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Basics of Web Design HTML5 &
CSS
Sixth Edition
Basics of Web Design HTML5 &
CSS
Sixth Edition

Terry Ann Felke-Morris, Ed.D.

Professor Emerita

Harper College
Content Development: Tracy Johnson

Content Management: Dawn Murrin, Tracy Johnson

Content Production: Carole Snyder

Product Management: Holly Stark

Product Marketing: Wayne Stevens

Rights and Permissions: Anjali Singh

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queries on this content

Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers make no representations about

the suitability of the information contained in the documents and related

graphics published as part of the services for any purpose. All such

documents and related graphics are provided “as is” without warranty of

any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers hereby disclaim all

warranties and conditions with regard to this information, including all

warranties and conditions of merchantability, whether express, implied or

statutory, fitness for a particular purpose, title and non-infringement. In

no event shall Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers be liable for any

special, indirect or consequential damages or any damages whatsoever

resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether in an action of

contract, negligence or other tortious action, arising out of or in

connection with the use or performance of information available from the

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The documents and related graphics contained herein could include

technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. Changes are periodically

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Microsoft® and Windows® are registered trademarks of the Microsoft

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Copyright © 2022 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River

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Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Felke-Morris, Terry, author.

Title: Basics of web design : HTML5 & CSS / Terry Ann Felke-Morris,
Ed.D., Professor Emerita.

Description: Sixth edition. | Hoboken : Pearson, 2022.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020030388 | ISBN 9780137313266 (Print Offer) | ISBN

9780137313211 (Rental)

Subjects: LCSH: HTML (Document markup language) | Cascading style

sheets. |

Web site development--Computer programs. | Web sites--Design.

Classification: LCC QA76.76.H94 F455 2020 | DDC 006.7/4--dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020030388

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Preface
Basics of Web Design: HTML5 & CSS is intended for use in a beginning web

design or web development course. Topics are introduced in two-page

sections that focus on key points and often include a hands-on practice
exercise. The text covers the basics that web designers need to develop

their skills:

Introductory Internet and World Wide Web concepts

Creating web pages with HTML5

Configuring text, color, and page layout with Cascading Style Sheets

Configuring images and multimedia on web pages

Exploring CSS Flexbox and CSS Grid layout systems

Web design best practices

Creating responsive web pages that display well on both desktop and

mobile devices

Accessibility, usability, and search engine optimization considerations

Obtaining a domain name and a web host

Publishing to the Web

Student files include solutions to the Hands-On Practice exercises, starter

files for the Hands-On Practice exercises, and the starter files for the Case

Study. The eText offers student file downloads by chapter (where used)

wiithin each chapter introduction. Student files are also available for

download from the companion website for this book at

www.pearson.com/felke-morris.

Building on this textbook’s successful fifth edition, the sixth edition

features:
 Additional Hands-On Practice exercises

Updated code samples, case studies, and web resources

Updates for HTML5 elements and attributes

Expanded treatment of page layout design and responsive web design

techniques

Expanded treatment of CSS Flexible Layout Module (Flexbox) and

CSS Grid Layout systems

Expanded coverage of responsive image techniques including lazy

loading

Updated reference sections for HTML5 and CSS

Features of the Text

Design for Today and Tomorrow

The textbook prepares students to design web pages that work today in

addition to being ready to take advantage of new HTML5 and CSS coding

techniques of the future.

Well-Rounded Selection of Topics

This text includes both “hard” skills such as HTML5 and Cascading Style

Sheets (Chapters 1 –2  and 4 –11 ) and “soft” skills such as web
design (Chapter 3 ) and publishing to the Web (Chapter 12 ). This well-

rounded foundation will help students as they pursue careers as web

professionals. Students and instructors will find classes more interesting

because they can discuss, integrate, and apply both hard and soft skills as
students create web pages and websites. The topics in each chapter are
typically-introduced on concise two-page sections that are intended to

provide quick overviews and timely practice with the topic.

Two-Page Topic Sections
Most topics are introduced in a concise, two-page section. Many sections
also include immediate hands-on practice of the new skill or concept.

This approach is intended to appeal to your busy students—especially the

millennial multitaskers—who need to drill down to the important

concepts right away.

Hands-On Practice
Web design is a skill, and skills are best learned by hands-on practice.
This text emphasizes hands-on practice through practice exercises within

the chapters, end-of-chapter exercises, and the development of a website

through ongoing real-world case studies. This variety exercises provides

instructors with a choice of assignments for a particular course or

semester.

Website Case Study

There are case studies that continue throughout most of the text
(beginning at Chapter 2 ). The case studies serve to reinforce skills

discussed in each chapter. Sample solutions to the case study exercises

are available on the Instructor Resource Center available through

https://pearsonhighered.com/felke.

Focus on Web Design

Every chapter offers an additional activity that explores web design topics
related to the chapter. These activities can be used to reinforce, extend,

and enhance the course topics.

FAQs
In her web design courses, the author is frequently asked similar
questions by students. They are included in the book and are marked

with the identifying FAQ icon.

Focus on Accessibility
Developing accessible websites is more important than ever, and this text
is infused with accessibility techniques throughout. The special icon
shown here makes accessibility information easy to find.

Focus on Ethics
Ethical issues related to web development are highlighted throughout the
text with the special ethics icon shown here.

Quick Tips
Quick tips, which provide useful background information, or help with
productivity, are indicated with this Quick Tip icon.

Explore Further
The special icon identifies enrichment topics along with web resources

useful for delving deeper into a concept introduced in book.

Reference Materials
The appendices offer reference material, including an HTML5 reference, a

Cascading Style Sheets reference, a WCAG 2.1 Quick Reference, an

overview of ARIA Landmark Roles and a Web Safe Color Palette.
VideoNotes
VideoNotes are Pearson’s visual tool designed for teaching students key
programming concepts and techniques. These short step-by-step videos

demonstrate how to solve problems from design through coding.

