Virtual and Physical Prototyping

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Simulation and mechanical testing of 3D printing

shin guard composite materials

Ibrahim M. Alarifi

To cite this article: Ibrahim M. Alarifi (2024) Simulation and mechanical testing of 3D printing
shin guard composite materials, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 19:1, e2411022, DOI:
10.1080/17452759.2024.2411022

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2411022

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VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
2024, VOL. 19, NO. 1, e2411022 (14 pages)
https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2411022

Simulation and mechanical testing of 3D printing shin guard composite materials

Ibrahim M. Alarifi
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study critically examines the composite material’s mechanical properties and performance for 3D- Received 4 August 2024
printed shin guards. It contains a thermoplastic polymer matrix with short carbon fibre reinforcement. Accepted 25 September
Shin guard stress and deformation under impact loading were modelled using FEA models. The 2024
composite material was 3D-printed and tested for tensile, flexural, and impact properties. The
KEYWORDS
entire cycle of FEA models and careful mechanical testing allows for the development and 3D printing; shin guards;
evaluation of new composite materials and designs. The finite element analysis, such as maximum composite materials; carbon
von Mises stress, is 2890.5 MPa. The carbon fibre-reinforced composite’s mechanical properties, fibre reinforcement; impact
including tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact resistance, showed a considerable resistance
improvement over those of the unreinforced polymer. The solid design could be heavier and less
adaptable than the pattern. Compared to unreinforced polymers, carbon fibre improves strength,
stiffness, and impact resistance for the 3D-printed composite. This result thus proves that 3D-
printed carbon fibre-reinforced composites could make superior sports protective equipment like
shin guards. The FEA calculations and extensive mechanical testing provide a dependable
framework for creating and testing these new composite materials and systems.

Highlights however, takes a novel approach by exploring the use

of 3D printing in manufacturing shin guards, a crucial
. The study examines the mechanical properties and
piece of equipment in many contact sports such as
performance of a carbon fibre-reinforced thermoplas­
soccer, field hockey, and lacrosse. Traditionally, these
tic composite material for 3D-printed shin guards.
guards are made from injection-molded thermoplastics
. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) models were used to
or thermosets. Introducing 3D printing opens up a
simulate the stress and deformation of the shin
new realm of possibilities for shin guard design, promis­
guards under impact loading.
ing bespoke, lightweight, and more shock-resistant sol­
. The composite material was fabricated using 3D printing
utions. The experimental results of this study, which
and tested for tensile, flexural, and impact properties.
involved fused deposition modeling FDM 3D printing
. The composite shin guard’s solid, homogeneous
of continuous carbon fiber, demonstrated substantial
design provides maximum strength and impact resist­
mechanical property improvements over pure Polylactic
ance, though it may be heavier and less adaptable
acid (PLA). American Society for Testing and Materials
than a patterned design.
ASTM Standard tensile and flexural specimens of theor­
. The use of carbon fibre reinforcement improves the
etical PLA and carbon fibre were printed and tested
strength, stiffness, and impact resistance of the 3D-
under quasi-static loading [1].
printed composite material compared to unrein­
3D printing is an additive manufacturing procedure in
forced polymers, making it suitable for superior
which an invention is made layer by layer by feeding a
sports protective equipment like shin guards.
high-resolution CAD model into the printer [2]. Continu­
ous fibre-reinforced additively manufactured CFRAM
elements are lightweight, strong materials; therefore,
1. Introduction they can be applied to many industries, such as the
The application of 3D printing in fabricating sports pro­ auto industry, aerospace, and sports [3]. In this context,
tective equipment is a cutting-edge technology that has the paper mentions the importance of shin guards in
recently garnered significant attention. This study, contact sports and how 3D printing affects their

CONTACT Ibrahim M. Alarifi [email protected] Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University,
Al-Majmaah, Riyadh 11952, Saudi Arabia
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 I. M. ALARIFI

