UNIT 2 LINEAR AND ANGULAR

MOMENTUM
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Linear Momentum
2.2.1 Momentum of a System of Particles
2.2.2 Conservation of Momentum
2.3 Centre of Mass
2.3.1 Definition
2.3.2 Determination of the Centre of Mass
2.4 Impulse and Collision
2.4.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collision
2.4.2 Elastic Collision in One Dimension
2.4.3 Elastic Collision in Two Dimensions
2.4.4 Completely Inelastic Collision
2.5 System of Variable Mass
2.5.1 Equation of Motion
2.5.2 Rocket Propulsion
2.5.3 Motion of Chains
2.6 Angular Momentum
2.6.1 Torque of a Force
2.6.2 Definition of Angulm Momentum
2.6.3 Torque and Angular momentum of a System of Particles
2.6.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum
2.7 Sdmmary
2.8 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit 1 you have studied the laws of motion and you have seen that the
quantity which is responsible for change in the state of motion of a body is
the force. You have seen that, according to Newton's second law, the force is
proportional to the rate of change of momentum of the body on which it acts.
The concept of momentum is a very important one, particularly in situations
involving many particles. In this unit we will discuss this in some detail.

We will see that when no external force acts on a system of particles, the total
momentum of the system does not change with time. This turns out to be an
important principle in problems involving collision of bodies and explosions.
Rocket and jet propulsion are also based on this principle. We will introduce
the concept df a centre of mass of a system of particles and determine its
location in some simple cases. Collision problems in one and two dimensions
will be discussed with examples from mechanics as well as atomic physics.
Later in this unit we will introduce the concept of angular momentum and
derive its conservation principle. Angular momentum will also be defined for a
system of particles and the analogy between linear and angular momentum
will be brought out.
Putkk Mechanla Objectives
After going through this unit you should be able to :
r explain what is meant by momentum of a many particle
system (SAQs 1-2),
r use the principle of conservation of momentum i n solving collision
problems (SAQs 69),
m define centre of mass and locate its position for simple mass
distributions (SAQs 3-5),
a apply the principle of conservation of momentum to a variable mass
system and explain how a rocket is propelled (SAQs 10-ll), and
r relate torque and angular momentum and explain the conservation of
angular momentum (S AQs 12116).

2.2 LINEAR MOMENTUM

Linear momentum (or simply the 'momentum') of a single particle of mass m
moving with a velocity Cis defined as
j = ma (2.1)
Note that:
(i) momentum is a vector because it is a product of a scalar m with a
vector 3,
(ii) the direction of momentum is the direction of the velocity of the particle,
(iii) it depends on the frame of reference of the observer since velocity of a
particle is relative to an observer.
. Momentum, rather, its rate of change, is related to the force acting on a
particle through Newton's second law:

2.2.1 Momentum of a system of particles

Momentum of a system of N particles is defined as the vector sum of the
momenta of the individual particles:

We can relate the rate of change of to the forces acting on the system of
particles in the following way. By differentiating 9 with respect t o time we
have

dfi
Now, - is the rate of change of momentum of the particle numbered 1 and
dt
by Newton's law it must be equal to the force acting on it. The forces acting
 on the particle 1 can be divided into two parts: forces which have their causes Wnou & Angular
outside the system and forces which are exerted by particles 2,3,4, ....N. We Momentum
designate the second group as the internal forces (these forces are external so
far as the particle 1 is concerned but internal to the system) and denote them
by F12, F13, .....FIN.The forces which have their causes outside the system can
be vectorially added and represented by a single force F;"'. Thus we can write

A similar argument can be given for the rate of change of particle numbered 2
... N and we get

! In the internal forces, no term of the type E; appears becuase a particle does
not exert force on itself. When the N equations above are added up, the left
A

d dF
hand side gives -(pi
dt
+ + .+
p', .. flN) = -. On the right hand side, the
dt
-
internal forces cancel in pairs by the third law of Newton Fl2 = -p21 ,
F13= -F31,. .. and we are left with a net force 3;"'
4

+ + + ... Fkzt,
which is simply the vector sum of all the forces that act on the system from
outside. We therefore have

SAQ 1
A 2700 kg car is moving from north to south with a speed of 60 km/hr. A
second car of mass 3000 kg is moving from east to west at 72 km/hr.
Determine the momentumof the system of two cars.

