water

Review
Caral, South America’s Oldest City (2600–1600 BC): ENSO
Environmental Changes Influencing the Late Archaic Period
Site on the North Central Coast of Peru
Charles R. Ortloff 1,2

1 CFD Consultants International, Ltd., 18310 Southview Avenue, Los Gatos, CA 95033, USA; [email protected]
2 Research Associate in Anthropology, Anthropology Department, University of Chicago, 5801 Ellis Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60637, USA

Abstract: The Late Archaic Period (2600–1600 BC) site of Caral, located ~20 km inland from the
Pacific Ocean coastline in the Supe Valley of the north central coast of Peru, is subject to CFD analysis
to determine the effects of ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) events (mainly, El Niño flooding and
drought events) on its agricultural and marine resource base that threatened societal continuity. The
first step is to examine relics of major flood events that produced coastal beach ridges composed of
deposited flood slurries—the C14 dating of material within beach ridges determines the approximate
dates of major flood events. Of interest is the interaction of flood slurry with oceanic currents that
produce a linear beach ridge as these events are controlled by fluid mechanics principles. CFD
analysis provides the basis for beach ridge geometric linear shape. Concurrent with beach ridge
formation from major flood events are landscape changes that affect the agricultural field system
and marine resource food supply base of Caral and its satellite sites- here a large beach ridge can
block river drainage, raise the groundwater level and, together with aeolian sand transfer from
exposed beach flats, convert previously productive agricultural lands into swamps and marshes.
One major flood event in ~1600 BC rendered coastal agricultural zones ineffective due to landscape
Citation: Ortloff, C.R. Caral, South erosion/deposition events together with altering the marine resource base from flood deposition over
America’s Oldest City (2600–1600 shellfish gathering and sardine and anchovy netting areas, the net result being that prior agricultural
BC): ENSO Environmental Changes areas shifted to limited-size, inner valley bottomland areas. Agriculture, then supplied by highland
Influencing the Late Archaic Period sierra amuna reservoir water, led to a high water table supplemented by Supe River water to support
Site on the North Central Coast of agriculture. Later ENSO floods conveyed thin saturated bottomland soils and slurries to coastal
Peru. Water 2022, 14, 1403. https://
areas to further reduce the agricultural base of Supe Valley sites. With the reduction in the inner
doi.org/10.3390/w14091403
valley agricultural area from continued flood events, agriculture, on a limited basis, shifted to the
Academic Editor: Helena M. Ramos plateau area upon which urban Caral and the satellite sites were located. The narrative that follows
then provides the basis for the abandonment of Caral and its satellite Supe Valley sites due to the
Received: 3 March 2022
vulnerability of the limited food-supply base subject to major ENSO events.
Accepted: 22 April 2022
Published: 27 April 2022
Keywords: Peru; Archaic period; Caral; CFD models; beach ridges; ENSO events; landscape change;
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral site termination
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.

1. Introduction
The presence of ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) climate variations in the form
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
of long-term drought, flooding, aeolian sand transfer, and sediment deposition/erosion
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. transfer events, and their effect upon the agricultural and marine resource-base sustain-
This article is an open access article ability of Peruvian coastal societies, is of importance to understand the influences that
distributed under the terms and affected Andean historical development. While the timing and intensity of El Niño flood
conditions of the Creative Commons landscape deposition and erosion events is manifest from the geophysical analysis of the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// observed deposition sand and flood slurry layers and erosion/deposition profiles, the soil
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ transfer and deposition geophysics causing landscape changes affecting the agricultural
4.0/). and marine resource zones as a result of such events remain elusive. To understand the

Water 2022, 14, 1403. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091403 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2022, 14, 1403 2 of 38

geophysics underlying such events, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis is of use
using a landscape model of a portion of the Peruvian coastline subject to an El Niño flood.
This event produces runoff consisting of a highly viscous slurry mixture containing silt,
gravel, rocks and soil particles that proceeds to further erode the rain-saturated landscape
to settle and deposit slurry mixed with the captured landscape soil sediments to form
a deposition layer on the pre-existing landscape. In the present study, CFD analysis is
performed on a model of the Santa-Viru Peruvian north central coastline; the fluid mechan-
ics CFD analysis then duplicates the acts performed by nature to alter the landscape by
erosion and deposition flood events. The CFD investigation results substantiate that slurry
deposition deposits create coastal linear beach ridges as a result of the flood transported
slurry interaction with ocean currents. While linear beach ridge structures are noted in the
literature [1–7], the underlying geophysics of their linear structural formation is a problem
in fluid dynamics amenable to solution by use of the CFD methodology- this methodology
is used in the subsequent sections to present the evolution of coastal and interior valley
landscape changes resulting from the ENSO events. Once the fluid dynamics connection
between the El Niño flood events and beach ridge formation is established by CFD analysis,
then, together with the fluid mechanics origin and dating of major beach ridge formations
on the Peruvian coastline, their effects on the agricultural landscape and marine resource
base provides information on the sustainability and continuity of the food-supply base of a
society as related to the ENSO flood events. As the change in the landscape brought about
by the ENSO flood events alters the agricultural field system base of a society, as well as
causing damage to the marine resource base through the disturbance of offshore fisheries
and shellfish gathering beds, societal continuity and sustainability can be adversely affected.
Such ENSO events are subsequently shown to influence and affect the sustainability of
Peruvian north central coast (Norte Chico) societies in the Preceramic, Late Archaic Period
(2600–1800 BC) as further analysis reveals. Again, the main purpose of the CFD analysis is
to show the fluid mechanics physics behind the landscape alteration that caused ancient
coastal societies to ultimately collapse as their agricultural lands and food resource base
were compromised by climate-related events.
While field system modifications and defensive technologies against flood events
play a vital role in societal sustainability, in a worst case condition, flood damage can
be irreversible, and the abandonment of pre-existing agricultural field systems occurs,
leading to societal dispersal and termination. Changes derived from the ENSO flood and
drought events affecting both the agricultural landscape and the ocean littoral affecting
the marine resource base of a society are then key elements to understand and interpret
societal structural change events. The chapters that follow provide examples of the use
of the CFD methods to provide information as to the modification of the agricultural and
marine resource base of the Late Archaic society based at Caral, centered in the Supe Valley
of Peru, due to multiple major ENSO events—such events present a case for the ultimate
collapse and abandonment of Supe Valley and other Norte Chico sites in the ~1800 BC
time frame.

2. Evolution of Late Archaic Sites in the Peruvian Supe Valley

The Late Archaic Period north central coast sites in Peru witnessed increased El Niño
ENSO flood events that transferred flood sediments from coastal valleys into ocean currents
forming a series of extensive beach ridges. The coastal beach ridges containing C14 datable
material are therefore key to date major flood events. Typical interior valley landscape
sediment layers and beach ridges resulting from datable multiple deposition/erosion events
confirm the timing of major ENSO events, as well as intermediate stable climate periods
that permit societal continuity and development between destructive ENSO events. As a
result of the formation of multiple barrier beach ridges formed from a sequence of the ENSO
flood events, the geophysical history of coastal littoral zones reveals that the river drainage
to ocean currents was impeded, resulting in bay infilling and the development of coastal
marshes behind the beach ridges. This, together with aeolian sand deposits that infilled
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 40

Water 2022, 14, 1403

that the river drainage to ocean currents was impeded, resulting in bay infilling and the
3 of 38
development of coastal marshes behind the beach ridges. This, together with aeolian sand
deposits that infilled agricultural land behind and in front of the beach ridges, compro-
mised the productivity of food supply from agricultural lands. In ancient times (and con-
agricultural land behind and in front of the beach ridges, compromised the productivity of
tinuing to present times), aeolian sand-dune incursion into the Supe Valley from constant
food supply from agricultural lands. In ancient times (and continuing to present times),
northwesterly
aeolian sand-dune winds from exposed
incursion beachValley
into the Supe flats infrom
valleys southnorthwesterly
constant of the Supe Valley
winds com-
promised Supe Valley agricultural lands. Evidence of this transfer
from exposed beach flats in valleys south of the Supe Valley compromised Supe Valley process in Late Archaic
times is evident
agricultural lands.from datable
Evidence sand
of this layersprocess
transfer containing organic
in Late Archaicmaterial
times isnoted in excavation
evident from
test pits.
datable sandThus, beach
layers ridge formations
containing organic materialand noted
interior in valley sandtest
excavation and flood
pits. Thus,slurry
beachdebris
deposition
ridge formationslayersand from a series
interior of sand
valley the ENSO events
and flood datable
slurry debristodeposition
the end oflayers
the Late
fromArchaic
a
Period
series in the
of the ENSO Supe Valley
events provide
datable the of
to the end basis for agricultural
the Late Archaic Period land shrinkage
in the Supe Valley and the
provide
changesthe inbasis for agricultural
the marine resource land
base shrinkage
that played and the changes
a major role ininthethecollapse
marine ofresource
coastal and
base
valleythat played in
societies a major
the LateroleArchaic
in the collapse
Period, asof revealed
coastal and valley
in the societies chapters.
subsequent in the Late
Archaic Period,
Many as within
sites revealedthein the
Supesubsequent
Valley, withchapters.
its ceremonial center at Caral, were based
Many sites within the Supe Valley,
upon the trade of marine resources from coastal with its ceremonial center at with
sites exchanged Caral, were basedprod-
agricultural
upon the trade of marine resources from coastal sites exchanged
ucts from valley interior sites [8–16]. Figure 1 details the location of the major with agricultural productsArchaic
from valley interior sites [8–16]. Figure 1 details the location of the major Archaic Period
Period sites; Figure 2 details the existence time of major Supe Valley sites while Figure 3
sites; Figure 2 details the existence time of major Supe Valley sites while Figure 3 provides
provides the architectural details the Caral site. A probable, but no longer existing, inner
the architectural details the Caral site. A probable, but no longer existing, inner city canal
city canal is implied from an excavated canal cross-section profile the existence of this
is implied from an excavated canal cross-section profile the existence of this early canal is
early canal
subject is subject
of further researchof further
as Caralresearch as Caral
excavations excavations
proceed. proceed.disturbances
ENSO landscape ENSO landscape
disturbances with no possibility of return to previous norms for
with no possibility of return to previous norms for the agricultural and marine resource the agricultural and ma-
ofrine
the resource
Supe Valley of the Supe
society of Valley
18 sites society
(Figure of 18 sites
4) pose (Figure reason
a probable 4) posefora the
probable
valley reason
site’s for
the valley site’s
abandonment afterabandonment after ~1600
~1600 BC and indicate that BC
the and
dynamicindicate that the
landscape dynamic
change, landscape
as a result
change, as a result of the ENSO events, played a role in the collapse
of the ENSO events, played a role in the collapse of Late Archaic Period sites in the Norte of Late Archaic Period
sites in
Chico the Norte
region of Peru.Chico region of Peru.