mechanical properties. While the paper mentions the the best using FDM for mechanical properties of PETG
importance of shin guards, its discussion of how 3D [13]. Özen, Arda, et al. investigate the influences of
printing influences tensile, flexural, and impact proper­ different slicing approaches and process factors (like
ties would have placed it in a better context. It will elab­ raster angle, layer highest, etc.) on the mechanical prop­
orate further on this and explain how 3D printing erties and failure behaviour of the 3D-printed specimens
technologies, like FDM, play a crucial role in enhancing [14]. Sepahi, Mohammad Taregh, et al. examine the
the mechanical properties of shin guards. After pointing mechanical properties of 3D-printed specimens made
out specific studies indicating enhancements of these from PETG, which is a material that has gained attention
properties by 3D printing, it is easier to grasp the evol­ for 3D printing applications due to its improved proper­
ution of both design and performance in shin guard ties compared to commonly used materials like PLA and
development. This frames the research and emphasises ABS [15]. Loskot, Jan, et al. characterise the microstruc­
the novelty that 3D printing could bring about for ture, surface roughness, and micromechanical proper­
better protective gear. ties (e.g. Young’s modulus, Vickers hardness) of the
3D-printed PETG samples [16]. The effects show that
adding carbon fibres can decrease the compressive
1.1. Literature review
strain by up to 66% while increasing the modulus and
Three-dimensional printing approaches have several hardness by around 27% and 30%, respectively [17].
improvements in composite manufacture, involving The cubic, gyroid, and concentric infill patterns provided
high accuracy, cost-effectiveness, and tailored geometry the best mechanical properties for the tested materials
[4]. Tensile testing on 3D printed samples compared [18]. The results show that the maximum mechanical
Polyethylene terephthalate glycol PETG with or properties were achieved at a raster direction of 0° (par­
without glass fibre reinforcement. Results can quantify allel to the loading direction) for reinforced and non-
the mechanical properties of 3D-printed PETG portions; reinforced materials [19]. Khan, Imran, et al. explore
this information is useful in modelling the properties the tensile properties of a tri-material 3D printed speci­
of 3D-printed elements [5]. Hsueh, Ming-Hsien, et al. men manufactured from PLA, PETG, and ABS fabricated
investigate 3D printing parameters on thermal and with fused filament fabrication [20]. Soleyman, Elyas,
mechanical properties for the most used 3D printing et al. focus on the shape memory properties and control­
materials: PLA and PETG [6]. lable shape transformation of 3D-printed PETG, a
This information may be relevant in simulating and material and application different from 3D-printed shin
testing the mechanical functioning of composites for guards [21]. Alarifi, Ibrahim M. reports on a methodology
3D-printed shin guards [7]. Valvez, S. et al. analyze print­ for modelling the failure of 3D-printed engineering
ing parameters concerning printing speed, nozzle temp­ structures using PETG/Carbon fibre CF materials [22].
erature, infill density, and layer thickness to increase the The study also investigated the effect of infill density
mechanical properties of 3D printed parts produced and raster direction on the mechanical performance of
from PETG with carbon fibres and PETG with aramid the shin guards [23]. Alarifi, Ibrahim M. confirms the geo­
fibres [8]. The study investigates the influences of key metric modelling approach to establish the mechanical
FDM procedure considerations, such as infill density, properties of PETG additive manufacturing and com­
layer highest, and infill pattern, on the tensile strength pares the experimental and computational results [24].
and surface roughness of PETG parts [9]. Durgashyam Alarifi, Ibrahim M. provides insights into how the
K. et al. considered the properties of method constraints choice of fibre reinforcement (Glass fibre GF vs. CF)
such as feed rate, infill density, and layer thickness on the and 3D printing parameters like raster orientation (0°,
tensile and flexural strength of the PETG specimens [10]. 45°, 90°) can influence the mechanical performance of
Mercado-Colmenero, Jorge Manuel, et al. provide a the composite material [25]. This is different from the
detailed experimental and FEA of the mechanical per­ types of mechanical tests (e.g. impact, flexural) that
formance of PETG, a commonly used polymer in 3D would be relevant for evaluating the performance of
printing, under uniaxial compression [11]. shin guard materials [26]. The PETG material discussed
The research topic seems to be more focused on ana­ in this paper could potentially be appropriate as a
lysing and modelling the microstructural features of material choice for 3D-printed shin guards, but the
FDM parts and their influence on macroscopic mechan­ research objectives and methodology are quite
ical behaviour [12]. Panneerselvam T. et al. utilised the different [27].
Taguchi experimental strategy method to improve the The pie chart in Figure 1 represents various sports
process parameters and found that 0.3 mm, 80% infill, brands’ ‘Cost-effective’ product offerings. The chart is
hexagonal infill pattern, and layer height resulted in divided into four segments, each corresponding to a
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 3

Figure 1. Represents the statistical analysis of ‘Cost Effective’ product offerings of various sports brands (a), Number of injuries per
league – 2020–2021 season (b), Injury costs for Clubs 2020–2021 season (c) [28].