2.2.2 Conservation of Momentum

If the sum total of the external forces acting on a system is zero i.e.
qrl = 0, then dP/dt = 0, i.e. the system's momentum does not change
:
with time. Systems which do not experience any pcternal force are called
"isolated" systems. Thus the principle of conservation of momentum states:
Momentum of an isolated system does not change with time. Since
the momentum is a vector its conservation implies that both its direction and
magnitude remain constant. It is important to realize that the momenta of
individual particles of the Bystem may change due to forces internal to the
system. The total momentum of the system however cannot be changed by
internal forces.;
Partkck Mechanla Example 1
A shell of maas m is fired from a rifle of mass M. The barrel of the rifle makes
an angle 8 with the horizontal (Fig. 2.1). If the speed of the shell is v,
calculate the recoil speed of the rifle.
Solution :
/ Assuming horizontal forces like fiction, air resistance etc. to be absent, the
horizontal component of the total momentum is conserved. If V is the speed
of recoil, we have mucost9 + mV = 0 i.e. V = -mucosB/M.
SAQ 2
A 60 kg man jumps off a 1000 kg boat with a horizontal speed of 5 m/s.
Assume that the boat is initially at rest on water, what is the velocity
Figure 2.1 : Recoil 'imparted to the boat?
of a gun

Example 2
A 1000 kg boat is standing on still water. A 60 kg man and a 45 kg woman
simultaneously jump ofF the boat - he towards north and she towards east
with equal speeds of 5 m/s. What velocity do the couple impart to the boat?
Solution :
The vector sum of momenta of the couple has a magnitude
+
\R60 x 5)2 (45 x 5)* = 375 kg m/s and is directed to the north-east. Since
+
the boat was standing- still the total momentum of the system (boat couple)
was zero. By conservation of momentum the velocity imparted is 3.75 m/s at
an angle tan-' 4/3 to the south-west. 0
Example 3
A stationary radioactive nucleus (m = 228 u) emits an a-particle of mass 4 u
with a speed of 5.6 x lo6 m/s. What will be the recoil speed of the newly
u in an atomic m.es unit formed nucleus ?
used in nuclear physics in Solution :
which the Of carbon The newly formed nucleus has a mass of 228 u - 4 u = 224 u. Since the
atom is exactly 12.
nucleus was at rest before emitting the a-particle, its momentum was zero.
The total momentum of the a-particle and the new nucleus must therefore be
zero. The momentum of the a-particle is 4 x 5.6 x 10" 2.24 x lo6 u-m/s.
The recoil speed of the new nucleus is therefore 2.24 x 106/224 = lo4 m/s.

2.3 CENTRE OF MASS

For a single particle, Newton's second law is usually expressed in a more
familiar form
#=ma
where &' is the acceleration of the particle. When we consider a system of
particles, the form of Newton's law in terms of rate of change of total
momentum being equal to the vector sum of external forces, is still atme, as
has been shown in Sec. 2.1. Different particles of the system may, however,
have different accelerations and hence the form f = mi3 is not meaningful. In
considering the motion of a system of particles, it is often found useful to
focus attention on a single representative point. When a system is acted upon
by external forces, this representative point moves as if the entire maas of the
system is concentrated on it. This point is called the centre of masea.
 2.3.1 Definition
If TI, T2,. ..,FN are the positions of the particles constituting the system, the
position of the centre of mass r',, is given by

where mi is the mass and 6 the position of the i-th particle, and the sum is
xi
over all the particles of the system. Since mi is the total mass of the
system, we have r', = xi m i 6 / M . In component form this becomes

zcm = Ci m ; z ; / M
Ycm = x; m i ~ i / M
x,, = xi m;y / M
where 6 = (z;,yi,z;).
SAQ 3
The position vectors 6 of individual particles of a system depend on the
choice of origin. Show that the definition of r', is independent of the choice
of origin.

If we differentiate Eq~(2.4)with respect to time, we get the velocity of the

IS centre of mass
dr', 1 d6 1
iTm=-= -Em;- = -Cmi$
dt M ; dt' M ;

Since xi mi< is the total momentum of the system, we have

P= M G ,
A further differentiation of this equation gives

m;i& being equal to the external force acting on the i-th particle, we get

as the internal forces cancel in pairs.

 SAQ 4
Derive the above explicitly for a system of 3 particles.

2.3.2 Determination of the Centre of Mass

Frequently a system of particles will consist of continuous distribution of mass
so that the discrete sum in the definition of centre of mass cannot be
performed. In such a case the sum in Eqn.(2.5) is replaced by an integral