VideoNotes allow for self-placed instruction with easy navigation
including the ability to select, play, rewind, fast-forward, and stop within
each VideoNote exercise. Margin icons in your textbook let you know
when a VideoNote video is available for a particular concept or hands-on

practice.

Supplemental Materials

Student Resources
Student resources provide both reinforcement and practice of new

concepts and skills include:

VideoNotes
Student Files containing the following:

Hands-On Practice starter files

Hands-On Practice solutions
Case Study starter files

Author’s Website
In addition to the publisher’s companion website for this book, the author
maintains a website at https://www.webdevbasics.net. This website
contains a page for each chapter with additional resources and updates.

This website is not supported by the publisher.

Acknowledgments
Very special thanks go to the people at Pearson, including Tracy Johnson,
Carole Snyder, Scott Disanno, and Erin Sullivan.

Most of all, I would like to thank my family for their patience and
encouragement. My wonderful husband, Greg Morris, has been a
constant source of love, understanding, support, and encouragement.
Thank you, Greg! A big shout-out to my children, James and Karen, who

grew up thinking that everyone’s Mom had their own website. Thank you
both for your understanding, patience, and timely suggestions. Finally, a
very special dedication to the memory of my father who will be greatly
missed.

About the Author

Dr. Terry Ann Felke-Morris is a Professor Emerita at Harper College in
Palatine, Illinois. She holds a Doctor of Education degree, a Master of

Science degree in information systems, and numerous certifications,

including Adobe Certified Dreamweaver 8 Developer, WOW Certified
Associate Webmaster, Microsoft Certified Professional, Master CIW
Designer, and CIW Certified Instructor.

Dr. Felke-Morris received the Blackboard Greenhouse Exemplary Online

Course Award in 2006 for use of Internet technology in the academic
environment. She is the recipient of two international awards: the
Instructional Technology Council’s Outstanding e-Learning Faculty

Award for Excellence and the MERLOT Award for Exemplary Online
Learning Resources—MERLOT Business Classics.

With more than 25 years of information technology experience in

business and industry, Dr. Felke-Morris published her first website in
1996 and has been working with the Web ever since. A long-time
promoter of web standards, she was a member of the Web Standards
Project Education Task Force. Dr. Felke-Morris is the author of the

popular textbook Web Development and Design Foundations with HTML5,

currently in its tenth edition. She was instrumental in developing the
Web Development degree and certificate programs at Harper College. For
more information about Dr. Terry Ann Felke-Morris, visit https://