different brand. Foul occupies the largest segment, Product 32 SAR’ at 32 SAR. The relative sizes of these seg­
taking up 153 SAR (Saudi Arabian Riyal) of the pie. This ments demonstrate the varying levels of cost-effective­
indicates that Foul’s products are the most cost- ness for each brand’s product offerings, with Foul
effective among the brands. It means the lowest being the most cost-effective and ‘Our Product 32 SAR’
number of injuries, Ligue 1, which reports approximately being the least cost-effective. Figure 2 shows cross-sec­
600 cases, moving to La Liga, where the number tional views of 3D printing specimens or models. The
increases tremendously to about 761 cases of injuries. samples are allocated into two main segments. The
Then, in Serie A, the count increases to around 781 first segment depicts a ‘Cross-Sectional View Pattern.’
cases. In the Bundesliga, an even higher number of This section shows a pattern or design visible when
about 902 injuries is reported. Finally, it is the English the object is viewed cross-sectionally. It appears to be
Premier League that tops the list of leagues by the a repeating geometric pattern, potentially representing
number of cases of injuries, at nearly 938. The injuries the internal design or reinforcement of the 3D-printed
in this league were thus highest in the 2020–2021 object.
season, probably due to various factors such as the The second section shows a ‘Cross-Sectional View
intensity and competitiveness of the league, manage­ Solid.’ This section displays a solid, continuous cross-sec­
ment of the players’ workload, or the peculiar tional view of what looks like a cylindrical or tubular 3D-
demands of the country’s football timetable. printed specimen. The cross-sectional outline is smooth
Nike’s segment takes up 131 SAR, making it the and uniform, without any visible internal pattern or
second most cost-effective brand. Adidas follows with structure. Figure 2 also includes labels for these two
97 SAR, and the smallest segment belongs to ‘Our different cross-sectional views, indicating that they rep­
resent different design approaches or internal structures
that can be achieved through 3D printing.
Overall, Figure 2 provides visual examples and com­
parisons of the cross-sectional characteristics of 3D-
printed materials or components potentially related to
the research or development of advanced 3D-printed
structural designs or composites.
The current state of research on 3D-printed shin
guards focuses on improving mechanical properties
using composite materials, particularly carbon fibre-
reinforced polymers. Several studies have shown
increased tensile strength, flexural strength, and
impact resistance when unreinforced polymers were
compared, which might mean great opportunities for
customised light and high-performance protective
Figure 2. Cross-sectional and model view of 3D printing shin gear. Other current investigations optimise parameters
guard. of 3D printing, design geometries, and the use of FEA
4 I. M. ALARIFI

for accurately modelling stress and deformation in quality of the product. The printing speed will be 45
various conditions, eventually resulting in personalised mm/s, at which the productivity will still be relatively
sports equipment. high without significant losses in the quality of the
The novelty lies in developing and evaluating 3D- part. Layer height is 0.25 mm, providing a smoother
printed carbon fibre-reinforced composite materials for surface finish and increased vertical resolution. The
shin guards that incorporate FEA simulations with compre­ extruder temperature is 250°C, which is proper for the
hensive mechanical testing for design optimisation on composite material’s melting and adhesion. The plate
improved impact protection. Using composite materials temperature is 80°C, ensuring the holding of the initial
can improve the mechanical properties of 3D-printed layer and avoiding warping/delamination. The research
shin guards. Fibre-reinforced polymer composites can shows how FEA can be utilised in the performance
enhance stiffness, strength, and impact resistance com­ appraisal of 3D-printed structures. At some point in
pared to unreinforced polymers, as shown by this work. time, this might be useful in designing and testing
What is stunning in short carbon fibres as reinforcement shin guards using 3D printing [22]. For this study, shin
is the combination of a high strength-to-weight ratio and guards were designed using PETG and carbon fibre com­
compatibility with common 3D-printing thermoplastics. posite filaments, and their tensile, compressive, and
Therefore, it investigates the characterisation of the mech­ flexural properties were characterised based on the
anical performance of a short carbon fibre-reinforced ther­ printed structures [23].
moplastic composite material for 3D-printed shin guards. The filament diameter is the standard 1.75 mm. It
Finite element analysis simulates stress and deformation works with the printer settings and guarantees con­
of the shin guard under impact loading conditions. Phys­ stant material flow. This version has an extruder mul­
ical samples of the composite material follow the fabrica­ tiplier of 2 to compensate for possible deviations in
tion. Tension, flexure, and impact testing are then filament diameter or material flow. The first layer
included to verify the simulation outcome and assess the height is 0.25 mm to provide stable ground for the
protective material properties. rest of the 3D-printed specimen. The raster width is
also set to be 0.25 mm, which, together with the
2. Experimental layer height, is an excellent combination to find a
2.1. Materials and methods nice balance between surface finish and print time.
The outer and inner diameters of the needle are 0.4
In this experiment, the base material used was Polyethy­ mm and 1.8, correspondingly, allowing for really
lene terephthalate glycol, into which carbon fibre was high resolutions without clogging too much. The fill
introduced to make the PETG/CF composite. The density is 100% for the last part, so the maximum
digital anatomical capture using 3D scanning tech­ possible part strength and durability can be attained
niques produced precise measurements of players’ for this application on the shin guard. The pattern
shin, which were then used to design custom shin designs demonstrate an exclusive property called
guards. It was through a 3D printing process that the negative Poisson’s ratio, meaning they develop
patterned structure of the shin guards, aimed at redu­ across when extended and contract across when com­
cing weight while maintaining the structural integrity pressed. Here are a few fundamental equations that
of the guard, was realised. Mechanical testing included describe the behaviour of auxetic structures:
flexural and tensile testing to characterise the perform­ The Poisson’s ratio (ν) is a fundamental property that
ance of the printed specimens. describes the relationship between a material’s lateral
In this research, the composite material was rep­ and axial strains under uniaxial loading. In conventional
resented by a thermoplastic polymer matrix, specifically materials, the ratio of Poisson is positive and often
PETG, reinforced with short carbon fibres. The stress distri­ comes within the range of 0–0.5. The Poisson’s ratio is
bution and deformation of the shin guard due to impact usually between –1 and 0 for auxetic materials.
loading conditions were numerically modelled with com­
mercial software through FEA simulations. Physical
samples were manufactured using fused deposition mod­ − Lateral Strain
Poisson′ s Ratio(n) = (1)
elling 3D printing from the composite material. Axial Strain