Figure 1. Site map of the coastal Norte Chico river valleys of Peru; the numbers represent major
Figure 1. Site map of the coastal Norte Chico river valleys of Peru; the numbers represent major
Archaic Period sites. Site 4 is Caral within the Supe Valley. Site 3 is Áspero. The North direction is
Archaic Period sites. Site 4 is Caral within the Supe Valley. Site 3 is Áspero. The North direction is in
in the vertical direction. The Chancay to Santa Valley distance is ~400 km.
the vertical direction. The Chancay to Santa Valley distance is ~400 km.

The Norte Chico region of Peru is characterized by many Preceramic sites (Figure 1)
with different existence dates (Figure 2). Within the Supe Valley are many neighboring
individual sites to central Caral (Figures 3 and 4), characterized by complex social organiza-
tion and urban centers with monumental architecture dominated by truncated, stone-faced
pyramid structures of which Huaca Major is typical (Figure 5). The T–T and W–W date
band notations (Figure 2) refer to a climate anomaly period [17] influencing worldwide
oceanic current shifts with probable influence on the frequency and intensity of El Niño
 Water 2022, 14, 1403 4 of 38

events. As these changes occurred towards the end of the Late Archaic Period, some effect
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 4
on the study areas may be inferred, but further research is needed to track their specificity
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW to Pacific coastal areas. 4 of 40

Figure2. 2.Time
Time duration
duration of the
of the
the major
major preceramic insites
preceramic in theValley
Supe shown
Valleyinshown in Figure 4 an
Figure
Figure 2. Time duration of major preceramic sites
sites inthe
theSupe
Supe Valley shown inFigure 4 and
Figure 4 and
Appendix
AppendixA. A. A.
Appendix

(A)
(A)
Figure 3. Cont.
 Water
Water 14,14,
2022,
2022, 1403PEER REVIEW
x FOR 5 of
5 38
of 40
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 39

(B)
(B)
Figure
Figure3. (A)
(A)Caral
Caralsite
sitemap.
map. Note
Note the
the proposedinternal
internal sitecanal
canal (redline)
line)
ininthethe region between
Figure 3.3.(A) Caral site map. Note the proposed
proposed internalsite
site canal(red
(red line) in region
the between
region between
the upper
theupper north
uppernorth and
northand lower
and lower south
lower south areas
south areas based upon the canal profile data taken next to the Caral
the areas based
based upon
uponthethecanal
canalprofile
profiledata
datataken
taken next to to
next thethe
Caral
Caral
excavation house
excavationhouse in
housein the
in the Residential Area.
the Residential Area. (B) Continuation Excavated canal cross-section profiles
excavation Area. (B)
(B)Continuation
ContinuationExcavated
Excavatedcanal
canalcross-section profiles
cross-section profiles
taken at the leftmost red-line canal extension Residential Area shown in Figure 3A thought to exist
takenatatthe
taken theleftmost
leftmostred-line
red-line canal extension
extensionResidential
ResidentialArea
Areashown
shownininFigure
Figure 3A3Athought
thoughtto exist
to exist
between the upper and lower regions of Caral.
between
betweenthe theupper
upperand
and lower
lower regions ofCaral.
regions of Caral.

Figure
Figure 4.4. Site
Site locations
locations in
in the
the Supe
Supe Valley
Valley along
along the
the Rio
Rio Supe
Supe (site
(site names
names given
given inin Appendix
Appendix A). A). The
The
4. Site is
locations
Figure
site
site of
of Áspero
Áspero is locatedin
located onthe
on Supe Valley
aa coastal
coastal along thewest
prominence
prominence Rio Supe
west of (site
of Site
Site 1. names given
1. Length
Length scale in
scale Appendix
from
from Site A).
Site 11 to
to The
site
site 18
18 is
is
~80
~80 of Áspero is located on a coastal prominence west of Site 1. Length scale from Site 1 to site 18 is
sitekm.
km.
~80 km.
The
The Norte
Norte Chico
Chico region
region of
of Peru
Peru is
is characterized
characterized by
by many
many Preceramic
Preceramic sites
sites (Figure
(Figure 1)
1)
with
with different
different existence
existence dates
dates (Figure
(Figure 2).
2). Within
Within the
the Supe
Supe Valley
Valley are
are many
many neighboring
neighboring
individual
individual sites
sites to
to central
central Caral
Caral (Figure
(Figure 33 and
and Figure
Figure 4),
4), characterized
characterized by
by complex
complex social
social
organization
organization and urban centers with monumental architecture dominated by
and urban centers with monumental architecture dominated by truncated,
truncated,
stone-faced
stone-faced pyramid
pyramid structures
structures of
of which
which Huaca
Huaca Major
Major is
is typical
typical (Figure
(Figure 5).
5). The
The T–T
T–T and
and
 W–W date band notations (Figure 2) refer to a climate anomaly period [17] influencing
worldwide oceanic current shifts with probable influence on the frequency and intensity
Water 2022, 14, 1403 of El Niño events. As these changes occurred towards the end of the Late Archaic Period, 6 of 38
some effect on the study areas may be inferred, but further research is needed to track
their specificity to Pacific coastal areas.

Figure 5. Caral Major Pyramid (Huaca Mejor)—location presented in Figure 3.

Figure 5. Caral Major Pyramid (Huaca Mejor)—location presented in Figure 3.
The earliest Preceramic societies from the northcentral coast of Peru developed a co-
The earliest Preceramic societies from the northcentral coast of Peru developed a
operative economic model based on agricultural trade, irrigation agriculture, and the ex-
cooperative economic model based on agricultural trade, irrigation agriculture, and the
ploitation of marine resources to sustain large populations in the Late Archaic Period [8].
exploitation
The nearby sitesmarine
of associatedresources to sustain
with Caral largeValley
in the Supe populations
formed in the Late Archaic
a collective integrated Period [8].
The nearby sites associated with Caral in the Supe Valley formed
societal complex (Figure 4) participating in this exchange network. Coastal sites exploiting a collective integrated
societal complex (fish,
marine resources (Figure 4) participating
shellfish and edible in this exchange
seaweed network.
types) traded with Coastal
inland sites sitesfor
exploiting
marine
agriculturalresources (fish, shellfish
and industrial and edible
crops, particularly seaweed
cotton types)
for fishing netstraded with
and lines, as inland
well as sites for
agricultural
gourds for netand industrial
floats. In the Supecrops, particularly
Valley alone, 18 sitescotton for4)
(Figure fishing
evidencednetstheand lines,ofas well as
success
this economic
gourds for netexchange
floats. Insystem
the Supe[8–16] over alone,
Valley long time periods
18 sites (Figure
(Figure 2), which experi-
4) evidenced the success of
enced,
this and successfully
economic exchange survived,
system changes
[8–16] overin environmental
long time periods conditions
(Figurebrought aboutexperienced,
2), which by
Holocene sea level stabilization, Peru Current establishment and
and successfully survived, changes in environmental conditions brought about by Holocenethe increased frequency
of Ellevel
sea Niñostabilization,
flood events [17–19]. Again, major
Peru Current flood events
establishment andwere
thethe basis forfrequency
increased sedimentary of El Niño
beach ridge deposits inducing river drainage blockage, the creation of coastal marshlands
flood events [17–19]. Again, major flood events were the basis for sedimentary beach
behind drainage barriers, valley water-table height elevation and changes and aggraded
ridge deposits inducing river drainage blockage, the creation of coastal marshlands behind
sand sea formation behind and in front of beach ridges subject to aeolian sand transport
drainage
and deposition,barriers,
all ofvalley water-table
which influenced theheight elevation
agricultural and changes
and marine resource baseandofaggraded
valley sand
sea formation behind and in front of beach ridges subject to
and coastal sites. Despite these challenges to the food resource base, societal continuity aeolian sand transport and
deposition,
prevailed through all of relocations
which influenced the agricultural
of agricultural field systemsand from marine
coastalresource base of valley
to inner valley
and
areascoastal
over long sites.
timeDespite
periods; these challenges
only when to thereached
ENSO events food resource
a level ofbase,
severitysocietal
without continuity
prevailed
options to through
continue relocations
the food supplyof agricultural
base that was field systems
sufficient from coastal
to supply to innerpop-
an increasing valley areas
ulation
over longdidtime
the coastal
periods; societies experience
only when ENSO a challenge
events reachedto theiracontinuance.
level of severity without options
to continue the food supply base that was sufficient to supplytheir
The beach ridge dates on the north central Peruvian coast and locations are
an increasing pre-
population did
sented in Figure 6. Note that most of the earliest
the coastal societies experience a challenge to their continuance.north central coast beach ridges appear
in theThe~2000–1600
beach ridge BC date range,
dates onan theimportant period Peruvian
north central for major sitecoastlandscape
and their changes,
locations are
as discussed in the following sections.
presented in Figure 6. Note that most of the earliest north central coast beach ridges appear
in the ~2000–1600 BC date range, an important period for major site landscape changes, as
discussed in the following sections.
Strong coastal winds were the source of aeolian sand dune transfer to interior Supe
Valley farming areas from the exposed beach flat areas, as noted by datable sand layers from
the excavation pits. The aeolian sand transfer to interior Supe Valley areas originated from
the vast sand seas in the Huara Valley south of the Supe Valley. Here, strong northwesterly
winds carried sand across the low mountains separating the two valleys, to be deposited
on the southern slopes and interior valley margins of the Supe Valley (Figure 7); this effect
continues to the present day. As the formation of a major beach ridge from a major ENSO
event is noted in the Late Archaic Period record, this initiates a chain of events that threaten
both the agricultural and marine resource bases of both coastal and interior valley sites.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 38 7 of 40

Figure 6. Beach ridge date ranges and locations along the coast of Peru. Band height ranges repre-
sent date ±1σ values from the mean value; descending (blue) lines indicate beach ridges in a specific
area and their dates. Color bands reflect different information sources.