terrymorris.net.
Contents
Chapter 1 Internet and Web Basics 1 

The Internet and the Web 2 

Web Standards and Accessibility 4 

Web Browsers and Web Servers 6 

Internet Protocols 8 

Uniform Resource Identifiers and Domain Names 10 

Information on the Web 14 

HTML Overview 16 

Under the Hood of a Web Page 18 

Your First Web Page 20 

Review and Apply 24 

Chapter 2 HTML Basics 27 

Heading Element 28 

Paragraph Element 30 

Line Break and Horizontal Rule 32 

Blockquote Element 34 

Phrase Element 36 

Ordered List 38 

Unordered List 40 

Description List 42 
 Special Entity Characters 44 

HTML Syntax Validation 46 

Structural Elements 48 

Practice with Structural Elements 50 

More Structural Elements 52 

Anchor Element 54 

Practice with Hyperlinks 56 

E-Mail Hyperlinks 60 

Review and Apply 62 

Chapter 3 Web Design Basics 71 

Your Target Audience 72 

Website Organization 74 

Principles of Visual Design 76 

Design to Provide for Accessibility 78 

Use of Text 80 

Web Color Palette 82 

Design for Your Target Audience 84 

Choosing a Color Scheme 86 

Use of Graphics and Multimedia 90 

More Design Considerations 92 

Navigation Design 94 

Wireframes and Page Layout 96 

 Fixed and Fluid Layouts 98 

Design for the Mobile Web 100 

Responsive Web Design 102 

Web Design Best Practices Checklist 104 

Review and Apply 106 

Chapter 4 Cascading Style Sheets Basics 111 

Cascading Style Sheets Overview 112 

CSS Selectors and Declarations 114 

CSS Syntax for Color Values 116 

Configure Inline CSS 118 

Configure Embedded CSS 120 

Configure External CSS 122 

CSS Selectors: Class, Id, and Descendant 124 

Span Element 126 

Practice with CSS 128 

The Cascade 130 

Practice with the Cascade 132 

CSS Syntax Validation 134 

Review and Apply 136 

Chapter 5 Graphics & Text Styling Basics 143 

Graphics on the Web 144 

Img Element 148 

 Image Hyperlinks 150 

Configure Background Images 152 

Position Background Images 154 

CSS Multiple Background Images 156 

Fonts with CSS 158 

CSS Text Properties 160 

Practice with Graphics and Text 162 

Configure List Markers with CSS 164 

The Favorites Icon 166 

Image Maps 168 

Figure and Figcaption Elements 170 

Review and Apply 172 

Chapter 6 More CSS Basics 181 

Width and Height with CSS 182 

The Box Model 184 

Margin and Padding with CSS 186 

Borders with CSS 188 

CSS Rounded Corners 190 

Center Page Content with CSS 192 

CSS Box Shadow and Text Shadow 194 

CSS Background Clip and Origin 196 

CSS Background Resize and Scale 198 

 Practice with CSS Properties 200 

CSS Opacity 202 

CSS RGBA Color 204 

CSS HSLA Color 206 

CSS Gradients 208 

Review and Apply 210 

Chapter 7 Page Layout Basics 219 

Normal Flow 220 

Float 222 

Clear a Float 224 

Overflow 226 

CSS Box Sizing 228 

Basic Two-Column Layout 230 

Vertical Navigation with an Unordered List 234 

Horizontal Navigation with an Unordered List 236 

CSS Interactivity with Pseudo-Classes 238 

Practice with CSS Two-Column Layout 240 

CSS for Print 242 

CSS Sprites 244 

Positioning with CSS 246 

Fixed Position Navigation Bar 250 

Fragment Identifiers 252 

 Single Page Website 254 

Review and Apply 256 

Chapter 8 Responsive Layout Basics 265 

CSS Flexible Box Layout 266 

More About Flex Containers 268 

Flexbox Image Gallery 270 

Configure Flex Items 272 

Practice with Flexbox 274 

CSS Grid Layout 276 

Grid Columns, Rows, and Gap 278 

Two-Column Grid Page Layout 280 

Layout with Grid Areas 284 

Progressive Enhancement with Grid 288 

Centering with Flexbox and Grid 290 

Viewport Meta Tag 292 

CSS Media Queries 294 

Responsive Layout with Media Queries 296 

Responsive Grid Layout with Media Queries 300 

Flexible Images with CSS 304 

Picture Element 306 

Responsive Img Element Attributes 308 

Testing Mobile Display 310 

 Review and Apply 312 

Chapter 9 Table Basics 325 

Table Overview 326 

Table Rows, Cells, and Headers 328 

Span Rows and Columns 330 

Configure an Accessible Table 332 

Style a Table with CSS 334 

CSS Structural Pseudo-classes 336 

Configure Table Sections 338 

Review and Apply 340 

Chapter 10 Form Basics 347 

Form Overview 348 

Input Element and Text Box 350 

Submit Button and Reset Button 352 

Check Box and Radio Button 354 

Textarea Element 356 

Select Element and Option Element 358 

Label Element 360 

Fieldset Element and Legend Element 362 

Style a Form with CSS 364 

Form Layout with CSS Grid 366 

Server-Side Processing 368 

 Practice with a Form 370 

Password, Hidden, and File Upload Controls 372 

More Text Form Controls 374 

Datalist Element 376 

Slider and Spinner Controls 378 

Date and Color-Well Controls 380 

More Form Practice 382 

Review and Apply 384 

Chapter 11 Media and Interactivity Basics 395 

Getting Started with Audio and Video 396 

Audio Element and Source Element 398 

Video Element and Source Element 400 

Practice with Video 402 

Iframe Element 404 

CSS Transform Property 406 

CSS Transition Property 408 

Practice with Interactivity 410 

CSS Drop-Down Menu 412 

Details Element and Summary Element 414 

JavaScript & jQuery 416 

HTML5 APIs 418 

Review and Apply 420 

Chapter 12 Web Publishing Basics 427 

File Organization 428 

Register a Domain Name 430 

Choose a Web Host 432 

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 434 

Publish with File Transfer Protocol 436 

Search Engine Submission 438 

Search Engine Optimization 440 

Accessibility Testing 442 

Usability Testing 444 

Review and Apply 446 

Appendix
HTML5 Cheat Sheet 450 

CSS Cheat Sheet 455 

WCAG 2.1 Quick Reference 463 

Landmark Roles with ARIA 465 

Web Safe Color Palette 467 

Index 468

Credits 484 
VideoNotes
Locations of VideoNotes

www.pearson.com/felke-morris

Chapter 1 Internet and Web Basics 

Evolution of the Web 3 

Your First Web Page 20 

Chapter 2 HTML Basics 

HTML Validation 46 

Chapter 3 Web Design Basics 

Principles of Visual Design 76 

Chapter 4 Cascading Style Sheets Basics 

External Style Sheets 122 

CSS Validation 134 

Chapter 5 Graphics & Text Styling Basics 

Background Images 154 

Chapter 6 More CSS Basics 

CSS Rounded Corners 190 

Chapter 7 Page Layout Basics 

Interactivity with CSS Pseudo-Classes 238 

Linking to a Named Fragment 252 

Chapter 8 Responsive Layout Basics 

CSS Grid Layout 280 

Chapter 9 Table Basics 

 Configure a Table 328 

Chapter 10 Form Basics 

Connect a Form to Server-side Processing 368 

Chapter 11 Media and Interactivity Basics 

HTML5 Video 400 

Configure an Inline Frame 405 

Chapter 12 Web Publishing Basics 

Choosing a Domain Name 430 

Chapter 1
Internet and Web Basics
 You’ll learn how to...

Describe the evolution of the Internet and the Web

Explain the need for web standards

Describe universal design

Identify benefits of accessible web design

Identify reliable resources of information on the Web

Identify ethical uses of the Web

Describe the purpose of web browsers and web servers

Identify Internet protocols

Define URIs and domain names

Describe HTML, XHTML, and HTML5

Create your first web page

Use the body, head, title, and meta elements

Name, save, and test a web page

THE INTERNET AND THE WEB ARE PARTS OF OUR DAILY LIVES.

How did they begin? What networking protocols and programming

languages work behind the scenes to display a web page? This chapter

provides an introduction to some of these topics and is a foundation for

the information that web developers need to know. This chapter also gets

you started with your very first web page. You’ll be introduced to

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the language used to create web

pages.
The Internet and the Web

The Internet
The Internet, the interconnected network of computer networks, seems

to be everywhere today. You can’t watch television or listen to the radio

without being urged to visit a website. Even newspapers and magazines

have their place on the Internet. It is possible that you may be reading an

electronic copy of this book that you downloaded over the Internet. With

the increased use of mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones,

being connected to the Internet has become part of our daily lives.