The relation density ρ/ρs is the ratio of the density of the

2.2. 3D Printing fabrication
auxetic structure, ρ, to the density of the solid material,
The parameters of 3D printing for the shin guard compo­ ρs, from which it is assembled. This parameter helps
site materials were selected to improve the process and explain the mechanical properties and possible
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 5

applications of auxetic structures. Similar to the flexural samples, no notch is typically

required, and the samples should be uniform without
Volume of Solid Material
Relative Density(r/rs) = (2) any defects to facilitate reliable testing outcomes. The
Total Volume of Structure
first two specimens are labelled ‘ASTM D695 –
The elastic modulus € measures material stiffness. It pattern’ and ‘ASTM D695 – solid’ and are used for
could be represented as a work of qualified density flexural testing corresponding to the ASTM D695 stan­
and Poisson’s ratio for auxetic structures. dard. The cross-sectional viewpoint of the pattern’ speci­
􏼒 􏼓 men shows a repeating geometric pattern, while the
r
Elastic Modulus €= Es n (3) ‘Solid’ specimen has a continuous, uniform cross-
rs
section – an addition of 20 wt.% carbon fibre to PETG
Where Es is the elastic modulus of the solid material, ρ/ resulted in significant improvements in flexural strength
ρs the relation density, and n is an exponent depending (up to 25%) and tensile strength (up to 114%) compared
on the geometry and topology of the auxetic structure. to neat PETG [29].
The coefficient of auxeticity may then be defined as a The following two specimens, labelled ‘ASTM
dimensionless parameter quantifying the degree of D3039 – pattern’ and ‘ASTM D3039 – solid,’ are
auxeticity exhibited by a material and expressed as the used for tensile testing according to the ASTM
ratio of Poisson’s ratio to the relative density. D3039 standard. Again, the ‘pattern’ specimen has
an internal structural pattern, while the ‘solid’ speci­
− V
Auxetic Coefficient(AC) = (4) men has a solid, continuous cross-section. Figure 3
Relative Density
visually compares the different cross-sectional
Therefore, these are key property relations of auxetic designs and how they may influence the material
structures about Poisson’s ratio, relative density, and behaviour and performance when subjected to
elastic modulus that form a basis for attempting to flexural or tensile testing. This information is typically
understand the intricacies. Geometry and topology in used to develop and characterise 3D-printed compo­
designing and optimising the auxetic structures enable site materials and structures.
one to tailor the requirements of mechanical properties
of particular applications, such as impact resistance,
3. Results and discussion
energy absorption, or biomedical implants.
The composite material was a PETG matrix PETG/CF composite met the re-stated criteria for mech­
reinforced with 30 wt.% short carbon fibres. The anical performance. In the pattern structure, the flexural
PETG and CF were combined using a twin-screw strength of the PETG/CF composite was higher than that
extruder to create filament for 3D printing. Samples of the solid structure tensile but less than that of its
of the composite material were fabricated using an flexural strength. The patterned structure represented
FDM 3D printer. Tensile, Izod impact, and flexural outstanding tensile advantages compared to the solid
testing were achieved on specimens of the 3D- format at an orientation of 0°. The current research is
printed composite material. The flexural and tensile one potential route for using cutting-edge digital
testing were executed using an Instron universal technologies and 3D printing techniques to design
testing machine corresponding to ASTM D638 and and fabricate personalised, lightweight, high-perform­
ASTM D695. Izod impact tests followed von Mises ance sports equipment, such as football shin guards.
stress. The study pointed out that when using 3DP parts in
Figure 3 shows four 3D-printed specimens used for final products, it is vital to know how their mechanical
different types of material testing, as indicated by the properties change over time due to various environ­
ASTM standard designations and the testing methods mental factors [30].
listed below each specimen. For ASTM D695 (Flexural While the improved mechanical properties of the
Testing), the samples are designed with the following PETG/CF composite shown in this research, combined
dimensions: a length of 100 mm, a width of 10 mm, with the weight reduction achieved through the pat­
and a thickness of 4 mm. Notably, no notch depth is terned structure, offer a promising route for the
required for flexural testing, and the samples should enhancement of player protection and generally
maintain a smooth surface to ensure accurate results. improving sports performance, the uniformity in the
The dimensions of ASTM D3039 (Tensile Testing) are mechanical behaviour of the 3D-printed specimens,
specified: an overall length of 250 mm, a width of 25 regardless of raster orientation, may very well firmly
mm, and a gauge length of 150 mm, with a thickness establish 3D printing as a dependable and versatile
of 2 mm, which is standard for polymer materials. method of manufacturing sports equipment. The
6 I. M. ALARIFI

