most useful for teachers. It may be found that
the past month’s stressors. The slight decreases in stress are some components are more effective than others, while some
perhaps a reflection of the short duration of the study and may be more influential within the classroom for the teachers
should be taken into consideration when reviewing the per- and/or the children.
ceived stress data results. The Hawthorn Effect (Cook 1962) could pose a threat
Social validity is another important aspect of substantia- to the validity of the data in the current study. The sub-
tion in assessing the need and importance of the research jects’ behavior could be a result of the knowledge that they
presented in the existing study (Kazdin 2011). Positive and were being videotaped and their behavior was subject to
negative climate CLASS objectives were used to assess the evaluation. Future research could incorporate regular video
classroom environment. This is a statewide tool used to observation to offset the possible Hawthorn Effect. It may be
assess classroom climate. Therefore, because the data exhib- useful for the teachers to be accustomed to being videotaped
ited an increase in positive climate and decrease in negative before baseline observations are conducted, in the hopes that
climate, it is likely to be accepted as beneficial to both the their behavior would not be affected by the presence of the
teachers and the children. Positive climate is considered to camera.
be an important component of effective learning environ- Future research should consider studying the impact of
ments for young children (CLASS; Pianta et al. 2008). mindfulness practices using longitudinal studies, which may
The increase in positive climate and decrease in negative better capture the continued use of mindfulness practices. It
climate for all participants and a decrease in stress for a may have been that the short duration of the present study
majority of the participants suggests a need to educate early was not sufficient to capture a greater decline in perceived
childhood teachers on the effects of mindfulness practices stress. The participants completed the intervention for only
and how to implement them in everyday life, possibly as a 2 weeks. Future studies should implement the Mindfulness
topic of professional development. Practices Intervention for a longer period of time to deter-
mine the effects of longer-term mindfulness practices on
stress.
Clinical Implications

The positive effects of mindfulness are well documented in Conclusion

the literature. As teacher stress is a standing issue in the edu-
cational field and has shown to have effects on classroom cli- In this study, the teachers’ positive climate increased and
mate, it stands to reason that mindfulness could have positive negative climate decreased through the use of the Mind-
effects on teacher stress levels and increasing positive climate. fulness Practices Intervention. Perceived stress scores also
These benefits are advantageous for both the health of teachers decreased for two out of the three teachers. The contribution

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Early Childhood Education Journal (2020) 48:485–496 495

of this study is a more time and cost-effective Mindfulness Harris, A. R., Jennings, P. A., Katz, D. A., Abenavoli, R. M., & Green-
Practices Intervention and the positive classroom climate berg, M. T. (2015). Promoting stress management and wellbeing
in educators: Feasibility and efficacy of a school-based yoga and
impact that the teachers experienced as a result of incorpo- mindfulness intervention. Mindfulness, 7(1), 143–154. https:​ //doi.
rating the intervention into their daily routines. org/10.1007/s1267​1-015-0451-2.
Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Grad, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R.,
& Ott, U. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Pro-
posing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural per-
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