The entire system is thought of as being divided into a collection of mass

elements dm, so that M = J dm. In ~ ~ n . b . 8we) sum the vectors T'for all the
infinitisimal increments of the mass dm that make up the system. In terms of
components, the centre of mass is given by
x, =bJxdm
hm =&J~dm
zcm = $ J ~ d m
To evaluate the integrals, we usually express dm as pdv where dv is an element
of volume situated a t position Fand p is the mass density of the object.
( p need not be uniform and may also depend on T'. In the examples that
follow, we have taken it to be constant for simplicity) we therefore have
xcm = $ J zpdv
hm =~ J Y P ~ V
zcm = $ J zpdv
Example 4
The coordinates of 3 masses which lie in the x-y plane shown in Fig. (2.2) are
as follows : A (10,9), B (-3,1), C (6,-2). The masses of the particles are
respectively 3,4 and 5 mass units. Find the centre of mass.
Sdlution
+ + + +
zCm=[3 X 10 4 x (-3) 5 x 6]/(3 4 5) = 4
Figure 2.2
+ +
ycm '=[a x 9 4 x 1 5 x (-2)]/(3 + +
4 5) =1.75
SAQ 5
Find the centre of mass of ammonia molecule (Fig. 2.3) in which N-H
distance is 1.02A and the angle between two N-H bonds in 106.6".

Figure 2.3 : An
26 Ammonla molecule.
1 Exsinple 6 Linear & Any l a r
Momentum
k Find the centre-of mass of a uniform semi-circular plate of radius R.

Figure '&A : Center of mam of a semi-circular plate

Solution:
-
From symmetry, we can guess that the centre of mass lies on the y-axis
(Fig. 2.4). To determine y,, let us divide the plate into slices parallel to
x-axis. A slice of width dy at the position y, has an area
2 z d y = 2 4 m d y . If p is the mass density per unit area, we have

yCm=& J-~Y
I
, =-P [ - ( R 2 - y 2 )312 R
b M 3/2 lo
---4 R
3r
tl

2 . 4 IMPULSE AND COLLISION

Consider a ball being hit by a bat in a game of cricket. The ball is in contact
with the bat for a very short time. During this time the bat exerts a very
large force on the ball, which is responsible for a large change in the
momentum of the ball. Forces, such as the one described above, which are
exerted for a short time are called impulsive foms. Often the magnitude of
the impulsive force exerted on a body is much larger than other forces that
might be acting on the body (Fig. 2.5). In such a case, during the time in ahDb
which the impulsive force acts, one can neglect the effect of all other forces. If Figure 2.5 : A plot of
is the net impulsive force acting on a body (which is the only force assumed the impulsive force ex-
to be of any significance), we have, on integrating Newton's second law, the erted on a tennis ball.
The shaded portion indi-
'change in the momentum of the body to be given by cates the external forces.

where the integration is to be performed for the duration of the impulsive

force. The right side of the equation is called the impulse of the force and is
usually represented by 1.
J = / ~ '$ . d t (2.9)
ti
The impulse of the force is clearly equal to the change in momentum of the
body.
Example 6
A hammer of mass 0.5 kg is used to drive a 3 gm nail into a wooden frame.
The hammer and the nail are in contact for 0.01 sec. If the nail is driven into
the wood with an initial speed of 100 m/s, what is the average force exerted
by the hammer on the nail?
Solution:
Taking F to be the average force, the impulse J = F . A t , where At is the
duration of contact. This impulse provides a change in the momentum of the
nail from 0 to 0.003 x 100 = 0.3 kg m/s. Thus F = = = 30 N .
SAQ 6
A 5 gm bullet, moving with a speed of 80 m/s, strikes a wall and undergoes a
uniform deceleration. The bullet comes to a stop after travelling 4 cm. Find
the impulse on the wall and the average force experienced.

Since the impulsive forces are very large and are present for a very short time, 11
one can assume that other external forces (eg. gravity, air resistance etc.) I

that may be present may be neglected during this period. The change in I

kinematics of the body (i.e. change in velocity) during this interval is almost
entirely determined by the impulsive force. An event involving two (or more)
bodies in which impulsive forces act on the bodies is called collision. The
fi
interaction between the bodies act for a short time and takes places over a
limited region of space. What happens to the bodies during the short time
interval they are in contact, is difficult to describe. We only examine what
goes into collision and what comes out.
2.4.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collision:
During the process of collision, external forces acting on the system may be
considered to be negligible. This implies that the total momentum of the
colliding pair is conserved. This is the principle of central importance in any
collision process.
This principle by itself ie not good enough in solving the collision problem. .
Other principles may help in supplemenGng the conservation of momentum
principle. Even when the collision takes place in one dimension, we wish to
determine the outgoing velocities of the bodies after collision. These are two
unknowns to be determined. The momentum conservation provides only one
equation. Other information or measurements could help in solving the
collision problems. Total energy is always conserved and is of not much help
in the matter.