Figure 3. ASTM standard test method for the mechanical properties of the material.

results of this case contribute to the ongoing research 11,140 elements. While the size of an element in the
and progress in customised and performance-driven structural pattern is 10 mm, the total number of
sports gear, thus opening the gateway to further devel­ elements in this pattern is as high as 55,901, proof of
opments in this regard. greater complexity or finer discretization required to
capture the characteristics accurately. Such a compari­
son underlines the trade-offs between element size
3.1. Finite element analysis
and the total number of elements, significantly impact­
The maximum von Mises stress in the impact loading ing both solution accuracy and computational demands.
FEA simulation for the shin guard was 35 MPa, while In this work, the shin guard has been modelled as a
the maximum deformation was recorded at 2.8 mm, hollow shell structure with a thickness of 5 mm. Material
which was only near the edges of the shell structure. It properties of the composite, obtained from mechanical
can thus turn out to be a potential site for failure tests, have been used as input in this FE analysis. The
initiation. FEA models would work wonderfully in opti­ impact load, representative of the soccer ball collision,
mising the shin guard design, material selection, and will be applied on the front surface of the shin guard, fol­
manufacturing process to meet the required perform­ lowed by an analysis of the stress distribution and defor­
ance criteria [31]. The simulation results show that the mation. In the tensile testing, the 3D-printed composite
3D-printed composite shin guard can withstand the material returned an ultimate tensile strength of 48 MPa
impact load without catastrophic failure. A finite and a tensile modulus of 2.9 GPa in tensile resistance
element analysis model of the shin guard geometry compared to the unreinforced PETG polymer.
was constructed in ANSYS Workbench. PETG matrix- Table 1 shows data covering isotropic elasticity prop­
reinforced 30 wt.% short carbon fibres were used to erties for the structural specimens. Isotropic elasticity
manufacture simulation models for 3D-printed shin refers to elastic behaviour exhibited by a material in
guards. The models embedded isotropic and transverse every direction. The principal properties listed are Pois­
isotropic material behaviours. The boundary conditions son’s ratio, bulk modulus, Young’s modulus, and Shear
included applying an impact load on a hollow shell modulus. Young’s modulus measures the stiffness or
structure with fixed constraints to simulate realistic con­ endurance to elastic deformation under load. Poisson’s
ditions during the test. ratio expresses the transverse ratio contraction to longi­
The mesh convergence analysis was conducted to tudinal extension under tensile stress. While the bulk
ensure the accuracy of the results by confirming that modulus is the material’s resistance to uniform com­
variation in mesh densities does not appreciably affect pression, the Shear modulus measures the material’s
the outcomes of the simulation. The following simu­ relation to shear stress. Young’s modus is 2.0 × 105
lation model analyses solid and pattern structures, MPa for the above solid structure, whereas Poisson’s
respectively. This will make it possible to analyse the ratio is 0.3, Bulk Modulus is 1.66 × 105 MPa, and Shear
behaviour of the solid structure in detail by using a modulus is 7.692 × 104 MPa. In contrast, the patterned
mesh with an element size of 8 mm, which consists of structure contains a Young’s modulus of 2.9 × 105 MPa,
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 7

Table 1. Isotropic elasticity properties and strain-life parameters of structural specimens.

Structural Isotropic Elasticity
Specimens Young’s Modulus MPa Poisson’s Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa
Solid 2.0 × 105 0.3 1.66 × 105 7.692 × 104
Pattern 2.9 × 105 0.4 4.833 × 105 1.0357 × 105
Structural Strain-Life Parameters
Specimens Strength Coefficient MPa Strength Exponent Ductility Coefficient Ductility Exponent
Solid 984 −0.10 0.266 −0.44
Pattern 920 −0.106 0.213 −0.47

Table 2. The percentage improvement from the first sample in mechanical properties compared to unreinforced polymers.
Improved (Reinforced) Percentage (Reinforced)
Baseline (Unreinforced) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
Property Solid Pattern Solid Pattern Solid Pattern
Tensile Strength 100 128.94 292.04 681.43 65.75 81.20
Flexural Strength 1956.3 3329.7 2985.4 5029.7 34.47 33.80
Von Mises Stress 511.19 1646.9 2890.5 2890.5 81.63 49.32