The Birth of the Internet

The Internet began as a network to connect computers at research

facilities and universities. Messages in this network would travel to their

destinations by multiple routes or paths, allowing the network to function

even if parts of it were broken or destroyed. The message would be

rerouted through a functioning portion of the network while traveling to

its destination. This network was developed by the Advanced Research

Projects Agency (ARPA)—and the ARPAnet was born. Four computers

(located at University of California, Los Angeles; Stanford Research

Institute; University of California, Santa Barbara; and the University of

Utah) were connected by the end of 1969.

Growth of the Internet

As time went on, other networks, such as the National Science

Foundation’s NSFnet, were created and connected with the ARPAnet. Use

of this interconnected network, or Internet, was originally limited to

Random documents with unrelated
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 64. Vid. 7.
65. Vid. 16.
66. Vid. 9.
67. Vid. 8, p. 19.
68. Methods of Analysis of Soils, Fertilizers, etc., adopted by the Swedish
Agricultural Chemists, translated for the author by F. W. Woll.
69. L’Analyse du Sol, p. 14.
 PART THIRD.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS.

92. The Soil as a Mass.—The soil constituted as indicated in the

preceding pages, is now brought to the analyst for investigation. The
properties with which he first becomes acquainted are those which
impress his senses as mass characteristics. There is a perception of
color, consistence, weight and other features which the soil possesses
as a whole. The several constituents of the soil must first be
considered as molecular and mole aggregates. In other words, the
soil in its natural state is a mechanical mixture of particles which
must first be considered as a whole. The physical properties of the
soil, therefore, should engage the attention of the analyst before he
proceeds to the investigation of the properties of its several
constituents as classified by the relative size or hydraulic value of the
particles of which they are composed, or to a chemical determination
of the compounds or elements therein contained.
 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES.
93. Color.—The color of a soil depends chiefly upon the
proportion of organic matter and iron compounds which it contains
and the state of subdivision of its particles. When a soil contains a
large amount of organic matter, especially when this organic matter
is in an advanced state of decay, it assumes more or less a black color
when moist. This black color is to be distinguished from the black
alkali tint which is produced by the action of carbonate of soda on
organic matter. The naturally black color of a soil containing a large
amount of organic matter depends, however, either upon the action
of mineral matters upon this organic matter, as in the case of the
black alkali mentioned, or upon the blackish color of carbon
resulting from the slow combustion of the organic matter during the
period of decay.
The presence of a large amount of ferric oxid in soil gives the well-
known red color so well-marked in the soils of southwestern
Kentucky and other portions of the United States. The
preponderance of sand in a soil tends to produce a light yellow or
whitish tint, while certain kinds of clay have a bluish tint probably
due to the presence of ferrous salts. The influence of the color of the
soil upon the color of the vegetation is also well-marked, the black
soils as a rule producing a much deeper green tint of foliage than the
light colored soils. This effect should not be attributed to color alone
for as a matter of fact highly colored soils are usually very close and
very retentive of moisture, which is one reason, probably, for their
not being more highly oxidized. Such soils will produce a more
vigorous and ranker growth of vegetation, but it is the texture of the
soil and the more moist condition which it maintains, rather than the
color, which produce the deeper green tint of foliage.
The color of a soil is also used as an index of its fertility, the black
and red soils being usually the most fertile.
It may be well to add here the probable reason as given by Whitney
for this, viz., that the deeper color shows that the oxids of iron and
the organic compounds have less oxygen and indicate that the soils
are quite retentive of moisture and rather tend to the exclusion of air,
so that part of the oxygen of the iron compounds and of the organic
matters has been used up in the oxidation processes within the soil.
It is known, for example, that wood oxidizes much more rapidly
around a rusty nail than where it is simply exposed to the air, the
iron oxid acting as a carrier between the oxygen of the air and the
organic matter. In a sandy soil, on the contrary, where there is
usually less moisture and much freer circulation of air, the iron
compounds have more oxygen and usually have a light yellow color.
If this sand is heated, however, with the exclusion of air, and
especially in the presence of organic matters, part of this oxygen will
be given off and there will be the same red color as in the heavier clay
soils. It is frequently noticed, also, in compact clays that where air
gains access through cracks or root-holes, the color is altogether
modified.
94. Determination of Color.—There is no process which will
give experimentally and accurately the color of a soil sample. The
changes which the color of a soil undergoes in passing from a
saturated to an anhydrous state are well-marked. The analyst will
have to be content with giving as nearly as possible a description of
the color of the sample when taken and the changes which it
undergoes in air drying or on heating in a bath to 100°–110°, or in
heating to redness with or without exclusion of the air. These
changes in color will give some indication of the character of the
organic and mineral matters present.
95. Odoriferous Matters in Soil.—It is known that the soil
emits a peculiar odor which is not disagreeable except when it has
been recently wet, for instance, after a short rain. Several attempts
have been made to discover the nature of this odor. These researches
have established the fact that the essential principle of this odor
resides in an organic compound of a neutral nature of the aromatic
family and which is carried by the vapor of water after the manner of
a body possessing a feeble tension. The odor is penetrating, almost
piquant, and analogous to that of camphorated and quite distinct
from other known substances. In regard to the quantity of this
substance, it is extremely minute and can be regarded as being only a
few millionths of a per cent.
 According to Berthelot and André[70] this new principle is neither
an acid nor an alkali nor even a normal aldehyd. It is, in a
concentrated aqueous solution, precipitable by potassium carbonate
with the production of a resinous substance. Heated with potash it
develops a sharp odor similar to the aldehyde resin. It does not
reduce the ammoniacal nitrate of silver. Treated with potash and
iodin it gives an abundant formation of iodoform, which, however, is
a property common to a great number of substances. For the
qualitative and quantitative estimation of the odoriferous matter the
following process is employed:
About three kilograms of the soil are mixed with sand containing a
small amount of carbonate of lime and some humic substance; after
having freed it from all organic débris which is visible, it is placed in
a glass alembic. The soil should contain from ten to twelve per cent
of water at least. The alembic is placed in a sand bath and is kept at
60° for several hours. The water evaporated is condensed until about
seventy-five cubic centimeters are distilled over. This distilled water
is again rectified so as to obtain in all about twenty cubic
centimeters. The odoriferous matter appears to be nearly all
contained in this twenty cubic centimeters. The liquid thus obtained
shows an alkaline reaction; it contains some ammonia and reduces
ammoniacal silver nitrate. This last reaction is due to some pyridic
alkali or analogue thereof, and is cause for it to be distilled anew with
a trace of sulfuric acid which gives a neutral liquor deprived of all
reducing action but which preserves the odor peculiar to the soil. The
twenty cubic centimeters obtained as before are subjected to two
additional distillations and in the final one only one cubic centimeter
of liquid is distilled over.
The peculiar odor is intensified proportionately as the volume of
the liquid is decreased. To this one cubic centimeter, is added some
pure crystallized potassium carbonate. The liquor is immediately
troubled and some hours are required for it to become clear again.
Meanwhile there is formed upon its surface a resinous ring almost
invisible, amounting at most to from ten to twenty milligrams of a
matter which has not been identified with any known principle. The
reactions described above, however, permit of its general character
being known. This resinous matter contains the odoriferous
principle, the composition of which is not yet definitely known.
 96. Specific Gravity.—The density of a soil depends on its
composition, the fineness of its particles and upon the packing which
it has received. It has in other words an apparent and a real specific
gravity. It is easy to see that a soil in good tilth would weigh less per
cubic foot than one which had been pressed closely together, as in a
road or well-pastured field. Ordinary soils in good tilth have an
apparent specific gravity of about 1.2, and when entirely free from
air, a real specific gravity of about 2.5. If the apparent specific gravity
of a soil sample were 1.2 and the air were removed, leaving a vacuum
in the interstices of the soil, the apparent specific gravity would not
be sensibly increased. The figure 1.2 is the apparent specific gravity
of a mixture of soil material which is about 2½ times heavier than
water, and of an extremely small proportion by weight of air which is
about 1000 times lighter than water. The figure 2.5 is about the true
specific gravity of the real soil material, and shows that this material
is about 2½ times heavier than an equal volume of water.
The weights of a cubic foot of different kinds of soil as given by
Schübler[71] are as follows;