A class of collision exists in which the kinetic energy of the colliding pair
remains the same after the collision. This type of collision is called an elastic
collision. Collisions on an atomic level are often elastic. Collision between
steel balls at low speeds, for example, transforms so little kinetic energy that
we can treat them as elastic in almost all cases. the kinetic energy is not
conserved , the collision is called inelastic. A special type of inelastic collision
exists in which the bodies, during collision, stick to each other and emerge as
a single body. This is called a completely inelastic collision and is one of the
few probletns'for which a solutiod can be found.
 2.4.2 Elastic collision in one dimension
Consider a one dimensional elastic collision in one dimension in which an
object of mass ml with an initial velocity vl; collides with a second object of
mass m2 and initial velocity v2j.
Conservation of momentum gives

\
and the conservation of kinetic energy gives

From these two equations, one can find out the final velocities, if the masses
and the initial velocities are given.
I
Before considering some special cases, we will derive a useful relation. We can
8
rewrite equations (A) and (B) as
I

I Dividing (D) by (C) we get

which can be rewrittten as

vlr - V2i = vzj - 211 j (8)

This shows that the relative velocities of the object before and after collision
have the same magnitude but their directions are reversed.
Using (A) and (E) we can get explicit solutions for the velocities of the out
going bodies:

A few special cases of interest are described below:

(a) Equal masses (ml = m2):In this case we have

t
i.e. the masses merely exchange their velocities. In particular, if one of the
bodies is at rest and is struck by a second body, after collision, the second
body comes to rest, while the first body moves with the speed of the second
body. This is of considerable use in selecting moderators for a nuclear reactor.

In a nuclear reactor neutrons produced as a result of fission have great speeds.

In order to enable them to participate in further fission, they must be slowed
down so that they do not simply move past fissionable materials. This slowing
down is done by a pile of moderators. If the moderators have masses
comparable to the neutrons, the neutrons would slow down due to collisions..
Because of this one choses light weight materials like water, paraffin heavy
water etc. as moderators.
+
(b) m2 at rest, ml >> mz: In this case we get, using ml mz w ml and
v2; = 0,

"lj ZVli
Partlsle Mechanics The speed of the heavier mass is practically unaffected while the lighter mws
moves with twice the speed with which it is struck. Thus, when a ball is
struck by a bat in a table tennis game, the ball leaves the bat with twice the
speed of the bat.
(c) ma ar rest, ml << m2 : Here we have

i.e. the lighter mass simply rebounds while the heavier mass is unaffected. If a
table tennis ball is used to strike a billiard ball on a table, the billiard ball
stays where it was, but the lighter table tennis ball will bounce back.
SAQ 7
A proton collides head on with a helium atom at rest. After collision, the
helium atom moves with a speed of 5 x 10' m/s. If the collision is elastic, find
the initial and the final speeds of proton and also the fraction of the initial
kinetic energy transferred to helium.

2.4.3 Elastic Collision in Two Dimensions

A general collision problem is two dimensional in nature. This is because one
can always assume one of the bodies to be at rest by going over to the frame
of reference of the body. The direction of-velocity of the colliding body and
the direction of the force between the two bbdies define the plane in which the
collision takes place. In figure (2.6) we show such a collision process.

Figure 2.6 : Geometry of a two dimensional collision

For simplicity of geometry, we will assume the two bodies to be spherical in

shape whose rnasses will be assumed to-be concentrated at their respective
centres. We will further assume that the process of collision does not cause
deformation of cither body. The body m2 is taken to be at rest before
collision. Wl~ilcwe do not need to make any assumption regarding the impact
force that causcs collision, we will assume such fotces to act along the line
joining the two 1)odics. In case of collision between similarly charged particles,
the target and tllc colliding body do not come in physical contact and their
30
rraejectories undergo change before they conne to close proximity of each other
Because of this we define a quantity called the impact pammeter which is the
distance between the direction of motion of the incoming particle and the
target. In Fig. (2.6) this is shown as b. If the two bodies were point objects,
the impact parameter would be the closest distance between the bodies if
there was no interaction between them. For the model of spherical rigid
bodies that we have taken, it is clear that the two bodies will not collide if the
impact parameter exceeds the sum of the radii of the two bodies.

Let us choose the x-axis to be parallel to the direction of the velocity of the
incoming particle and the y-axis to be perpendicular to it in the plane of
collision. The conservation of momentum gives two equations in two
dimensions :

where B1 and B2 are respectively the angles which the directions of the final
velocities of ml and mz make with the x-axis. Conservation of the kinetic
energy provides a third equation

The three equations (A), (B) and (C) are not enough to determine four
unknown quantities ( viz. the magnitudes and the directions of the final
velocities of the two particles). In a collision experiment one of the final
quantities is known from measurements and the remaining three are h u n d
from above.
Example 7
Two rigid balls of equal masses and radius r each collide elastically. The
impact parameter is b. One of the masses is at rest before collision while the
speed of the incoming ball is vo. Determine the velocities of the masses after
collision if the initial speed of the approaching ball is vo.
Solution
The geometry is shown in Fig.(2.7). For convenience we choose the x-axis to
be along the line joining the two masses when they come in contact.