a Poisson’s ratio of 0.4, a Bulk modulus of 4.833 × 105 strength of the 3D printed composites was less than
MPa, and a Shear modulus of 1.0357 × 105 MPa. These the corresponding neat polymers due to reduced inter­
results thus indicate that the solid and patterned speci­ layer diffusion bonding [32]. These improvements in
mens are constituted with different microstructures or mechanical properties are expected to translate to
compositions. Hence, their elastic properties are enhanced protective performance of shin guards fabri­
different. cated from this material. The methodology of using
Table 1 presents the strain-life parameters extracted both experimental tensile testing and numerical simu­
from the structural 3D printing specimens. These par­ lation (using ANSYS) to predict the elastic properties is
ameters describe the fatigue behaviour of the material relevant, as a similar approach may be useful for charac­
under cyclic loading. This includes the key properties terising the shin guard composite material [33]. Figure 4
of the strength exponent, strength coefficient, ductility shows the results of an FEA of the equivalent (von Mises)
coefficient, and ductility exponent. The ductility coeffi­ stress distribution in a structural component under
cient would then represent fatigue ductility, while the dynamic loading conditions. Figure 4(a) displays the
ductility exponent would refer to the reduction rate in solid specimen stress contours for the ‘B: Explicit
fatigue ductility with increased cycles. The solid struc­ dynamics’ analysis, where the maximum equivalent
ture has a Strength coefficient of 984 MPa, a Strength stress is 2782.62 MPa, indicated by the reddish-orange
Exponent of –0.10, a Ductility coefficient of 0.266, and regions of the component. The minimum stress is
a Ductility exponent of –0.44. The patterned structure 511.19 MPa, shown in the blue regions.
has a lower Strength coefficient of 920 MPa, a Strength Figure 4(b) shows the pattern specimen results for
exponent of –0.106, a Ductility coefficient of 0.213, and another ‘A: Explicit dynamics’ analysis, this time with a
a Ductility exponent of –0.47. These variations again maximum equivalent stress of approximately (2890.5
indicate differences in the material properties, likely MPa), again indicated by the reddish-orange regions.
due to differences in microstructure, composition, or The minimum stress is (178.56 MPa), shown in the blue
heat treatment. Table 2 shows the mechanical properties regions. Yadav, Dinesh, et al. demonstrate using compu­
of carbon fibre-reinforced composites, including tensile tational modelling and optimisation techniques to
strength, flexural strength, and Von Mises Stress, which improve the mechanical properties of FDM 3D-printed
showed a considerable improvement over those of the multi-material parts [34].
unreinforced polymer. These extremely high-stress values suggest the com­
ponent is experiencing significant impact or dynamic
loading conditions, which can induce very high localized
3.2. Impact resistance analysis
stresses. The two analyses’ stress distributions and mag­
The mechanical testing results confirm that adding short nitudes likely correspond to evaluating different loading
carbon fibres enhances the strength, stiffness, and scenarios or component configurations. The validated
impact resistance of the 3D-printed composite material. FEA model could accurately calculate the mechanical
Bhandari S. et al. found that the interlayer tensile behaviour of the 3D-printed composite shin guard
8 I. M. ALARIFI

Figure 4. FE model von Mises stress distribution of equivalent stress of (a) solid structure, (b) pattern structure.

under impact. The researchers perform finite element behaviour and potential failure modes. This comprehen­
analysis using linear elastic isotropic and transverse iso­ sive analysis can guide design, manufacturing, or
tropic material models to simulate the small defor­ material selection decisions.
mation behaviour of the PETG metamaterials [35]. Figure 6 demonstrates the performance difference
This type of FEA is commonly used in engineering to between the two design methodologies, with the solid
assess components’ structural integrity and performance design showing superior resistance to deformation or
under dynamic conditions, such as those encountered in displacement under the applied loading conditions.
automotive crash simulations, ballistic impact analyses, This information can be useful in selecting the appropri­
or other high-rate loading situations. The stress distri­ ate design approach for a specific application that
bution and peak stress values can inform design requires a certain level of dimensional stability and
decisions, material selection, and potential areas for resistance to deformation. The graph indicates that the
optimisation or reinforcement to ensure the component solid design exhibits a lower total deformation than
can withstand the expected dynamic loads without the pattern design at any given time point. This means
failure. The IZOD impact testing was used to estimate the solid design approach produces a stiffer and
the impact strength of the printed specimens, which is
an important consideration for shin guard applications
[38].
The FEA focuses on the structural component’s
impact or dynamic stresses from the information pro­
vided. The von Mises stress measures the combined
effects of the principal stresses, including the tensile,
compressive, and shear stresses that can arise from
dynamic loading.
Figure 5 provides a comprehensive comparative
analysis of the Von Mises stress measurements for two
types of specimens: solid and pattern specimens. For
the solid specimen, the minimum von Mises stress is
511.19 MPa, the maximum is 2782.61 MPa, and the
average is 1646.9 MPa. In contrast, the minimum von
Mises stress for the pattern specimen is 1785.6 MPa,
the maximum is 2890.5 MPa, and the average is
1411.41 MPa. The graph directly compares the stress
characteristics of the solid and pattern specimens, pro­ Figure 5. Histogram of the von Mises stress for 3D printing shin
viding a thorough understanding of their mechanical guard composite materials structures.
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 9