Strong coastal winds were the source of aeolian sand dune transfer to interior Supe
Valley farming areas from the exposed beach flat areas, as noted by datable sand layers
from the excavation pits. The aeolian sand transfer to interior Supe Valley areas originated
from the vast sand seas in the Huara Valley south of the Supe Valley. Here, strong north-
westerly winds carried sand across the low mountains separating the two valleys, to be
deposited on the southern slopes and interior valley margins of the Supe Valley (Figure
7); this effect continues to the present day. As the formation of a major beach ridge from
a major
Figure ENSO
6. Beach event
ridge dateisranges
notedandin locations
the Latealong
Archaic Period
the coast record,
of Peru. Bandthis initiates
height rangesarepresent
chain of
events
date ±1σthat threaten
values from theboth
meanthe agricultural
value; descendingand marine
(blue) resource
lines indicate bases
beach of
ridgesboth coastal
in a specific and
area
Figure 6. Beach ridge date ranges and locations along the coast of Peru. Band height ranges repre-
interior
and valleyColor
their dates. sites.bands reflect different information sources.
sent date ±1σ values from the mean value; descending (blue) lines indicate beach ridges in a specific
area and their dates. Color bands reflect different information sources.

Strong coastal winds were the source of aeolian sand dune transfer to interior Supe
Valley farming areas from the exposed beach flat areas, as noted by datable sand layers
from the excavation pits. The aeolian sand transfer to interior Supe Valley areas originated
from the vast sand seas in the Huara Valley south of the Supe Valley. Here, strong north-
westerly winds carried sand across the low mountains separating the two valleys, to be
deposited on the southern slopes and interior valley margins of the Supe Valley (Figure
7); this effect continues to the present day. As the formation of a major beach ridge from
a major ENSO event is noted in the Late Archaic Period record, this initiates a chain of
events that threaten both the agricultural and marine resource bases of both coastal and
interior valley sites.

Figure 7. Aeolian sand deposits on the southern side of the Supe Valley produced from aeolian
Figure 7. Aeolian sand deposits on the southern side of the Supe Valley produced from aeolian winds
winds from the southern Huara Valley.
from the southern Huara Valley.

As flood-induced sediment transfer into ocean currents and the formation of beach
ridge deposits are fluid mechanics phenomena, recourse to CFD FLOW-3D techniques [20]
provide an insight into the sediment formation and deposition processes involved during
major ENSO flood events.
To substantiate the CFD details of linear beach ridge formation, recourse to Google
Earth satellite photographs of an actual linear beach ridge formation created after a recent
Figure event
major El Niño flood 7. Aeolian
in sand deposits
the Supe on theand
Valley southern side ofvalley
adjacent the Supe Valley
areas produced
was from aeolian
apparent.
winds from the southern Huara Valley.
The source of this new linear beach ridge on the north Peruvian coast within years after
the large 1982 El Niño flood event then verifies that El Niño floods were the origin of a
linear beach ridge formation over a relatively short time period. As beach ridge formation
dates (Figure 6) are contemporary with large flood sequences occurring in the Late Archaic
Period, the CFD analysis provides the rationale that fluid dynamics govern their formation
and the geometry behind their linear shape. The fact that later multiple ENSO events
occurring after an original beach ridge deposition event may influence dating results
 major El Niño flood event in the Supe Valley and adjacent valley areas was apparent . The
source of this new linear beach ridge on the north Peruvian coast within years after the
large 1982 El Niño flood event then verifies that El Niño floods were the origin of a linear
beach ridge formation over a relatively short time period. As beach ridge formation dates
(Figure 6) are contemporary with large flood sequences occurring in the Late Archaic Pe-
Water 2022, 14, 1403 riod, the CFD analysis provides the rationale that fluid dynamics govern their formation8 of 38
and the geometry behind their linear shape. The fact that later multiple ENSO events oc-
curring after an original beach ridge deposition event may influence dating results
through deposition/removal of datable organic material is considered in Figure 6 to pro-
through deposition/removal of datable organic material is considered in Figure 6 to provide
vide the mean and one sigma deviation band for an original deposition event. As a major
the mean and one sigma deviation band for an original deposition event. As a major El
El Niño event leads to a singular deposition ridge, the time sequence of sequential depo-
Niño event
sition leads
events andtothe
a singular deposition
El Niño flood ridge,
event that the time
caused themsequence of determined.
can then be sequential deposition
events Coastal
and the progradation
El Niño floodstemming
event thatfrom
caused them can then be determined.
sediment accumulation behind the barrier
Coastal
beach ridgesprogradation stemming
is demonstrated by thefrom sediment
C14 dating accumulation
of different behind
mollusk theknown
species barriertobeach
ridges is demonstrated by the C14 dating of different mollusk species
occupy different shallow-water depths; when different mollusk species are found farknown to in-
occupy
different shallow-water
land, this depths; existing
indicates the coastline when different mollusk
at that datable species
time (Danielare found farpersonal
Sandweiss, inland, this
indicates the coastline
communication). existing
Figure at that
8 provides andatable
exampletime (Daniel littoral
of shoreline Sandweiss,
changepersonal communi-
over time re-
cation).
lated toFigure 8 provides an
the ENSO-induced example
events, of shoreline
as indicated by thelittoral change over
dates associated withtime related
waypoint testto the
pits.
ENSO-induced events, as indicated by the dates associated with waypoint test pits.

Figure 8. Shoreline changes over time in the area south of the Supe Valley. The dates measured from
Figure
marine8. Shoreline changes
mollusk analysis over time
indicate in the area
the variability ofsouth of the Supe
the shoreline shapeValley.
due to The
ENSOdates measured
sediment dep- from
marine mollusk analysis
osition/scouring events indicate
over time.the variability
(Figure of the
courtesy shoreline
of Daniel shape due
Sandweiss, to ENSO
personal sediment deposi-
communication).
tion/scouring events over time. (Figure courtesy of Daniel Sandweiss, personal communication).
The geophysical landscape changes affecting the agricultural and marine resource
The
base of geophysical landscape
Late Archaic societies changes
played affecting
a catalytic the
role in theagricultural
fate of manyandLatemarine
Archaicresource
Pe-
base of sites.
riod Late Archaic societies
While research played ainto
continues catalytic role in
the social, the fateand
political of many
economicLatestructure
Archaic of Period
sites.
LateWhile
Archaicresearch continues
Period sites intoresponse
and their the social, political
to climate and economic
change structure
environmental stress of
to Late
Archaic Period sites and their response to climate change environmental stress to determine
the details of societal structure modification [21–28], the present discussion focuses on
the underlying fluid dynamics of beach ridge formation and the consequences of induced
geophysical changes by flood and aeolian sand transfer events that affected the agricultural
and marine resource base of Late Archaic Period sites.

3. The Supe Valley Caral Site

From previous research studies [29–36], it was recognized that complex societies based
on irrigation agriculture and marine resource collection arose during the Late Archaic
Period on the desert coast of north central Peru (Figures 1 and 4). Labor groups built monu-
mental structures of increasing size and complexity indicating the development of societal
structural change with the evolution of a governing managerial class to direct construction
projects involving consensual communal labor participation and organization. The earliest
Norte Chico region platform constructions contained restricted access rooms [32], indicating
some degree of social differentiation [21]. Recent research by Shady and associates [8–15] in
the Supe Valley [30–33] demonstrated that this early cultural florescence took place in other
north central coast valleys and grew to a size and complexity not previously recognized
by earlier researchers. Recent research indicates that Late Archaic Period temples of the
Water 2022, 14, 1403 9 of 38

north central coast were abandoned by ~1800 cal BC [9,13–15,32–34,36,37], as indicated in

Figure 2. Past this period, the Norte Chico region was never again a center for cultural
florescence, although a small number of Formative and Initial Period agricultural sites in
mid-Peruvian valleys temporarily reoccupied a few of the previously abandoned sites [36].
Several sites at the margins of the northcentral coast originated towards the end of the Late
Archaic Period, with sites at El Paraíso in the Chillón Valley to the south and Las Salinas de
Chao to the north, and survived hundreds of years well into the Formative/Initial Period
as preceramic sites.
For the present analysis, the discussion is focused on Caral in the Supe Valley. The
site is located 182 km north of Lima and 24 km inland from the city of Haucho on the
central Peruvian coast (Figure 1). Figure 3 indicates major building complexes at Caral.
A foundation element for the concentration of Supe Valley sites was an abundance of
water for agriculture to support the valley population. Since coastal rainfall is limited
to a few centimeters per year, Supe Valley water for agriculture was mainly supplied by
springs originating from valley bottomland areas sourced by seepage water transferred
from Sierra lakes and man-made reservoirs through valley geologic faults augmented by
aquifer seepage from the Supe River; such systems are designated amunas (sierra runoff
capture-pits and reservoirs to augment the valley groundwater supply). An additional
water source amplification of the valley groundwater level originated from canalized
lagoons and water reservoirs that formed in low-valley bottomland areas that penetrated
the groundwater level (Figures 9–11). These reservoirs, created from penetration of valley
depression areas, had irrigation canals to lower valley areas to permit multiple-cropping to
sustain valley population increases. As the near-surface water-table surface varies about
one meter from the wet to dry seasons, many springs were canalized to irrigate specific
bottomland agricultural areas devoted to specialty crops, including varieties of beans,
squash and maize types, as well as many fruit varieties and industrial crops, such
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 ofas
40 cotton
and gourds.

Figure 9. Typical interior Supe Valley pool derived from low-valley areas intersecting the high water
Figure 9. Typical interior Supe Valley pool derived from low-valley areas intersecting the high water table.
table.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 10 of 38
Figure 9. Typical interior Supe Valley pool derived from low-valley areas intersecting the high water
table.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 40

Figure10.10.
Figure Typical
Typical interior
interior Supe pool
Supe Valley Valley poolfrom
derived derived fromareas
low-valley low-valley areas
intersecting theintersecting the high
high water table.
water table.

Figure11.11.Major
Figure Major reservoir
reservoir interior
interior to the
to the Supe
Supe Valley
Valley derived
derived fromfrom groundwater
groundwater penetration
penetration into a into a
low-lying area.
low-lying area.