Pounds.
Sand 110
Sand and clay 96
Common arable soil 80 to 90
Heavy clay 75
Vegetable mold 78
Peat 30 to 50

In general the specific gravity of soil decreases inversely as its

content of humus.
97. Determination of Specific Gravity.—The ordinary
method of proceeding to determine the true specific gravity is by
means of a pyknometer. The pyknometer should have a capacity of
from twenty-five to fifty cubic centimeters.
From ten to fifteen grams of earth dried to constant weight at 100°
are taken, boiled for a time with a few cubic centimeters of water to
remove air and poured into the pyknometer. All soil particles are
washed out of the vessel in which the boiling took place into the
pyknometer with freshly boiled distilled water and after cooling to
the temperature at which the calibration took place, the pyknometer
is filled with distilled water at the given temperature and weighed. If
the soil contain materials soluble in water, alcohol of definitely
known specific gravity may be employed and the number thus
obtained calculated to a water basis.
The calculations when water is used are made as follows:

Grams.
Weight of pyknometer 13.4789
„„ pyknometer full of distilled water at 20° 62.8934
„„ water in pyknometer 49.4145
„„ dry soil taken 10.0000
„„ pyknometer + dry soil + filled with water at 20° 67.9834
„„ soil and water 54.5045
„„ water 44.5045
„„ water displaced by ten grams soil 4.9100

Then specific gravity = 10.000 ÷ 4.9100 = 2.04.

98. Specific Gravity of Undried Soils.—It is often desirable to
determine the specific gravity of an undried portion of the soil. For
this purpose a portion of the sample is dried at 100° to determine its
percentage of moisture. The specific gravity is then determined on a
ten gram sample of the undried soil as just given. The actual weight
of soil taken is calculated from the percentage of moisture obtained
in the first instance. In the case given if the percentage of moisture at
100° be ten then the actual weight of dry soil taken is nine grams.
This number is therefore used in making the calculations. In all
statements of specific gravity taken in the manner described the
temperature at which the pyknometer is calibrated should be stated
and all weighings where water is involved made at that degree.
99. Volume of Soil.—If it be desired to calculate the volume
occupied by a soil it is easily done by dividing the weight of water
displaced by the weight of one cubic centimeter of water of the
temperature at which the determination took place.
In the case given one cubic centimeter of water at 20° weighs
0.998259. Then 4.9100 ÷ 0.998259 = 4.9186 cubic centimeters =
volume occupied by ten grams of dry soil excluding interstitial spaces
between particles.
100. Volumetric Methods.—The water displaced by a given
weight of soil may also be measured volumetrically by the method of
Knop.[72]
Place 200 grams of the soil in a flask of from three to five hundred
cubic centimeters capacity. Add a measured quantity of water, and
shake thoroughly to eliminate air, and fill up to the mark from a
burette. The quantity of water required to complete the volume
subtracted from the number expressing the volume of the flask will
give the volume of water displaced by the earth.
Another method consists in thoroughly shaking about thirty grams
of the soil in a graduated cylinder with fifty cubic centimeters of
water containing a little ammonium chlorid and after twenty-four
hours recording the volume occupied by the whole. The increase in
volume over fifty cubic centimeters shows the quantity of water
displaced. This method may also be used to determine the volume
occupied by a soil when saturated with water. The above methods are
only to be used when approximately correct results are all that are
desired.
101. Apparent Specific Gravity.—The apparent specific gravity
of a soil is obtained by dividing its volume, interstitial spaces
included, by the weight of an equal volume of water.
The real and apparent specific gravities of six samples of soil are
given below.[73]