stress. The different stress distributions and magnitudes

likely correspond to various loading conditions or com­
ponent geometries being analysed.
Figure 8 shows a bar graph comparing the tensile
stress measurements of two types of specimens: solid
specimens and pattern specimens. The data shows
each specimen type’s minimum, maximum, and
average tensile stress values. For the solid specimens,
the minimum tensile stress is 100 MPa, the maximum
is 292.04 MPa, and the average is 214.7 MPa.
For the pattern specimens, the minimum tensile
stress is 128.94 MPa, the maximum is 681.43 MPa, and
the average is 362.4 MPa. The graph shows that the
pattern specimens have significantly higher tensile
Figure 6. FE analysis of the von Mises stress for solid design vs. stress values than the solid specimens, with the
pattern design. maximum tensile stress for the pattern specimens
being over twice as high as the maximum for the solid
more dimensionally stable structure than the pattern specimens. This information could be helpful in engin­
design. eering or materials science applications where the
mechanical properties of different sample designs are
evaluated and compared. [37]. Nguyen, P.Q.K. et al.
3.3. Tensile strength analysis
focus on the effects of 3D printing parameters on the
Figure 7 shows the results of an FEA of the equivalent recycled mechanical properties of PET and PETG thermo­
(von Mises) stress distribution in a structural component plastics utilising fused granular fabrication (FGF) 3D
under static loading conditions. Figure 7(b) displays the printing [37].
solid specimen stress contours for the ‘A: Static struc­ Figure 9 demonstrates the stress–strain correlation
tural’ analysis, where the maximum equivalent stress is between solid and pattern design approaches. The
293.47 MPa, indicated by the reddish-orange regions graph demonstrates the significant differences in mech­
of the component. The minimum stress is 56.454 MPa, anical performance between these two design method­
shown in the blue regions. Algarni, M., and Sami ologies. The pattern design approach exhibits a notably
G. investigate the influences of four key process par­ higher stress value than the solid design across the total
ameters (layer thickness, raster angle, infill percentage, strain range. This indicates that pattern design results in
and printing speed) on the mechanical properties of stiffer and stronger material behaviour, capable of with­
specimens 3D-printed from these materials [36]. standing more significant stresses before reaching the
Figure 7(a) shows the pattern specimen results for same level of deformation. In contrast, the solid design
another ‘A: Static structural’ analysis, with a maximum approach shows a more flexible, lower-stress response,
equivalent stress of 681.43 MPa, again indicated by the suggesting it may be better suited for applications
reddish-orange regions. The stress distributions and with desirable lower stiffness and higher compliance.
magnitudes suggest that the component is experiencing The apparent divergence in the stress–strain curves
different loading conditions or configurations between highlights the importance of carefully selecting the
the two analyses, resulting in varying stress patterns appropriate design strategy based on the detailed per­
and peak values. formance conditions of the end-use application.
This type of FEA is commonly used in engineering to
assess components’ structural integrity and performance
3.4. Flexural strength analysis
under various loading scenarios. The stress distribution
and maximum stress values can inform design decisions, Figure 10 shows the results of an FEA of the structural
material selection, and potential areas for optimisation equivalent stress (von Mises stress) in a structural com­
or reinforcement to ensure the component can with­ ponent under static loading conditions. Figure 10(a) dis­
stand the expected loads without failure. plays the component’s solid specimen equivalent stress
From the information provided, the FEA focuses on contour plot, with the stress values color-coded accord­
the tensile stress experienced by the structural com­ ing to the legend. The maximum stress value observed is
ponent, as the von Mises stress measures the combined 2985.4 MPa, indicated by the reddish-orange regions of
effects of the principal stresses, including the tensile the component. Figure 10(b) shows a pattern specimen
10 I. M. ALARIFI

Figure 7. FE model tensile analysis of equivalent stress of (a) solid structure, (b) pattern structure.

similar to the contour plot but for the equivalent stress (energy consumption, print time) [41]. It provides a com­
type, which is also von Mises stress. In this case, the plete evaluation of the various failure modes and the
maximum stress value is 5029.7 MPa, indicated by the forming specifications upon which each type of failure
reddish-orange regions of the component. The various is achieved for the 3D-printed materials [42]. This
3D printing processes, the result of process parameters multi-faceted approach to material characterisation can
on the mechanical properties of 3D printed specimens inform the modelling and simulation of 3D-printed
(especially polymeric materials), the tribological proper­ shin guard composite materials [43].
ties, sustainability aspects, applications, and future Figure 11 compares flexural stress values between
research areas related to 3D printed parts [39]. Patel, solid specimens and pattern specimens. The data are
Kautilya S., et al. explore how incorporating carbon shown in terms of minimum, maximum, and average
fibre into the PETG matrix can improve the flexural and values for each sample type. The minimum flexural
tensile strength of the 3D-printed parts [40]. stress for the solid specimens is 1956.3 MPa, the
The study investigates the parametric optimisation of maximum is 2985.4 MPa, and the average is 2470.8
the fused filament fabrication FFF process using PETG MPa. This indicates a narrow range of flexural stress
polymer to improve mechanical properties (flexural, values for the solid specimens. In contrast, the pattern
tensile strength), surface roughness, and sustainability specimens exhibit a much more comprehensive range
of flexural stress values. The minimum is 3329.7 MPa,