Asthethe
As water-table
water-table height
height was sustained
was sustained close
close to to a permanent
a permanent level, valley-bottom
level, valley-bottom field
field systems
systems (Figure (Figure 12) permitted
12) permitted multi-cropping
multi-cropping to occur throughout
to occur throughout the year. Otherthe archaic
year. Other
Norte Chico
archaic valley
Norte Chicositesvalley
(in thesites
Nepeña Valley
(in the in particular)
Nepeña Valley inwere likewisewere
particular) associated with
likewise associ-
functional
ated withsprings and springs
functional large damsandtraversing
large dams upland valleyupland
traversing gullies valley
to trap gullies
rainfallto
runoff
trap rain-
water to provide
fall runoff wateroff-season
to provide irrigation water
off-season for cropswater
irrigation supplied only by
for crops canals emanating
supplied only by canals
from intermittent river water sources. The typical reservoirs shown
emanating from intermittent river water sources. The typical reservoirs shown in Figures 9–11 are of
in Figures
ancient origin and are still in use today to support extensive valley agriculture.
9–11 are of ancient origin and are still in use today to support extensive valley agriculture.
 As the water-table height was sustained close to a permanent level, valley-bottom
field systems (Figure 12) permitted multi-cropping to occur throughout the year. Other
archaic Norte Chico valley sites (in the Nepeña Valley in particular) were likewise associ-
ated with functional springs and large dams traversing upland valley gullies to trap rain-
Water 2022, 14, 1403 fall runoff water to provide off-season irrigation water for crops supplied only by canals11 of 38
emanating from intermittent river water sources. The typical reservoirs shown in Figures
9–11 are of ancient origin and are still in use today to support extensive valley agriculture.

Figure 12. Supe Valley bottomlands below the southern elevated plateau that situates Caral and
Figure 12. Supe Valley bottomlands below the southern elevated plateau that situates Caral and other
other sites shown in Figure 3. The Supe River separates current northern and southern agricultural
sites shown in Figure 3. The Supe River separates current northern and southern agricultural fields.
fields.

4. Early Canal Development in the Supe Valley

Figure 12 indicates the current Supe Valley bottomlands and irrigated areas served by
high water-table agriculture and canals originating from springs and reservoirs located on
valley bottomlands. The Ramped Canal of the Late Archaic Period age was constructed
on the upper plateau sidewall (Figures 3, 12 and 13) that transported water from a Supe
River inlet (Figure 14) to the western part of Caral and further on to the inland site of
Chupacigarro on a channel built on top of a ramped mounded aqueduct structure. The
careful surveying associated with the ramped portion of the canal and its continuance over
many kilometers to the Chupacigarro site is notable, given its estimated early provenience
at ~2500 BC. This canal system is one of the oldest aqueduct canals yet discovered in Peru
and is notable for its length and low channel declination angle. Figure 15 indicates the
totality of canal systems in the Caral plateau area.
Figure 15 indicates that the Ramped Canal extension was the water source for the
canals on the Caral plateau as well as the water source for the older Chupacigarro site
(Figure 4). Figure 16 shows the Ramped Canal path leading to the inland Chupacigarro
site now largely buried by drifting sand. The Figure 3 Continuation shows the canal
cross-section profiles located near the Supe Valley project excavation house Residential
Area; although the source of water for the different canal cross sections remains to be
determined by further excavation, it is likely that the water source is from a branch canal
from a Ramped Canal extension that supplied an early transverse ‘red line’ canal running
laterally across Caral as indicated in Figure 3. Presently, a large erosion gully divides the
north upper and south lower areas of Caral so traces of an earlier transverse canal segment
are no longer present to extend the data obtained from the cross-sectional profiles shown
in Figure 3 Continuation. Figure 16 shows the remains of the Ramped Canal extension
to the Chupacigarro site now buried in sand; traces of its path are evident from a filled
earth upstream aqueduct supporting the canal that have been recently excavated. The Supe
Valley had (and still has) the advantage of a continuous water supply to source agriculture
throughout the year, while adjacent Late Archaic Forteleza, Pativilca and Huara Valley sites
only had access to intermittent rainy season runoff for canal irrigation.
 from a Supe River inlet (Figure 14) to the western part of Caral and further on to the inland
site of Chupacigarro on a channel built on top of a ramped mounded aqueduct structure.
The careful surveying associated with the ramped portion of the canal and its continuance
over many kilometers to the Chupacigarro site is notable, given its estimated early prove-
Water 2022, 14, 1403
nience at ~2500 BC. This canal system is one of the oldest aqueduct canals yet discovered
12 of 38
in Peru and is notable for its length and low channel declination angle. Figure 15 indicates
the totality of canal systems in the Caral plateau area.

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Theplateau
plateau edge
edge above
above the
the steep
steep embankment
embankment leading
leading from
fromvalley
valleybottomlands
bottomlandstotothe
the
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWplateau. Along the embankment (now hidden by brush) is the Ramped Canal indicated in Figure 3,13 of 40
plateau. Along the embankment (now hidden by brush) is the Ramped Canal indicated in Figure 3,
leading to the early Chupacigarro interior valley site indicated in Figure 15.
leading to the early Chupacigarro interior valley site indicated in Figure 15.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Interior
Interior channel
channel from
from upper
upper reaches
reaches of theofSupe
the River
Supe leading
River leading rivertowater
river water valleyto valley bot-
bottom
tom agricultural and reservoir
agricultural and reservoir areas.
areas.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 13 of 38
Figure 14. Interior channel from upper reaches of the Supe River leading river water to valley bot-
tom agricultural and reservoir areas.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 40

Figure 15 indicates that the Ramped Canal extension was the water source for the
canals on the Caral plateau as well as the water source for the older Chupacigarro site
(Figure 4). Figure 16 shows the Ramped Canal path leading to the inland Chupacigarro
site now largely buried by drifting sand. The Figure 3 Continuation shows the canal cross-
section profiles located near the Supe Valley project excavation house Residential Area;
although the source of water for the different canal cross sections remains to be deter-
mined by further excavation, it is likely that the water source is from a branch canal from
a Ramped Canal extension that supplied an early transverse ‘red line’ canal running lat-
erally across Caral as indicated in Figure 3. Presently, a large erosion gully divides the
north upper and south lower areas of Caral so traces of an earlier transverse canal segment
are no longer present to extend the data obtained from the cross-sectional profiles shown
in Figure
Figure 15. 3Path
Continuation.
of the Ramped Figure
Canal16 to
shows the remains site.
the Chupacigarro of the Ramped
Current Canal extension
agricultural (brown and to
Figure
the 15. Path of the
Chupacigarro Ramped
site now Canal to
buried in the Chupacigarro
sand; traces of site.
its pathCurrent
are agricultural
evident from (brown
a filled and
earthblack)
black) areas extend to both sides of the Supe River. Figure 14 and the current figure show the canal
areas extend
upstream
inlet (A) to both
aqueduct
located in thesides of the Supe
supporting
far upstream the River.
canalof
reaches Figure
that
thehave14 and
Supe been the
River. current
recently
The figure
excavated.
notation showThe
B denotesthe canal
Supe
Early inlet (A)
Val-
Form-
located
ley
ativehadin(and
thesites;
Period far upstream
still
Chas)
and D reaches
thecanals of theof
advantage
supplied Supe River.site
a continuous
the early The ofnotation
water B denotes
supply
Chupacigarro Early
to source
located Formative
F. ThePeriod
agriculture
at (red) E
sites;
and GClocations
and Dthe
throughout canals
are
year,supplied
modern
while the
in-use early
adjacent site
bottomland
Lateof Archaic
Chupacigarro
fields irrigated located
by high
Forteleza, at (red) F.
groundwater
Pativilca andTheHuara
E and Valley
levels. G locations
sites
are only had
modern access
in-use to intermittent
bottomland rainy season
fields irrigated by highrunoff for canallevels.
groundwater irrigation.
Figure 15 indicates that the Ramped Canal extension was the water source for the
canals on the Caral plateau as well as the water source for the older Chupacigarro site

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Trace
Trace of
of the
the canal
canalleading
leadingtotothe
theChupacigarro
Chupacigarrosite.
site.

5.5. Late
Late Archaic
Archaic Period
PeriodClimate
ClimateChange
ChangeEvolution
Evolution
Excavation data
Excavation data from
fromCaral
Caral[8–15]
[8–15]indicates
indicates that
thatmarine
marine products
products transferred
transferred fromfrom
coastal sites were
coastal were plentiful
plentifulatatinterior
interiorvalley
valleysites, asas
sites, evidenced
evidenced by by
large marine
large marineshell andand
shell
fish bone deposits at locations within Caral. Gourds and cotton grown
fish bone deposits at locations within Caral. Gourds and cotton grown at interior Supe at interior Supe
Valleysites
Valley sites were
were traded
traded and
andused
usedforforfishing
fishingnets
netsand
andlines at at
lines coastal sites
coastal indicating
sites indicatingthatthat
cooperative trade underwrote the valley’s economic base. Ancient
cooperative trade underwrote the valley’s economic base. Ancient Supe Valley farming Supe Valley farming
products within
products within coastal
coastalvalleys
valleysincluded
includedguayaba
guayaba (psidium
(psidium guajava), pacae
guajava), pacae(inga feuillei),
(inga feuillei),
achira (canna edulis) as well as avocado, beans, squash, sweet potato,
achira (canna edulis) as well as avocado, beans, squash, sweet potato, maize varieties maize varieties and
peanuts,
and attesting
peanuts, to theto
attesting wide
the variety of comestibles
wide variety available
of comestibles for coastal
available fortrade.
coastalThe iden-The
trade.
tification of agricultural products results from current seed-extraction
identification of agricultural products results from current seed-extraction analyses. analyses. The keyThe
to the
key to importance
the importanceof Caral
of and
Caralsubsidiary Supe Valley
and subsidiary Supe sites is that
Valley theyiscomprise
sites that theythe ear-
comprise
liest New World example of an integrated valley economic unit deriving
the earliest New World example of an integrated valley economic unit deriving benefits benefits from
valley bottomland spring-sourced canalized irrigation systems, a plateau agricultural
ramped canal system (Figure 15) and amuna groundwater-level water supply systems for
agriculture. This, together with multiple stone-faced pyramid structures within a complex
city architectural environment (Figure 3) originating in and past ~2500 BC, designates
Caral the place in history as the first city of ancient Peru. The Late Archaic Supe Valley
Water 2022, 14, 1403 14 of 38

from valley bottomland spring-sourced canalized irrigation systems, a plateau agricultural

ramped canal system (Figure 15) and amuna groundwater-level water supply systems for
agriculture. This, together with multiple stone-faced pyramid structures within a complex
city architectural environment (Figure 3) originating in and past ~2500 BC, designates Caral
the place in history as the first city of ancient Peru. The Late Archaic Supe Valley inland
and coastal sites initiated and characterized by complex societal development would have
developed further complexity, perhaps up to state level for the Norte Chico sites, were
it not interrupted by large-scale ENSO environmental-change effects in later phases of
its existence.