Figure 2.7 : Elastic collision of rigid bodies

Since the contact force is along the x-direction, the component of velocity in
the y-direction of both the balls remains the same.
 Pvtkb h k b n l a The m e n--- __
t u m conservation in the xdirection-gives

,/T
.

rn(u;j + u;j) = mufi = rnm 1- -

The kinetic energy is also conservyd.

1 1 2
2
-ml(u?j)' 3 4 ~ :+~
( ~) ~i +j )( U~: / ) ~=I 5muo
Solving the above, we get the x-components of the final velocities to be

I
vf, = 0, u;j =,t%, ,/x 4t2

SAQ 8
Fig.(2.8) shows a half ball collision of a ball with another which is initially at
rest. If the speed of the incoming b d is 4 m/s find the velocity of the balls
after adlieion.

Fuum 1.8. : Hdf-ball

c*on 2.4.4 Completely Inelmtic Collision:
I
When two wlliding bodies stick t o each other after collision, there is only one
final velocity and the momentum conservation equation is adequate to
deterdine the outgoing velocity of the combined mass.
Consider a mass ml moving with a velocity Gi colliding with a second mass
m2 moving with +
After collision, the combined mass ( m l m 2 ) has a
velocity p. Moinentum conservation equation

;! 0 '. . g"..
&. ........:.......
L

i
Y i......... ...........:
givee

.Example 8
,
-
+
mlg~i, m m ~=
i ( m l + m2)Q,

p -- m l G i + m r k
m1+ m2
Note that the kinetic energy is not conserved in the process.

A bullet of mass 10 gm hits a ballistic pendulum (Fig. 2.9) consisting of an:

wooden block of mass 5 kg suspended from a height of 4 m. The bullet
(2.12)

d e l i v e ~an impulsive force to the block. The block with the bullet in it rises
piePlre3.3 : A b&tic through a height of 40 mm. Find the muzzle velocity of the bullet.
pendulum Solution t
The speed of r bullet M The collieion is completely inelastic. If the muzzle speed of bullet is v, the
'
it'Ierva the lnussle of a final epeed of the bullet and block is given by E q ~ ( 2 . 1 2) to be

.
caUed the
velocity. A bdbtic pen-
dulum
v = 0.01vo/5.01 = 1.996 x ~ O - ~ UThe ~ . combined mass dses to a height h
devia to me* BB8jnst gravity. The vdodty is related to the height by kinematical relation
sure the speeds of bulleta
arid ib wed for forenoit
purPone.\ft mnnbta of a
u= a= d2 x 9 . 8 1 . ~0.4 = 0.886
block of wood of mam M giving I

rrupended by two strip

of length L. vo = 0.886/(1.996 x lor3) -; 493&/s 0
32
 Uacu & Angulrr
SAQ 9 Momentum
Show explicitly that the kinetic energy is not conserved in the process.

2.5 SYSTEM OF VARIABLE MASS.

1
In Newtonian mechanics the mass of a body does not change with time.
However, when we discuss motion of systems like a rocket or a jet, we come,
across situations where the mass of the system changes with time because
some mass physically leaves the system. In reality the mass does not change,
but our definition of what constitutes the system makes it appear as if the
mass is not constant.
2.5.1 Equation of Motion
Let us consider a system of particles of mass m, moving with a velocity
with respect to an observer who is at rest. Suppose a mass Am, initially
moving with a velocity ii enters this system in a time At. Let the combined
+
mass m Am move with a velocity v' Av'. +
The total momentum has changed in time At and this must be due to an
impulse g ~ of tan external force @,

+ +
# ~ t= [(m Am)(v' A q ] - (mv' AmZ) +
= mAv'-Am(Z-v')

Note that ii - v' is the velocity of the mass Am with respect to the initial
# .
system. This is represented by ZTer Letting Am and At go to zero we get
-. dv' dm
F=m--a -
dt '"I dt
A word of explanation about the minus sign in Eqn.(2.13) is necessary. As the
dm
system under consideration is an increasing mass system, - itself is positive.
dt
dm
If instead, mass leaves the system, like in the case of a rocket, - is negative.
dt
2.5.2 Rocket propulsion
Equation (2.13) is useful for describing propulsion of rocket and jet planes.
For rockets moving in free space, so far away that gravitational pull of the
earth may be neglected, 2 = 0. Eqn.(2.13) then gives