Figure 8. Tensile strength analysis of static structural solution Figure 9. FE analysis of tensile strength for solid design vs.
vs. equivalent stress. pattern design.
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 11

Figure 10. FE model flexural analysis of equivalent stress of (a) solid structure, (b) pattern structure.

the maximum is 5029.7 MPa, and the average is 4179.7 performance of components against various loading
MPa. The chart clearly illustrates that the pattern speci­ conditions. Informed design decisions, material selec­
mens have significantly higher flexural stress values tion, or locations that could be improved or need
than the solid specimens, with the maximum and additional bracing may be derived from stress distri­
average values being substantially more significant for butions and maximum stress values to make the com­
the pattern design. The different stress values and distri­ ponent withstand loads without failure. The results
butions between the two samples suggest that the com­ show that including carbon fibre reinforcement
ponent is experiencing different loading conditions or increases the strength, stiffness, and impact resistance
configurations, resulting in different stress patterns of the 3D printed composite enormously compared to
and magnitudes. the unreinforced polymer. The validated FEA model
Figure 12 shows a graph comparing the stress–strain can be used to optimise the shin guard design for
relationship between two different design approaches: improved protective performance. 3D printing CFRSs
solid design and pattern design. The graph plots the and elaborated their future perspectives and potential
stress (MPa) on the y-axis against the total strain (mm/ applications. Specifically, different existing CFRS printing
mm) on the x-axis. The solid design, while any other techniques were reviewed, and current processing
line indicates a pattern design. The graph states that, methods’ limitations were discussed in detail [44]. 3D
at any strain level, the stress is higher in the solid printing CFRC has merits, such as creating complex
design than in the pattern design. The type of FEA shapes and shortening the production cycle; due to
comes in handy during engineering design and analysis the anisotropic mechanical properties of continuous
processes to check for the structural integrity and fibres, the fibres’ printing path determines the properties
of the printed CFRCs [45]. The relationship between the
ultrasound vibration and modified capillary number was

Figure 11. Flexural strength analysis of static structural solution Figure 12. FE analysis of Flexural strength for solid design vs.
vs. equivalent stress. pattern design.
12 I. M. ALARIFI

modelled to show the characteristics of the dual-scale the potential for further optimisation of the shin guard
flow in this ultrasound-assisted impregnation strategy, design. This work allows the development of custo­
and an equilibrium in the flow was attained [46]. The mised and performance-driven sports equipment with
damage is quantitatively characterised to confirm the the requirements of advanced protection, weight
influence of the stitching pattern and space on the reduction, experience improvement for players, etc.
propagation and resistance of the delamination [47]. Thorough mechanical testing and FEA simulations
Results have shown that the mechanical properties of provide a robust method for developing and evaluat­
the carbon fibre-reinforced PETG composite were signifi­ ing the performance of innovative composite materials
cantly enhanced in tensile and flexural strength from the and designs. Further design study and mechanical
unreinforced PETG material up to a staggering 114% testing of solid versus patterned 3D printed shin
improvement in tensile strength and 25% in flexural guard designs would be required to determine the
strength, underlining reinforcement with carbon fibres optimal approach. The validated FEA model described
for protective purposes. These results have also been in the research could help compare and optimise
supported by FEA results, which have indicated that a design concepts. Overall, this work demonstrates the
maximum von Mises stress of 2890.5 MPa from the pat­ promising potential of 3D-printed carbon fibre
terned structure suggests a superior resistance to reinforced composites for fabricating innovative and
impact. This underlines how 3D-printed shin guards high-performance sports protective gear like shin
may balance weight reduction with mechanical per­ guards. The comprehensive approach used in this
formance through optimised designs. The patterned study offers a reliable path forward for developing
structure highlighted some remarkable advantages for and evaluating such advanced composite materials
tensile performance, especially at a 0° raster orientation, and designs.
thus underlining the fact that appropriate design
choices can strongly influence the mechanical behaviour
of the shin guard during dynamic loading conditions. Acknowledgments
These findings confirm the value of 3D printing in creat­ The author extends the appreciation to the Deanship of Post­
ing personalised and high-performance sports protec­ graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Majmaah Univer­
tion and open a window for future studies on sity for funding this research work through the project
advanced material properties and the customisation of number R-2024-1315.
geometries according to the athlete’s needs.

Disclosure statement
4. Conclusions No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
The current study presented a new method for design­
ing and manufacturing a lightweight football shin
guard with progressive digital techniques and 3D Data availability statement
printing. FEA simulations were conducted with excel­ The data used to support the findings of this study are
lent results for modelling stress distribution and defor­ included in the article. Further data or information is available
mation of the shin guard under impact loads, thus from the corresponding author upon request.
providing a reliable tool for design optimisation. The
mechanical test results for the 3D-printed composite
specimens suggested a dramatic improvement in References
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