6. Sea-Level Stabilization, El Niño Floods and Beach Ridges

Sea-level stabilization between 6000 and 7000 cal BP set the stage for Late Archaic
Period developments [5,19]. The onset of El Niño rains about 5800 cal BP after a mid-
Holocene hiatus had implications for the social processes that found expression in the
temple centers of Supe and the surrounding valleys [4,5,18,19]. By ~1500 BC, several prece-
ramic north central coast sites were abandoned (Figure 2), suggesting a common influence
of a large-scale environmental change affecting all areas of the Peruvian northcentral coast.
Prior to ~1800 BC, the agricultural and marine resource base developed over time in a
relatively stable climate period. Accretion processes influencing the geomorphology of the
Peruvian north central coast littoral and inland valleys were determined by the deposition
of large sediment loads originating from El Niño flood events interacting with oceanic
and wave-induced near-shoreline northward flowing currents, together with major aeo-
lian sand incursion events from beach flat areas and wind-borne sand from the southern
Huanca Valley; these effects challenged the continuity of the Supe Valley sites. In the
later phases of the Late Archaic Period sites, around ~1800 BC, significant changes in the
geophysical environment were brought about by a major ENSO flood event and amplified
aeolian sand transfer into the interior valley lands, this challenged the continuity of the
valley agricultural and marine resource base. Sediment transport and offshore sediment
deposition patterns into the Pacific offshore seabed depend upon El Niño flood magnitude,
rainfall duration and spatial distribution, valley landscape geometry, landscape soil types,
sediment and slurry physical properties, seabed shelf angle, coastal uplift/subsidence
and geometric details of river channels and watershed collection areas. Flood sediment
load is influenced by earthquake activity that produces large quantities of loose surface
material available for runoff transport. Large rainfall events cause changes in the equilib-
rium profiles of drainages affecting sedimentation and drainage patterns that influence the
amount of flood-transported sediment and the formation of offshore sediment deposits
in the form of beach ridges. Sediment transfer processes result not only from El Niño
flood events, but also from rivers that flood during rainy seasons from high Sierra rainfall
runoff and carry sediment into ocean currents and/or deposit sediments behind beach
ridges which served as barriers to river drainage into ocean currents. North of 9◦ S, the
continental shelf abruptly widens, and extensive beach ridge plains exist, formed from
sediment deposits that trail north from the largest rivers of Peru, which are the Santa, Piura,
Chira, and Tumbes rivers. Beach ridges formed from flood sediment slurry deposits are
present at Colán, where El Niño rains have eroded an uplifted marine terrace [3,37]. All
the northern beach ridge plains originally consisted of eight to nine separate beach ridges,
and each plain formed well after late Holocene sea-level stabilization. The beach ridge
sequence indicates that the furthest ridge away from the current shoreline formed from
the earliest flood event that also altered the coastline shape before the beach ridge. A later
flood event acting on the earlier altered coastline littoral, deposited a further beach ridge
closer to the shoreline with a further slurry deposit addition ahead of the latest ridge to
alter the shoreline littoral. Now there is influence of the later flood event and beach ridge
formation on the earlier beach ridge due to erosion and deposition activity to further bury
it with later slurry and sand deposits. As later flood events occur, a progression of beach
ridges forms together with deposition increments to add to the shoreline. Beach ridge
Water 2022, 14, 1403 15 of 38

sequences occurring over time continue to modify and add to coastline extension. This
process, when subject to CFD analysis in a later chapter, indicates that this sequence of
events can be recreated through fluid dynamics analysis.
South of latitude 9◦ S, where the continental shelf is narrower and the seabed angle
steeper [35], Figure 6 shows dated beach ridge formations from a 4.8◦ to 12.0◦ south latitude
on coastal Peru. The earliest beach ridge dates are from Chira, Piura and Santa coastlines,
while the remaining dates are for beach ridges at Salinas de Huacho and El Paraíso, and
are shown with their latitude positions in Figure 6. The earliest beach ridges appear at far
southern latitudes at 4.8◦ S, with later ridges occurring to the north. This trend implies that
early El Niño activity as a source of deposition material was prevalent after ~5500 BC (but
not earlier), consistent with late Holocene sea-level stabilization.
As the shoreline transgressed during post-glacial sea-level rise, prograding beach
ridge plains could not form. Subsequent sediment deposits from aeolian sand transfer,
intermittent flood and oceanic current sources and silt entrained in farming drainage runoff
over millennia promoted bay infilling to constitute the present day shoreline. Only with
the relatively stable sea level of the last 6000 years could beach ridge plains form and alter
landscape geomorphology and littoral resource suites along the coast. Sea-level stabilization
is linked to climate change in the Pacific Basin, with El Niño events starting after a hiatus
of about three millennia [5,19], during which northern Peru was characterized by annual
warming and a fishery composition absent of small schooling fish, such as anchovy and
sardine. With ecological changes accompanying the northward extension of the Peru
Current at the start of the Late Archaic Period, small fish species began to dominate the
fishery, calling for different capture strategies that required intensive production of cotton
nets, fishing lines and gourd floats consistent with cotton dominant among domesticated
plant assemblages in all the Late Archaic coastal centers [1,9–12]. The founding dates of
Áspero, Vichama and Bandurria on the shoreline of north central coast valleys preceded
dates of the inland Late Preceramic temple centers [32], suggesting that access to irrigated
agricultural lands was linked to intensified production of cotton and gourds and was key
to the integrated economic model existing in the north central coast area.

7. Geophysical Origins of Beach Ridge Formation

Various types of beach ridges observed at different locations along the Peruvian
coastline (Figures 17 and 18) result from the complex interaction of river-borne El Niño
flood sediments with oceanic and wave action currents to produce beach ridge sequences.
Figures 19 and 20 illustrate inland deposition layers originating from the same events.
Post-sea-level stabilization, sediments and aeolian sand transfer began to accumu-
late west of the Quaternary sea cliff that marks the back of the original Supe Bay and
the smaller Albufero and Medio Mundo inlets to the south and the Paraiso Bay, south of
Huacho. In time, narrow beach ridges developed from a series of ENSO events inducing
sand accumulation behind each ridge; this period was followed by stable progradation
that buried each minor ridge by aeolian sand transfer and dune formation. In about ~1800
BC, a major ENSO event created the large Medio Mundo beach ridge along ~114 km of
coastline sealing off former fishing and shellfish gathering bays. This event created large
scale sand flats that accumulated behind beach ridges and promoted the large-scale aeolian
sand dune inundation of coastal plains and inland valley areas compromising a significant
part of the agricultural base of the Supe Valley society. The coastline geomorphic change
affecting the marine resource base of Norte Chico societies was affected by a combination
of flood sediment accumulations amplified by aeolian sand transfer processes that infilled
previously established fishing and shellfish gathering areas. Although river-borne sediment
constitutes a major source of slurry transport during flood events, additional opportunistic
drainage paths originate from areas between river valleys to provide addition sediments to
ocean currents. Again, many north central coast preceramic sites terminated occupation by
~1800 BC, suggesting that a major geophysical change over a wide coastal area compro-
mised their economic base, thus, the importance of understanding the geophysics of beach
 mesticated plant assemblages in all the Late Archaic coastal centers [1,9–12]. The founding
dates of Áspero, Vichama and Bandurria on the shoreline of north central coast valleys
preceded dates of the inland Late Preceramic temple centers [32], suggesting that access
to irrigated agricultural lands was linked to intensified production of cotton and gourds
and was key to the integrated economic model existing in the north central coast area.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 16 of 38
7. Geophysical Origins of Beach Ridge Formation
Various types of beach ridges observed at different locations along the Peruvian
ridge formation
coastline (Figureand its consequences
17 and on from
Figure 18) result the agricultural
the complexbase of archaic
interaction societies. The
of river-borne El
abandonment of major with
Niño flood sediments preceramic
oceanicsites,
and with
wavelimited Formative
action currents to Period
produce reoccupation
beach ridge of
se-a
limited number
quences. Figureof19
former sites, motivates
and Figure theinland
20 illustrate discussion to follow
deposition as tooriginating
layers what thesefrom
changes
the
were
sametoevents.
the economic base of archaic societies and their relation to beach ridge formation.

Figure 17. A linear beach ridge deposit along the Peru coastline resulting from an El Niño flood
Figure 17. A linear beach ridge deposit along the Peru coastline resulting from an El Niño flood
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWevent. Note the marsh region behind the ridge resulting from the ridge blocking rainfall, river amuna
17 of 40
event. Note the marsh region behind the ridge resulting from the ridge blocking rainfall, river amuna
discharge. The origin of such deposition events in history (Figure 6) is detailed in the next section.
discharge. The origin of such deposition events in history (Figure 6) is detailed in the next section.

Figure18.18.AA
Figure further
further early
early coastal
coastal ancient
ancient linear
linear beach
beach ridge,
ridge, now now partially
partially covered
covered by aeolian
by aeolian sandsand
drifts;further
drifts; furtherstranded
stranded beach
beach ridges
ridges areare to be
to be found
found closer
closer to the
to the shoreline
shoreline resulting
resulting fromfrom
laterlater
El El
Niñoflood
Niño flood events.
events. Ongoing
Ongoing tectonic
tectonic uplift
uplift helps
helps to strand
to strand andand separate
separate a sequence
a sequence of beach
of beach ridges.
ridges.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 Figure 18. A further early coastal ancient linear beach ridge, now partially covered by aeolian sand
17 of 38
drifts; further stranded beach ridges are to be found closer to the shoreline resulting from later El
Niño flood events. Ongoing tectonic uplift helps to strand and separate a sequence of beach ridges.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 40

Figure19.
Figure 19.Deposition
Depositionsiltsilt layers
layers at aatcoastal
a coastal
SupeSupe Valley
Valley site resulting
site resulting from sequential
from sequential El NiñoEl Niño
flood flood
events.
events.