-. dm
u r e l = m-
dv'
dt dt
The right hand side of this equation is the product of mass and acceleration.
The left hand side therefore can be interpreted as force which causes this
acceleration. This is called the thrust of the engine.
Partlcle Mechanics dm
The term - arises because exhaust gases continuously leave the rocket. In
dt
order to focus our attention on the motion of the rocket we continuously
change what we consider to be our system. The gases which leave the system
are of no interest to us, and are therefore excluded from the definition of the
system.
Since the external force F has been taken to be zero, the thrust is internal to
the sytem. The rocket has a speed v' with respect to the launch pad, which is
n v considered to be an inertial frame. The exhaust gases move with a velocity
Gel with respect to this reference frame (Fig.2.10). Equation (2.14) can be

i
used to get the velocity of the rocket when its mass has decreased to a value
M f from its initial value of Mi.
Integrating (2.14) we get

=/
;
dm
Gel J m
m~
dv'
ri I
m,

0 ., which gives
-. -. Mi
Gf - v2fi = -urel In -
Mf
(2.15)

which shows that larger the exhaust speed, the better is the rocket propulsion.
Figure 2.10 :
Rocket motion Example Q
A practical limit for u,,, using chemical fuels is about 3 km/s. If such a rocket
is sent to outer space with a pay load which is one fifth the initial mass, what
is the final velocity that can be achieved ?
Solution
We can consider the rocket to move along a straight line, ejecting gases
continuously. 'Pay load' refers to the mass of the rocket after the gases have
burnt out. Let the initial velocity of the rocket be zero. Writing urel = -u,

Notice, that because of the logarithm in Eqn.(2.15) it is difficult to achieve

high speeds unless a very small pay load is taken.
S A Q 10
Find the pay load that can be propelled to a speed of 30 km/s starting with
an initial mass of 6600 kg. The exhaust speed is 3 km/s.

2.5.3 Motion of Chains

Variable mass system is useful in solving problems involving motion of chains.
Consider a chain of length L (Fig. 2.11) lying on a horizontal table such that
a part of length z is hanging at time t . In the absence of friction, the entire
chain will be pulled off the table.
Let us assume that a t )A 0, z = 0 and that the speed of the chain v = 0. ( It
I I
is necessary to pull an infinitisimal section down to start the motion.) Let X
be the mass per unit length of the chain, and T ( z )the tension in the chain at
Figure 2.11': Dynamia the point A in the figure at time t .
of a moving chain
34
The part of the chain on the table can be regarded as a decreasing mass Llnear & Angular
Momentum
system with dmldt = -Xv and external force T(x). The velocity u,,, with
which the mass leaves the system (defined as the part of the chain on the
table) is clearly zero, since different parts of a chain are not in relative motion
with respect t o one another. Eqn.(2.13) therefore gives

We can write the above as a function of x'by using

dvldt = (dv/dx)(dx/dt) = vdvldx. We therefore have

In order to eliminate T(x), we consider the portion of the chain off the table
as an increasing mass system on which an external force
mg - T(x) = Xxg - T(x) acts at time t.
dv
Xxg - T(x) = Xxv-
dx
Adding (A) and (B), we get

dv
XLv- = Xxg
dx
which can be integrated giving

L V ~= gx2 +C
The initial condition v = 0 at x = 0 gives C = 0. The velocity a t a time when
a portion x hangs is therefore J m x .
SAQ 11
A heap of chain is lying on a horizontal table (Fig.2.12). A small section of
the chain is released through a hole in the table. Calculate the velocity of the
chain as a function of the length hanging vertically.

Figure 2.12

2.6 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We have seen that force and momentum play a very important role in
describing dynamics of a particle. While we have not explicitly said so, the
type of motion that we have been dealing with so far is the translational
motion of a particle. Very often we are interested in bodies which are capable
of rotational motion. This is particularly important in the case of rigid b d i e s ,
which will be dealt with in another block. In the following we will introduce
two dynamical quantities, the toque and the angular momentum. In
describing rotational motion these play roles analogous to that played by the -
Partlcle Mechanics force and the (linear) momentum. It may be noted that these are not entirely
new quantities in the sense that these are defined in terms of the force and the
momentum.
2.6.1 Torque of a Force
Suppose a force @ is applied to a body located at a point whose position
vector. is r', relative to some origin (Fig. 2.13). The torque of the force 2
about the point 0 is given by the vector cross product

From your knowledge of vector cross-product, you know that r'x f is a vector
of magnitude rF sin 8 and it points along a direction given by the right hand
rule.