Real specific
gravity 2.5445, 2.6315, 2.6508, 2.6400, 2.7325, 2.6603
Apparent specific
gravity of air-
dried soil 1.0940, 1.1710, 1.3570, 1.2810, 1.4060, 1.2730
Apparent specific
gravity of soil
dried at 125° 1.0990, 1.1770, 1.3750, 1.2910, 1.4640, 1.2850

It is to be noted that in computing the apparent specific gravity of

a soil dried at 125° the volume occupied by the water is assumed to
occupy the same space as if it existed in a free state. The volume of
this water is therefore to be subtracted from the contents of the flask
before proceeding with the computations.
102. Determination of Apparent Specific Gravity.—Place in
small quantity portions of the air-dried sample properly prepared,
into an open glass cylinder, holding one liter, and about 170
millimeters high (if the height is exactly the mentioned one, the
diameter of the cylinder will be 86.6 millimeters); pack the sample
by striking the bottom of the cylinder hard against the palm of the
hand after each new filling; close the cylinder thus filled by a glass
plate and weigh on a balance sensitive to 0.1 gram; deduct the weight
of the cylinder and glass plate, and the weight of one liter of soil in
approximately similar conditions as it is found on the dry land
prepared for cultivation, is thus ascertained. The weight of one liter
of the soil in grams multiplied by 2000 will give in kilograms the
weight of the surface soil from a hectare (2.47 acres) of the field from
which the sample is taken when the depth of this is calculated at
twenty centimeters.[74]
 RELATION OF THE SOIL TO HEAT.

103. Sources of Soil Heat.—The heat of the soil comes from

three sources, viz.: solar heat, as the sun’s rays, heat of chemical and
vital action within the soil, and the original heat of the earth’s
interior. The latter is sensibly a constant quantity, and of great value
to plants. The heat of chemical and vital action is not great in amount
except in a few special cases but is often, as in germination, of the
greatest importance to plant growth. The sun, therefore, remains the
greatest source of heat of practical importance in relation to the
production of crops. Dark-colored soils, absorbing most and
radiating the fewest rays, must attain the highest temperature.
Schübler’s classical researches on soil temperatures, show that there
is at times a difference of over 7° in temperature between white and
black soils, all other conditions being alike. Schübler’s researches,
being made on dry soils in the laboratory, do not, however, apply
wholly to conditions in the field.
104. Influence of Specific Heat.—The heat which a soil
receives and retains is largely due to the specific heat of the soil. The
specific heat of a body is expressed by a number which shows the
amount of heat necessary to raise a given weight of the body 1° of
temperature, as compared with the amount necessary to raise the
same weight of water 1°. The specific heat of the soil is usually
between 0.20 and 0.25, while that of water taken as the standard is
unity.
105. Influence of Moisture.—The moisture of the soil
possesses great influence on the soil temperature, so much so that a
dry, light-colored soil may attain a greater degree of warmth than a
moist, dark-colored one. The action of water in reducing soil
temperature is easily explained. In our latitude, we see the water in
all its forms, solid, liquid, and gaseous, and we know that these
forms are the direct result of temperature. The changing of water
from the solid to the liquid or gaseous form is performed at the
expense of heat; the more water evaporated from the soil the more
heat must be used for the evaporation. Therefore, the more water
contained in the soil at any given time the lower must be its
temperature during subsequent exposure to sun heat because of the
greater evaporation. The experiments of Liebenberg, Pattner,
Schübler and Dickenson have practically settled all the questions of
soil temperatures. The radiation of heat from the soil, and the
consequent cooling propensity of the latter, are directly proportional
to the absorptive power of the soil. Two soils of like absorptive power
towards heat possess, as a rule, equal radiating power.
In a general way, it can be said the greater the heating capacity and
conductivity of a soil the more readily and rapidly does it give off its
heat and become cooled.
106. Absorption of Solar Heat.—The quantity of heat
absorbed from the sun by the earth is an important factor in the
growth of vegetation. As has been established in the physics of heat,
a black surface, other things being equal, will absorb a larger amount
of heat than one of any other color; so, other things being equal in
the physical and chemical composition of a soil, variations in the
amount of organic matter producing greater or less black coloration
will affect the heat absorption. Thus, black soils, in the conditions
above mentioned, will absorb more heat than lighter colored soils. As
a result, the vegetation in such soils gets an earlier start in the Spring
and matures more rapidly. As an illustration of this it may be noted
that the black prairie soils of Iowa produce uniformly crops of maize
which are matured before the early frosts, while crops grown on
lighter soils much farther South often suffer injury from that source.
 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT.