Figure20.
Figure 20.Interior
InteriorSupe
SupeValley
Valleysilt
siltand
andsand
sanddeposition
depositionlayers
layersfrom
fromsequential
sequentialElElNiño
Niñoflood
floodevents
events
and aeolian sand transport.
and aeolian sand transport.

Post-sea-level
Tectonic coastalstabilization, sedimentsfrom
uplift rate differences and aeolian sand
north to transfer
south began
latitudes to accumulate
influence beach
west of the Quaternary sea cliff that marks the back of the original
ridge typology. A significant uplift rate may strand and separate sequent ridges Supe Bay andfromthe
smaller Albufero and Medio Mundo inlets to the south and the Paraiso
individual flood events, while, in the absence of uplift, single subsea ridges form and Bay, south of
Huacho. deposits
sediment In time, narrow
accreting beach ridges from
landward developed from
the ridge a series
appear to of ENSO
strand eventsabove
a ridge inducing
the
sand accumulation
land/water interface.behind each ridge;
Additionally, thisundersea
offshore period was
ridgefollowed
formation bymay
stable progradation
alter the deposi-
thathistory
tion buriedof each minor ridge
subsequent laterby aeolian
ridges by sand transfer
altering seabedand duneriver
shape, formation. In about ~1800
mouth geometry and
BC, a major ENSO event created the large Medio Mundo beach ridge along
river positional shifts. Later flood events may also erode and erase previously deposited ~114 km of
coastline
ridges, andsealing
aeolianoffsand
former fishingmay
incursion and bury
shellfish gathering
segments bays. ridges;
of earlier This event created
all these large
factors,
scale sand flats that accumulated behind beach ridges and promoted the large-scale aeo-
lian sand dune inundation of coastal plains and inland valley areas compromising a sig-
nificant part of the agricultural base of the Supe Valley society. The coastline geomorphic
change affecting the marine resource base of Norte Chico societies was affected by a com-
bination of flood sediment accumulations amplified by aeolian sand transfer processes
 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19

Water 2022, 14, 1403 18 of 38

deposited ridges, and aeolian sand incursion may bury segments of earlier ridges; all t
factors, operational over millennia, influence the remains of ridges. The relation betw
operational over millennia,
flood events, influence
beach ridge theformation
remains and of ridges. The relation
agricultural landscape between
change,flood
as demonstr
events, beach ridge
by CFDformation and agricultural
computer-modeling landscape
results, change, as demonstrated
are subsequently by CFDtheir con
detailed to illustrate
computer-modelingtivity results, arethe
to provide subsequently detailed to
basis for conclusions illustrate the
supporting their connectivity
observed to
geophysical tran
provide the basis for conclusions
mations supporting
of Supe Valley the observed
agricultural geophysical
and littoral transformations
areas in Late Archaic times.of
Supe Valley agricultural and littoral
To illustrate areasmechanics
the fluid in Late Archaic times.
basis of ridge formation, a three-dimensional c
To illustrate the fluid mechanics basis of ridge formation,
puter model of the Peruvian coast from Santa to Viru a three-dimensional
Valleys was created com-(Figure 21
puter model of the
ing Peruvian
FLOW-3Dcoast from [20].
software SantaThe to Viru
minor Valleys was created
intermediate Chao(Figure
Valley 21) using between
drainage
FLOW-3D software Santa[20].
andThe
Viruminor
Valleysintermediate
was omitted Chao
from Valley
the CFDdrainage
model, between
due to the Santa effect on
its minor
and Viru Valleys wasridge
beach omitted from the
formation CFD model,
compared to thedue
majorto its minor
Santa andeffect on the
Viru river beach The in
drainages.
ridge formationofcompared to the majorare
the CFD calculations Santa and Viru
to show river mechanics
the fluid drainages. transformation
The intent of the of flood sl
CFD calculations are to show
movement theocean
into fluid currents
mechanics transformation
during an El Niñoofeventflood that
slurry movement
can produce an exten
into ocean currents
linearduring
beach an El Niño
ridge; eventbeach
this linear that can produce
ridge formationan extensive linearand,
is unexpected beach
intuitively,
ridge; this linear beach
may not ridge formation
associate a chaotic is flood
unexpected
event andand, intuitively,
chaotic slurry one may not
transport intoasso-
ocean curren
ciate a chaotic flood eventproducing
the source and chaotic slurrybeach
a linear transport
ridge into ocean currents as the source
structure.
producing a linear beach ridge structure.

Figure 21. FLOW-3D CFD model of the Peruvian coastline from the Santa to Viru Rivers. The Benthic
Figure 21. FLOW-3D CFD model of the Peruvian coastline from the Santa to Viru Rivers. The
Zone is the Pacific Ocean; the arrows originating from the Santa and Viru River Valleys represent El
thic Zone is the Pacific Ocean; the arrows originating from the Santa and Viru River Valleys re
Niño flood sediment
senttransfer
El Niñopaths
floodinto the Pacific
sediment Ocean
transfer andinto
paths offshore arrowsOcean
the Pacific denote theoffshore
and direction of
arrows denot
the northward Peru Current and the shoreline drift current.
direction of the northward Peru Current and the shoreline drift current.

The use of a CFD Themodel

use ofisa made to demonstrate
CFD model is made tohow fluid dynamics
demonstrate how fluid candynamics
duplicatecan dupl
observed geophysical
observed geophysical events that occur during a major El Niño floodDetails
events that occur during a major El Niño flood event. event. Details f
from the CFD analysis
the CFDcan uncover
analysis canthe geophysics
uncover behind field
the geophysics observations
behind and helpand
field observations to help to
understand nature’s role in the formation of deposition and erosive landscape structures
derstand nature’s role in the formation of deposition and erosive landscape structures
observed in fieldserved
studies. The CFD
in field model
studies. Thearea
CFDinmodel
Figurearea
21 was selected
in Figure due the
21 was availability
selected due the availab
of data [4,6,7] in
of the
dataSanta-Viru coastal
[4,6,7] in the zone that
Santa-Viru allows
coastal zonefor thatthe qualitative
allows verificationverificatio
for the qualitative
of modeling results compared
modeling resultstocompared
field observations. It is expected
to field observations. It is that the CFD
expected that results
the CFD results
obtained on beach ridge formation in the Santa–Viru coastal area are qualitatively
tained on beach ridge formation in the Santa–Viru coastal area are qualitatively similar simil
to the ridge development in the nearby
the ridge development Supe
in the Valley
nearby Supecoastal
Valleyarea, given
coastal that
area, the that
given same the same f
fluid mechanics-based geophysics applies. Shown in the Figure 21 CFD model are the
sloped offshore seabed and coastal land areas, with southern Santa and northern Viru River
Valleys providing known data as to beach ridge formation from an El Niño flood event
where sediment conduits to the ocean current are the source of beach ridge formation.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 19 of 38