Figure 2.13 : Directions of torque and angular momentum

The vector i lies in a plane perpendicular to the plane containing Fand 2. If

the plane of F and @ is chosen as the X-Y plane the torque has only
z-component. For a general case, it has Cartesian components given by

The unit of torque is N-m, which dimensionally is the same as that for work.
However the unit of work is given a special name Joule while the torque is
expressed in N-m.
SAQ 12
A force I= + 5i 10j - 8k acts on an object located at F = 7 i - 4k with respect
to an origin 0.Evaluate the torque.
 2.6.2 Definition of Angular Momentum
Angular momentum of a particle located at a point defined by position
vector r' is given by
Lr'xp' (2.17)
where p'is the (linear) momentum of the particle. Like torque, the angular
momentum is expressed as a vector cross product and has a direction defined
by the right hand rule. The Cartesian components of the angular momentum
are

Just is the rate of change. of momentum p'of a particle is equal to the force 2
acting on it, the rate of change of the angular momentum equals the torque.
r This may be seen as follows.

dr'
where we have used - x p'= 0, since ii and p' point along the same direction.
dt
Example 10
A particle is projected with an initial speed vo at an angle 0 to the horizontal.
Determine its angular momentum about the origin as a function of time.
Solution .
Let us define the direction of the initial horizontal component of the velocity
to be the x-direction, and the upward direction to be the y-direction. The
position of the particle at a time t from the instant of projection is given by

y = vot sin t9 - ?gt 2

i The horizontal component of the velocity remains constant while the vertical
velocity changes due to gravity. The components of momenta are given by

p, = mvo cost9
p, = m(vosint9 - gt)
Since r', 2 plane is the X-Y plane, only the z-component of the torque is
non-zero
7 , = xFy - yF, = -mvocost9t

Similarly the angular momentum is also directed along the z-direction

1
LZ = xpy - yp, = - -mvo cos egt2
2

Wesee that
dXz = r,.
- Fig (2.14 ) shows the variation of L, and T, with time.
dt Figure 2.14 : Angular
momentum and torque
on a projectile
37
SAQ 13
A particle of mass m is moving with a ccnstant velocity 5. Show that its
angular momentum with respect to any arbitrary origin remains constant.

2.6.3 Torque and Angular Momentum of a System of Particles

Earlier we defined the total momentum of a system of N particles as the
vector sum of the individual momenta of the particles. Analogously, the total
angular momentum of an N-particle system is defined as

where the index i refers to the i-th particle. Just as the rate of change of the
total (linear) momentum was found to be equal to the net external force acting-
on the system of particles, we will see in this section that the rate of change of
the total angular momentum equals the torque due to such external forces.
Let us define the total torque acting on the system as

2; is the force acting on the i-th particle of the system located at the position
6. can be split into two parts - one part pxtwhich is the.force acting on
the i-th particle from outside the system and the other pt which arises due
to the other members of the system. Thus we can write

where Fi means the force exerted by the j-th particle on the i-th particle.
The term i = j has been excluded from the summation because a particle
does not exert force on itself. The contribution of F,'"' to the torque acting on
the i-th particle is then

j-1
J#:

When we sum over i to find the vector sum of these terms over all,the
particles, we get /

i=l 1=1

On the right hand side, the terms can be paired and summed. For instance, if
we group the terins involving the second and the third particles, we get,
All the forces that we know of between two particles act along the line joining Llnmr & Angular
Momentum
the particles. Thus f2,3 is parallel to 72 - 73 and the cross product of these
two vectors is therefore zero. Thus the torque due to the internal forces cancel
out in pairs. We therefore have
N N
i=C<~fl=C<~e"
i=l i=l

Differentiating Eqn.(2.19), we get

N
d i - d
-
dt
- -Cr;xg=Cr;x-
d t r.= l
dP'i
dt i=l
N N
= C.;xFi=Csxe"
i= 1 i=l
-
- 7' (2.21)

SAQ 14
Three point masses located at the positions shown below are acted upon by
external forces as indicated. Calculate the torque of the system about the
origin.

mass position Force

rn +
2i 3 j + k 3 i + 2 j - 6k
2rn i-2j-3k 2i-j+3k
3m -i-2j-k -5;-j+3k

SAQ 15
Note, that in the above problem, the net external force on the system is zero.
As a consequence, show that the torque calculated about any arbitrary point
will yield the same result.

2.6.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum

From the relationship ( 2 . 2 1 ) between the angular momentum and torque, it
follows that if there is no external torque acting on a system of particles, the
angular momentum will remain constant. The principle of conservation of
angular momentum has wide application in both particle and rigid body
dynamics. In unit 4 we will see that bodies subjected to central forces
conserve angular moillenturn. In this w i t we will illustrate the principle with
an example.
 Example 11
A particle of mass m is attached to a light string which passes through a
hollow tube (Fig. 2.13 ). The mass is set into r o t a t i ~ nin a circle of radius T I
with a speed q. The string is pulled in shortening the radius to T Z . Describe
the resulting motion.
Solution
The downward pull of the string is transmitted as a radial force on the mass.
Since the force is parallel to the position vector, the external torque is zero.
Figure 2.15 The angular momentum is thus conserved. Equating the angular momenta
before and after the pulling of the string

which gives v 2 = ( T ~ / T ~ ) VThus

~ . the mass is speeded up. You can show that
the angular speed is increased by a factor ( T ~ / T ~ ) ~ . 0
SAQ 16
The cat in Fig. 2.16 weigh the same as the dog on the other end of the rope.
The pulley is smooth and massless. Initially the cat and the dog are both at
rest. Using the principle of conservation of momentum show that the monkey
can never get away from the banana by climbing the rope.