107. General Principles.—The quantity of heat stored in any

given weight of soil is capable of being measured and compared with
the quantity stored in an equal weight of water at the same
temperature. The ease, however, with which disturbing influences
operate during the determination makes the manipulation somewhat
difficult. The specific heat of the containing vessels must be carefully
determined. Fortunately this has been done for most materials and
the data thus obtained are recorded in standard works on physics.
The material operated on must be protected from thermal influences
from sources not controlled by the experiment and even the heat of
the operator’s body may often disturb the conduct of the work. The
general conditions which should control the experiment as well as
the details thereof are given in the following method which, however,
the ingenious analyst may profitably simplify.
108. Method of Pfaundler.—The process of estimating the
specific heat of soils by the method of mixture, is essentially that of
Regnault and is described as follows by Pfaundler[75].
The apparatus used is illustrated in Fig. 13.
A and A′ show the heating apparatus. It consists of a vessel of
sheet iron in which a test tube E is fixed by means of a cork. The test
tube holds the soil whose specific heat is to be determined. The
apparatus contains water, which is brought to the boiling point by
means of a lamp, and the excess of steam is conducted away, as
indicated in the figure, through one of the axes of the apparatus; the
opposite axis is, of course, closed. It requires about thirty-five
minutes boiling to bring the contents of the test tube to the
temperature of the aqueous vapor. The exact temperature at which
the water boils is determined by observing the barometer at the time
and consulting a table of the boiling temperature of water at different
barometric pressures.
The calorimeter is shown in the figures B and B′. It consists of a
wooden box closed on one side by a glass plate G and on the other to
the heighth F by a small board on which a calorimeter of ordinary
construction is placed. The cylinder of the calorimeter is seventy
millimeters high and forty-seven millimeters in diameter.
 Figure 13.

Regnault’s Apparatus for Determining the Specific Heat of Soils.

This part of the apparatus is supported by triangular pieces of

cork. A delicate thermometer is fastened to the top of the box of the
calorimeter and the value of the degrees is so arranged that about
twelve of them correspond to about one degree C. The scale of the
instrument can be arbitrarily fixed and the temperature of any part
of it determined by comparison with a delicately graduated
thermometer.
Near the thermometer in the calorimeter is a stirrer made of a very
thin copper disk with a bent rim. This stirrer is operated by means of
a silk cord moved by appropriate machinery.
The reading of the thermometer is made through a glass plate and
this should be protected from the heat of the body of the observer by
a paper screen.
The test tube E is first filled with the substance, whose specific
heat is to be determined, and weighed. It is then placed in the water
bath until constant weight is reached. After constant weight has been
obtained the apparatus is again dried and the exact weight of the
moisture lost thus determined. The test tube is then placed in the
apparatus A closed with a well-fitted cork, the top covered with
cotton and heated in the aqueous vapor for about one hour. The
heating apparatus should be far removed from the calorimeter so
that the temperature of the latter cannot be influenced thereby.
Meanwhile the calorimeter is filled with water which has stood in the
room for a long time until it has acquired, as nearly as possible, the
room temperature.
The quantity of water is such that the water value of the whole of
the calorimeter together with the immersed portions of the
thermometer and stirrer shall amount to exactly 100 grams. A few
minutes before bringing the substance into the calorimeter, the
stirring apparatus is put in motion and the temperature observations
are commenced. These should be at intervals of twenty seconds and
should be continued until ten observations have been made.
Meanwhile the height of the barometer is also read. A few seconds
before the tenth interval the apparatus A is brought quickly to the
calorimeter and its contents emptied into it at the moment of the
tenth interval. The apparatus A should be removed as quickly as
possible after its contents are emptied.
After the introduction of the substance and its thorough
incorporation with the water of the calorimeter by the stirring
apparatus, the thermometer is again read, at intervals of twenty
seconds, until its maximum has been reached and as much longer
thereafter as may be necessary to show that an appreciable fall of
temperature has taken place. The test tube, in which the substance
was heated is weighed and the exact quantity of the added substance
thus determined.
In order that the sample of soil may be easily removed from the
test tube in which it is heated, it is best to have it molded into
appropriate forms before being placed in the heating tube. This is
easily accomplished by pressing it into molds of convenient shape
and of a size so that six or eight pieces (best of cylindrical shape) will
be necessary to give the quantity sufficient for the experiment. Since
some soils will not retain their shape after molding, the molds may
be made of zinc foil whose water values in the calorimeter are
previously determined and they can be placed with their contents in
the calorimeter thus securing the total immersion of all the particles
of soil in the water. With very dusty materials, it is necessary that
these little cylinders should be closed with pieces of foil at the ends in
order to prevent the particles of dust from escaping and rising to the
surface of the water.
Another source of error consists in the solution of the soluble salts
which the soil may contain. This is avoided by the use of turpentine
instead of water. If the cylinder containing the soil be made water-
tight, this danger from the solubility of the salts in water is avoided.
Another method of correcting these errors is in making a blank
experiment in which a quantity of the earth taken is kept at the
temperature of the water in the calorimeter until both are of the
same temperature. The earth is then mixed with the water and the
change of temperature produced noted. In this way the corrections
made necessary by the solution of the salts in water and other causes
are determined.
109. Method of Calculating Results.—Let t represent the
mean temperature of the beginning period of the experiment, and v
equal the loss in heat per interval. Let t′ and v′ represent the same
values for the end period. Let θ₁, θ₂, θ₃, etc., represent the
temperature at the end of the first, second and third intervals of the
middle period and θ₀ the temperature at the beginning of the middle
period and θₙ the end temperature of of the middle period. Let τ₁, τ₂,
τ₃, ... τₙ, represent the mean temperature of the single intervals; then
τ₁ = Θ₀ +2 Θ₁; τ₂ = Θ₁ +2 Θ₂, and τₙ = Θn–12 + Θₙ. The constant C represents the
correction which must be applied in order to determine the true
increase of temperature in the calorimetric system. The expression θₙ
− θ₀ + C represents the true temperature increase of the calorimetric
system which we may represent by Δθ and θₙ + C represents the true
maximum, that is, the end temperature, which by exclusion of
external influences is reached. The correction C, as already indicated,
is to be added to θₙ − θ₀ when it is positive and is to be subtracted
therefrom when it is negative. The numerical value of C is usually
very small, and, in the experiments indicated, varied between zero
and one division of the thermometer employed, that is it seldom
exceeded one degree.
110. Illustration.—The method of determining value of specific
heat is best illustrated by an example:
In one determination the water value of the calorimetric system,
including stirrer and thermometer was 2.50 grams, the weight of
water added was 97.50 grams and the total water value of the system
100 grams. The substance was dried at 100° and weighed in five
envelopes:

Total weight 31.423 grams.