During a major flood event, slurry material from the eroding landscape is transported into
local rivers and conducted into ocean currents. The interactive geophysics of the slurry
interaction with ocean currents and the settling of the slurry to form a beach ridge is then
predicted by CFD analysis. Inherent to the CFD analysis are the details of the formation
of landscape change from erosion/deposition events as well as beach ridge formation
processes; while field observations only record the results of flood events, CFD analysis
provides the fluid dynamics mechanisms behind their creation.
The composition of flood-transported slurry material is drawn from the size, gradation,
cohesivity and stratification of erodible bank sediments over the coast-to-mountain area
watershed and surface material washed into the streambed. Profiling a selection of beach
ridge cores provided an indication of the percentage by weight of different-sized sediment
particles. High concentrations of large-sized particles (gravel and small boulders) in the
wash load damp slurry turbulence, increase the apparent viscosity of the slurry flow and
reduce their settling slurry velocity, enabling the early settlement of coarser grains and a
larger bed-material load compared to finer grade slurry material. While only river-borne
sediment transfer is considered for CFD model purposes, additional opportunistic drainage
channels and ephemeral streams develop during flood events, leading to sediment transfer
to lower coastal areas that contribute additional sediment to ridge formation/accretion
processes and landscape change.
A two-fluid CFD model represents slurry sediment–ocean mixing interaction. Fluid 1
is ocean water characterized by kinematic viscosity ν1 and density ρ1 ; Fluid 2 is sediment-
laden flood water slurry characterized by high values of kinematic viscosity ν2 and density
ρ2 compared to ocean water. Here, ν = µ/ρ, where µ is the absolute viscosity. Depending
on the sediment load of the floodwater, ν2 /ν1 can range from 1 (no river-borne flood
sediment) to 103 (heavy river-borne sediment loads with very high absolute viscosity).
For purposes of demonstrating the fluid dynamics phenomena involved, a selection of
input properties typical of observed sediment composition is presented. Due to local
variations in sediment composition, only a generic, illustrative slurry composition is
presented that is typical of the conditions in the area of study. Model river-current velocity
is set to a value to induce riverbed erosion and sediment transport mobility. For silt
(<0.001 mm diameter, ~15% by weight), sand (0.1 mm diameter, ~30% by weight), gravel
(0.1 to 5 mm diameter, ~35% by weight) and an assortment of rock-particle sizes (5 mm
to 100 mm diameter, ~20% by weight) composing the sediment solids, estimates of both
properties and critical mobility stress levels are provided by [2,38–42] to substantiate
the typical υ2 /υ1 values used in the CFD simulation. The northward offshore current
velocity is set low to represent near cessation during El Niño events. A near-shoreline,
northward drift current is induced from the difference between the incoming wave vector
angle and a normal vector to the shoreline. The model sea level is set to the stabilized
~5000 BC level. By using model length scales (model area is ~1035 km2 ) and slurry velocity
ranges approximating actual values, Reynolds and Froude numbers are duplicated, and
the computer time is equal to the real beach ridge formation time. The results provide
a lower-bound time to determine the flood duration required to deposit beach ridges of
known sizes and volumes. Note that the early Quaternary version of the shoreline consisted
of deep river-downcut bays consistent with the lower sea level, and that wave-cut bluffs
(now inland from the present-day accreted shoreline) resulted from rising sea levels, the
subsequent deposition of sediment over millennia is from floods, river, and aeolian sand
transport that served to infill this landscape. The present computer model is qualitatively
representative of an intermediate stage in this landscape transition process during a flood
event. The results of the CFD computations then represent the early stage of beach ridge
formation: subsequent millennia of accretion and erosive effects then serve to represent
current day observed shoreline patterns.
The results of Santa–Viru coastal zone simulation are subsequently summarized.
This zone has a well-documented ridge sequence [4,6,7] and is used to test computer
predictions with observed geomorphic features that have survived from early creation
 formation: subsequent millennia of accretion and erosive effects then serve to represent
current day observed shoreline patterns.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 The results of Santa–Viru coastal zone simulation are subsequently summarized. 20 of 38
This zone has a well-documented ridge sequence [4,6,7] and is used to test computer pre-
dictions with observed geomorphic features that have survived from early creation stages
to present-day stages. Figure 22 shows the initial offshore sediment deposition density
stages to present-day stages. Figure 22 shows the initial offshore sediment deposition
distribution from a single, large El Niño flood pulse concentrated in the Santa–Viru Valley
density distribution from a single, large El Niño flood pulse concentrated in the Santa–Viru
area; the density scale ranges from 1.94 slugs/ft3 (1000 kg/m3) for seawater to 5.40 slugs/ft3
Valley area;3 the density scale ranges from 1.94 slugs/ft3 (1000 kg/m3 ) for seawater to
(2783 kg/m ) for heavy flood slurry. For a lower-limit slurry grain size of 0.01 mm, erosion,
5.40 slugs/ft3 (2783 kg/m3 ) for heavy flood slurry. For a lower-limit slurry grain size
transport and entrainment are maintained from 0.001 to >10 m/s velocity; for a grain size
of 0.01 mm, erosion, transport and entrainment are maintained from 0.001 to >10 m/s
of 10–100
velocity; formm, erosion,
a grain size oftransport
10–100 mm, anderosion,
entrainment are maintained
transport and entrainment for >1.0are m/s velocity
maintained
[2,42]. On this basis, a river near-surface velocity is assumed to be
for >1.0 m/s velocity [2,42]. On this basis, a river near-surface velocity is assumed to be ~1.0 m/s, for purposes
of demonstrating
~1.0 m/s, for purposes the sediment–ocean
of demonstratingcurrent mixing and deposition
the sediment–ocean current mixingprocess andby CFD sim-
deposition
ulation. Since slurries of the type encountered in flood debris are
process by CFD simulation. Since slurries of the type encountered in flood debris are highlyhighly non-Newtonian
power law fluids,
non-Newtonian power shear
law thickening
fluids, shearwith an increasing
thickening shear rateshear
with an increasing is expected. Here, a
rate is expected.
Here, a higher apparent viscosity applies, and the kinematic viscosity proposed is usedpur-
higher apparent viscosity applies, and the kinematic viscosity proposed is used for for
poses of the
purposes demonstration
of the demonstration problem.
problem.An An observation
observation made of highly
made of highly viscous slurry
viscous mo-
slurry
tion in in
motion river valleys
river valleysduring
during thethe
catastrophic
catastrophic El Niño
El Niñoflood event
flood in 1982
event in 1982during my stay
during my
on the Peruvian north coast gives credence to the slow slurry velocity
stay on the Peruvian north coast gives credence to the slow slurry velocity used in CFD used in CFD calcu-
lations. Although
calculations. Althoughthe velocity profile
the velocity for Newtonian,
profile for Newtonian, viscous channel
viscous flow flow
channel can vary from
can vary
that determined for non-Newtonian slurries [40], for the present
from that determined for non-Newtonian slurries [40], for the present demonstration demonstration problem,
the slurrythe
problem, is slurry
assumed to have atoconstant
is assumed absoluteabsolute
have a constant viscosity,viscosity,
rather thanrather a shear
than arate de-
shear
pendent
rate value. value.
dependent The offshore Peru Current
The offshore Peru Currentvelocity is approximated
velocity to be ~5
is approximated tocm/s
be ~5andcm/s the
coastal
and drift current
the coastal is ~3–5iscm/s,
drift current ~3–5 with
cm/s,localwithdrift
localvelocity valuesvalues
drift velocity computed basedbased
computed upon
the geometry
upon the geometryof theof coastline (Daniel
the coastline Sandweiss,
(Daniel personal
Sandweiss, communication).
personal communication). The elapsed
The
time is time
elapsed ~35 hour
is ~35ofhour
continuous El Niño
of continuous floodflood
El Niño activity, withwith
activity, ν2/νν1 2=/ν 103 indicating
101 3=indicating a higha
absolute viscosity, heavy sediment load carried by the flood currents.
high absolute viscosity, heavy sediment load carried by the flood currents. The offshore The offshore aver-
age seabed
average slope
seabed is ~0.15°
slope is ~0.15 ◦ from
from horizontal
horizontalfor the Santa–Viru
for the Santa–Viru north
northcentral coast
central area;
coast the
area;
offshore
the offshoreseabed slopes
seabed afterafter
slopes 38003800
BC areBCestimated from from
are estimated Barrera [35] Figure
Barrera 11 and11
[35] Figure Pulgar
and
Pulgar Vidalas[40],
Vidal [40], wellasaswell
the as the values
values for oceanic
for oceanic currentcurrent
velocity.velocity.

Figure22.
Figure 22. Offshore
Offshore deposit
deposit of
of sediments.
sediments. The
The right
right hand
hand scale
scale represents
represents sediment
sediment density
density in
in
slugs/ft33 as described in the text; ocean water has the 1.94 slug/ft33 scale representation. Intermediate
slugs/ft as described in the text; ocean water has the 1.94 slug/ft scale representation. Intermediate
scale values represent the mixing of flood derived slurry with the ocean current.
scale values represent the mixing of flood derived slurry with the ocean current.

Figure 22 indicates the formation of a long sediment deposit beach ridge on the
coastline; the scale shades represent the mixture density of seawater and the initial flood
slurry density emanating from the rivers. Notable is the early deposit of (green) heavy
materials and the further offshore deposit of lighter (yellow-orange) slurry component
Water 2022, 14, 1403 21 of 38

materials. The northward current, together with the near-shore drift current, enhances the
northward deposition of the sediment. The predicted high density, larger size sediment
compositions appear along the ridge length, as observed from field studies [4], while the
transport and sorting of sediment fines continues in time from wave-induced drift currents.
For steeper seabed angles, the formation of a close-in ridge deposit to the shoreline occurs;
here, a steeper seabed angle results in a greater sea depth closer to the shoreline and, as
resistance to a sediment particle’s forward motion is related to the hydrostatic pressure
encountered on its front projected area (in addition to viscous drag and dynamic pressure
effects), sediment deposition occurs more rapidly for steeper benthic seabed angles.
A velocity vector plot (Figure 23) shows that the out-rushing sediment stream creates a
flow reversal pattern when encountering ocean and shoreline currents, leading to deposits
of lighter sediments back towards the shoreline where low drift velocities prevail. The
‘U-turn’ of the sediment stream is consistent with the path of least resistance of small
and intermediate sizes, low-inertia sediment particles that alter the direction away from
the increased hydrostatic pressure resistance encountered further from the shoreline. As
offshore Peru and drift current directions are not aligned, the agitation and transport of
the deposited fines cause a gradual northward ridge extension over time. Of interest is
the disturbance of the ocean current both near and far offshore by the river borne slurry
injection as well as currents that show northward flows from the river mouth that influence
sediment deposition far north of the river mouth. The CFD calculation results provide a
qualitative relation between an El Niño flood event and details of ridge formation: floods
with large sediment loads can produce extensive near-shoreline subsea deposits whose
size depends upon flood duration and amount/type of sediment available for transport by
ocean and drift currents.
For Figure 22, the density of the slurry stream is 5.2 times that of ocean water. Many
beach ridges observed in the Santa–Viru sequence are composite, indicating large accu-
mulations from multiple, closely-spaced-in-time flood events; where aggraded sediment
material separates ridges, a longer time interval had occurred between major flood events:
the use of C14 dating on organic material within the ridges then present the dating of ENSO
flood events. Beach ridges contain mollusk shell material indicative of seabed sediments
being agitated and entrained during flood events. Once the ridges are stranded on land
by surrounding aggraded material, later flood events create new subsea deposits that
accrete material to create the ridge sequence noted in the Santa–Viru coastal area, where
shallow seabed angles prevail (Figures 23 and 24 illustrates this occurrence). South of this
zone, where steeper seabed angles prevail, a composite, a unitary ridge type is predicted.
Situations occur in which loose surface sediment is minimal and/or the surface runoff
water velocity too low to carry or erode sediment, so that ridge formation is minimal or
absent during lower-magnitude flood events.
Figure 24 shows what happens when a later flood event occurs after an earlier beach
ridge deposit. Trace sediment deposits occur seaward and inward from the earlier main
ridge; this trace ridge alters the river outlet shape and influences river discharge patterns
(Figures 22, 24 and 25), as well as altering the local seabed slope from the settled sediment,
all of which alter conditions under which subsequent ridges form. In Figure 24, a trace
subsea ridge (yellow-brown) was formed close to the shoreline behind a (grey) ridge formed
from a prior flood event. The inner sediment deposit is the source of bay infilling and
marsh creation from rainfall, river deposits and later flood events. The outer sediment
deposit is the source of coastline shape alteration from sediment deposits. A sequence
of distinct ridges form from later flood events that gradually accrete sediment between
them to both form a ridge sequence typical of that observed in the Santa–Viru area together
with alteration of the coastline shape. Based on the observations of the Santa–Viru ridge
sequence formed from datable multiple flood events, computer predictions provide the
underlying fluid mechanics mechanism to explain ridge formation and their observed
orientation, shape, width and composite nature. From Figure 24, previous flood deposition
events affect and influence both the inland and offshore deposition history of later flood
Water 2022, 14, 1403 22 of 38

events that contribute to shoreline growth and shape change as well as river mouth shape.
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
This 23 of 40by sand
effect is manifest in Figures 17 and 18 which show inland beach ridges buried
aeolian sand deposits and many flood erosion events millennia after their creation.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 40

Figure 23. Velocity vector plot indicating turbulent flow at the Supe River outlet indicating the
Figure 23. Velocity vector plot indicating turbulent flow at the Supe River outlet indicating the source
source of differential particle size sediment settling. Velocity scale is in ft/s; length scale is in km.
of differential particle size sediment settling. Velocity scale is in ft/s; length scale is in km.
For Figure 22, the density of the slurry stream is 5.2 times that of ocean water. Many
beach ridges observed in the Santa–Viru sequence are composite, indicating large accu-
mulations from multiple, closely-spaced-in-time flood events; where aggraded sediment
material separates ridges, a longer time interval had occurred between major flood events:
the use of C14 dating on organic material within the ridges then present the dating of
ENSO flood events. Beach ridges contain mollusk shell material indicative of seabed sed-
iments being agitated and entrained during flood events. Once the ridges are stranded on
land by surrounding aggraded material, later flood events create new subsea deposits that
accrete material to create the ridge sequence noted in the Santa–Viru coastal area, where
shallow seabed angles prevail (Figure 23 and Figure 24 illustrates this occurrence). South
of this zone, where steeper seabed angles prevail, a composite, a unitary ridge type is
predicted. Situations occur in which loose surface sediment is minimal and/or the surface
runoff water velocity too low to carry or erode sediment, so that ridge formation is mini-
mal or absent during lower-magnitude flood events.