Figure 2.1%

In this unit we have introduced two very important concepts in Newtonian

Mechanics. Starting with the second law of Newton, we have generalized the
definition of momentum by defining the total momentum of a system of
particles. It was found that due to the cancellation of the internal forces, the-
rate of change of total momentum is equal to the net external force acting on
the system. We defined the centre of mass and showed that in so far as the
translational motion of a system is concerned, the centre of mass behaves as if
the entire mass of the system is concentrated in it. The principle of
conservation of momentum was obtained and several applications pointed out.
Collision problems in one and two dimensions were discussed. Application of
the principle of the conservation of momentum to the motion of rockets and
chains was discussed in detail. It was found convenient to define a system of
variable mass by appropriately changing our definition of a system. As a
preparation for discussion of the motion of rigid bodies and the motion of
planets ,the concept of angular momentum was introduced. It was found that
the rate of change of angular momentum is related to the torque acting on the
system much in the same way as the force is related to the change of linear
momentum. The principle of conservatioq qf angular momentum was
obtained.
 -
2.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

1. Momentum of 2700 kg car is 45,000 kg-m/s directed N-S, while that of

I
the 3000 kg car is 60,000 kg-m/s. Adding vectoridly the momentum of
I

1
+
the pair is J(45, 0002 60, 0002) = 75,000 kg-m/s making an angle
tan-'(413) with the north towards west.
1
+
2. The momentum of the man boat must remain conserved at zero. The
momentum of the man as he jumps is 300 kg-m/s. The boat therefore
has a momentum of -300 kg-m/s, giving it a velocity of 0.3 m/s in a
direction opposite to that of the man.
3. Let us shift the origin 0 to a point P whose position vector is 2 with
respect to 0 . With respect to P, the position vectors of particles which
are at 6 are given by 6 - 2. The position vector of the centre of mass
with respect to P therefore is at

Thus the position of the centre of mass has remained unaltered.

5. The three hydrogen atoms form an equilateral triangle of side
2asin(53.3'), where a is the N-H distance. The centre of mass of the
three H atoms is at the orthocentre of the triangle. The distance.
between the N atom and the orthocentre can be found from .geometry to
be 0.7 AO. The centre mass is therefore located at
+
14d/(14 3) = 0.57A0 above the orthocentre.
6. The deceleration of the bullet is a = u2/(2s) = 80,000 m/s. The time
taken is t = %/a = s. The ilnpulse is J = A(mv) = 0.005 x 80 = 0.4
N-s and the average force is J / A t = 0.4/0.001 = 400 N.

7. Mass of Helium is 4 times the mass of proton. The momentum

conservation gives vr = v; + 4vHe. For an elastic collision the relative
velocity of approach is equal to the relative velocity of separation i.e.
v: = -upf + v H e . Solving, vp = 1.25 x lo6 m/s and v; = -0.75 X lo6
m/s. The fraction of kinetic energy transferred is 0.64.
8. Take the x-axis to be along the line joining the two balls when they are
in contact. The angle 0 in Fig.2.8 is 30°. Resolving the velocity of the
incoming ball
It -
21"-2h, v;=2
The collision may be regarded as an elastic collision in x-direction,
which results in interchange of the velocities. The y-component of the
velocities remain unaffected.

11. Take the hanging mass as an increasing mass system. Here

dmldt = Xv > 0, u,,, = -v. The external force is F = Xxg. The
variable mass equation can be simplified to the form
13. Using Fig.(2.17) , show that the magnitude of the angular momentum is
dp = constant. The direction also remains constant, being perpendicular
to the plane of the paper.
15. The torque is given by r = C,(<x ezt). Change the origin to a point
P whose position vector with respect to 0 is 2. With respect to the
point P the torque is
T'=xi(< - g) x fixt = xi(.;: Ftzt)
x - x C,Ftzt = 7.
16. The only force on the system is due to gravity. The horizontal
component of the angular momentum is conserved, as the torque acting
about the centre of the pulley is zero. When the monkey starts climbing
up, the banana must also move up with the same speed to keep the
angular momentum zero.