The envelopes alone weighed 10.654 „
Weight of the soil taken 20.769 „

The envelopes holding the soil were made of brass with zinc ends,
the specific heat of which is 0.0939 and the water value of the whole
of the envelopes was 1.0004 grams. Since, however, the ends were
soldered on with zinc the true water value was somewhat smaller
being equal to 0.8692 gram. The data of the observations were as
follows:

Corrected height of barometer 699.6 millimeters.

Intervals between the observations 20 seconds.
 No. of Temperature on the
Observations. arbitrary scale of the
thermometer.
{0 162°.6
First {10 162°.9 = θ₀ (Moment
Period of
immersion.)

{11 185°.0
{12 200°.0
{13 206°.1
{14 209°.5
{15 210°.7
Second {16 211°.3
Period {17 211°.5 Differences.
{18 211°.5 0
{19 211°.5 0
{20 211°.5 0
{21 211°.5 0
{22 211°.4 –0°.1
= θₙ
–0°.1
–0°.1
{23 211°.3
{24 211°.2 –0°.1
{25 211°.1 –0°.1
Third {26 211°.0 –0°.1
Period {27 210°.9 –0°.1
{28 210°.8 –0°.1
{29 210°.6 –0°.2
{30 210°.5 –0°.1

From the twenty-second interval, the regular fall of temperature

begins and 211°.4 is therefore taken as θₙ. The mean temperature of
the beginning period is therefore 162°.6 +2 162°.9 = 162°.75 = t. The value
of v is 162°.610
− 162°.9
= –0°.03. For the end period the value of t′ is
211°.4 + 210°.5
2 = 210°.95 and the value of v′ is 211.4 −8 210.5 = + 0.11. Then the
sum of the observations from eleven to twenty-one inclusive = Σ′n–1θ
= 2280.1

θ₀ + θₙ 187.15
2
=
The sum = 2467.25
nt = 1953.00
Difference 514.25
This difference multiplied by v − v′ = 0.14
gives a product equal to 71.995
This product divided by t′ − t = 48.20
gives a quotient equal to 1.49
nv = –0.36
The sum = 1.13 =C

Then Δθ = θₙ − θ₀ + C = 211°.4 − 162°.9 + 1°.13 = 49°.63. The true

end temperature = θₙ + C = 212°.53. The zero point of the
thermometer = 24°.70, and the actual rise of temperature = 187°.83.
The rise of temperature due to the proximity of the warming
apparatus at the beginning was found by experiment to be equal to
0°.1 of the division of the scale. On comparing the thermometer used
with a standard centigrade scale it was found that one division of the
calorimetric thermometer was equal to 0°.0858. Converting these
numbers into expressions of the centigrade scale we have the
following summary:

The true rise of temperature, Δθ = 4°.25

The true end temperature, θₙ + C = 16°.10
The temperature of the steam, as determined by the height of the
barometer, was equal to 97°.70

From these data the specific heat is calculated according to the

following formula:
1 100 × 4.25
Σ = 20.769 × (97.70 − 16.10 − 0.8692) = 0.2089.

From this formula the following rule for calculating specific heat is
deduced:
 Multiply the water value of the calorimetric system by the true rise
in temperature in degrees Celsius and divide the product by the
difference between the temperature of boiling water under the
conditions of the experiment and the true end temperature. From the
quotient subtract the water value of the envelopes holding the soil
sample. Divide the remainder by the weight of soil taken.
111. Variations in Specific Heat.—Different soils deport
themselves very differently in respect of specific heat. In a large
number of soils examined by Pfaundler, the specific heats were found
to vary from 0.19 to 0.51. The highest specific heat was observed in
the case of a peaty soil. Next to peaty soils came those soils which
were highest in humus, and in general it was found that the specific
heat varied directly with the humus content.
 SOIL THERMOMETRY.

112. General Principles.—The measurement of the temperature

of the soil at stated depths is often of use in analytical processes
connected with agricultural chemistry and physics. The general
principles on which the process rests, depend on bringing the bulb of
the thermometer into as intimate contact as possible with the
particles of soil at the depth required, disturbing as little as possible
the normal state of the soil particles.
In the thermometer chiefly used for this purpose in this country,
the stem is strong and carries the degrees figured on the glass. The
whole is inclosed in a wooden case which is cut away to expose the
face of the scale. The scale is about eleven inches long. The part
which enters the soil is of varying lengths, according to the depth at
which the temperature is desired.
113. Method of Procedure.—An excellent method of
determining soil temperatures and of recording results is well
illustrated by Frear.[76]
The thermometers are set in niches cut in a trench, the earth being
afterwards carefully tamped about the bulbs to secure a good
contact, the trench being filled at the same time. The surface of the
soil is freed from vegetation and kept in good tilth.
The depths at which observations are made are at the surface and
one, three, six, twelve, and twenty-four inches. The soil tested was
moderately dark and loamy to a depth of seven inches and below that
a stiff clay. Solid rock existed at from five to seven feet below the
surface. Readings were made three times a day.
114. Method of Stating Results.—The individual readings of
the thermometers should be entered at the time they are made. At
the end of each month the mean of the readings should be
determined, together with the maxima and minima, and a
comparison made between the mean readings of the temperature of
the air and maxima and minima. As a sample of the method of
stating these mean results the data are given for the month of May,
1891, for the atmosphere, surface, and for the depths mentioned
above:
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