Figure 24. CFD calculated sediment deposition history of a later El Niño flood event interacting with
the sediment deposit from an earlier flood deposit event (offshore grey bar ridge area). Note the
formation of a water-laden
Figure 24. CFDbackfilled
calculatedmarsh area
sediment between
deposition the shoreline
history of a later Eland the
Niño beach
flood ridge.
event interacting with
the sediment deposit from an earlier flood deposit event (offshore grey bar ridge area). Note the
formation of a water-laden backfilled marsh area between the shoreline and the beach ridge.

Figure 24 shows what happens when a later flood event occurs after an earlier beach
ridge deposit. Trace sediment deposits occur seaward and inward from the earlier main
ridge; this trace ridge alters the river outlet shape and influences river discharge patterns
 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 40

particles; here higher-pressure drag resistance leads to rapid particle settling closer to the
shoreline. Subsequent flood events combine to produce a unitary, composite, multi-lay-
Water 2022, 14, 1403 23 of 38
ered ridge, which is continually reworked and redistributed as currents shift deposits and
extend the deposition length.

Figure 25. Flood slurry deposition: f = 1 is the ocean water, f = 0 is the flood slurry. Intermediate f
Figure 25. Flood slurry deposition: f = 1 is the ocean water, f = 0 is the flood slurry. Intermediate f
values represent the slurry/ocean water mixture. Note the formation of a linear offshore beach ridge
values represent the slurry/ocean water mixture. Note the formation of a linear offshore beach ridge
from the slurry deposition close to the shoreline as dependent on the ocean bottom slope. Length
from
scalethe slurry deposition close to the shoreline as dependent on the ocean bottom slope. Length
in km.
scale in km.
It is noted that, although many of the above results shown apply to the Santa to Viru
Figure 25 represents a case in which the seabed slope in the Supe Valley area from
Valley coastal area, the results show that large beach ridges well over 50 miles in length
the Huara to Forteleza Valleys is steeper than that for the Santa–Viru calculations shown
can be generated by major El Niño flood events that involve large portions of the Peru
in Figure 22. Figure 26 how a flood deposition event alters the coastline shape deposition
coastline over the length scale of the CFD model. The Santa to Viru Valley distance of ~100
event—this is the fluid mechanics version that underlies coastal shape changes shown in
km is on the order of the Pativilca–Supe–Huara Valley distance and, typically, major El
Figure 8. The results indicate ridge deposition closer to the coastline, owing to the higher
Niño flood events cover very large portions of the Peru coastline. CFD results applied to
hydrostatic pressure close to the shoreline encountered by low-mass, low-inertia sediment
similar coastline areas can generate a lengthy beach ridge during a major El Niño flood
particles; here higher-pressure drag resistance leads to rapid particle settling closer to the
event, as such events share the same hydrological physics.
shoreline. Subsequent flood events combine to produce a unitary, composite, multi-layered
ridge,Figure
which is27continually
is a Googlereworked
satellite view of the present
and redistributed asSupe Valley
currents shiftcoastline,
deposits indicating
and extenda
portion of the Medio
the deposition length. Mundo beach ridge that created a marsh area from the Supe River
blockage.
It is noted that, although many of the above results shown apply to the Santa area
The CFD model counterpart is Figure 24 that indicates a similar marsh be-
to Viru
hind an established beach ridge.
Valley coastal area, the results show that large beach ridges well over 50 miles in length can
be generated by major El Niño flood events that involve large portions of the Peru coastline
over the length scale of the CFD model. The Santa to Viru Valley distance of ~100 km is
on the order of the Pativilca–Supe–Huara Valley distance and, typically, major El Niño
flood events cover very large portions of the Peru coastline. CFD results applied to similar
coastline areas can generate a lengthy beach ridge during a major El Niño flood event, as
such events share the same hydrological physics.
Figure 27 is a Google satellite view of the present Supe Valley coastline, indicating a
portion of the Medio Mundo beach ridge that created a marsh area from the Supe River
blockage. The CFD model counterpart is Figure 24 that indicates a similar marsh area
behind an established beach ridge.
 Figure 27 is a Google satellite view of the present Supe Valley coastline, indicating a
portion of the Medio Mundo beach ridge that created a marsh area from the Supe River
blockage. The CFD model counterpart is Figure 24 that indicates a similar marsh area be-
hind an established beach ridge.
Water
Water 2022, 14,x1403
2022, 14, FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 40 24 of 38

Figure 26. Later El Niño flood events creating a deposition sediment area behind an established
Figure 26. 26.
Later El Niño
Later flood events creating a deposition sediment area behind an established
Figure
beach ridge; theEl Niño flood
infilling events
phenomenon creating
infills abays
deposition
and sediment
creates marsharea behind
areas an established
behind previouslybeach
estab-
beach ridge;
ridge; thethe infillingphenomenon
infilling phenomenon infills bays
infills baysand
and creates marsh
creates areasareas
marsh behind previously
behind estab- established
previously
lished beach ridges as well as extensions of previous shorelines, as the Figure 26 CFD model demon-
lished beach ridges as well as extensions of previous shorelines, as the Figure 26 CFD model demon-
beach ridges as well as extensions of previous shorelines, as the Figure 26 CFD model demonstrates.
strates.
strates.

Figure 27. Google Earth satellite photograph of a part of the Medio Mundo beach ridge and infilled
marsh area behind the ridge in the Supe Valley coastal area that limits river flows to the ocean. A
ridge of this magnitude results from a catastrophic El Niño event (or closely spaced events) and
subsequently
Figure27.27.alters
Googlethe Earth
deposition placement
satellite of subsequent
photograph partEl
ofaapart ofNiño-derived
theMedio beach ridge
MedioMundo
Mundo beachplace-
ridgeand
andinfilled
infilled
Figure
ments in Google
different Earth
sections of satellite
the Peru photograph
coastline. of of the beach ridge
marsh area behind the ridge in the Supe Valley coastal area that limits river flows to the ocean. A
marsh area behind the ridge in the Supe Valley coastal area that limits river flows to the ocean.
ridge of this magnitude results from a catastrophic El Niño event (or closely spaced events) and
A The
ridgeFigure
of this26magnitude
CFD resultresults from aa case
represents catastrophic
in whichEl anNiño event
existing (or closely
offshore spaced events) and
submerged
subsequently alters the deposition placement of subsequent El Niño-derived beach ridge place-
sediment ridge
subsequently allows sediment
alters sections
the depositioninfilling of
placementa previously
of subsequent El Niño-derived beachflood
existing bay area from a ridge placements
ments in different of the Peru coastline.
event. For this case, the previously existing
in different sections of the Peru coastline. marine resource base consisting of shellfish
and sardine and anchovy net gathering no longer exists, forcing fish gathering at greater
offshoreThe
distances
Figureto26 sustain the protein
CFD result food-supply
represents a casebase. As this
in which anfood-supply changesubmerged
existing offshore
takes time to develop an equal marine base resource to previous
sediment ridge allows sediment infilling of a previously existing bay area values, a major flood
from a flood
event has immediate consequences to sustain the large population
event. For this case, the previously existing marine resource base consisting of inland sites. Once of shellfish
the beach ridge deposits are in place, the accretion of sediment from later flood, river and
and sardine and anchovy net gathering no longer exists, forcing fish gathering at greater
offshore distances to sustain the protein food-supply base. As this food-supply change
takes time to develop an equal marine base resource to previous values, a major flood
event has immediate consequences to sustain the large population of inland sites. Once
the beach ridge deposits are in place, the accretion of sediment from later flood, river
and aeolian sand transport events leads to the gradual infilling of the shoreline littoral.
 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 40
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 40
Water 2022, 14, 1403 25 of 38

aeolian sand transport events leads to the gradual infilling of the shoreline littoral. That
aeolian sand transport events leads to the gradual infilling of the shoreline littoral. That
the aeolian sand transfer from the southern Huara Valley was also a continual threat to
the aeolian
That sandsand
the aeolian transfer from
transfer the the
from southern Huara
southern Valley
Huara was
Valley wasalso a continual
also threat
a continual threatto
Caral’s city environment was demonstrated by the multiple stone wall capture sand bar-
Caral’s
to Caral’scity environment
city environment waswasdemonstrated
demonstrated by by
thethe
multiple stone
multiple wallwall
stone capture sandsand
capture bar-
riers constructed in open inland areas south of Caral (Figure 28, Figure 29 and Figure 30).
riers constructed
barriers constructed in in
open inland
open areas
inland south
areas of of
south Caral (Figure
Caral 28, 28–30).
(Figures Figure 29 and Figure 30).

Figure 28. A further stone wall aeolian sand transfer barrier placed at the Ostra base camp to the
Figure
Figure 28.
28.
north of AAfurther
the further
Santa stonewall
stone
Valley; wallaeolian
such aeolian sand
sand
defenses transfer
transfer
were typical barrier
barrier placedatatsocieties
placed
of preceramic theOstra
the Ostra base
inbase campcentral
camp
the north totothe
the
north
north of the Santa Valley; such defenses were typical of preceramic societies in the north central
coast.of the Santa Valley; such defenses were typical of preceramic societies in the north central coast.
coast.

Figure29.
29. Furtherstone
stone wallaeolian
aeolian sandbarrier
barrier closesttotoCaral
Caral citylimits.
limits.
Figure 29.Further
Figure Further stonewall
wall aeoliansand
sand barrierclosest
closest to Caralcity
city limits.

CFD-generated Figures 24 and 26 detail the effects of a later flood event that superim-
posed sediment deposits upon a previously established subsea ridge with results specific to
shallow seabed angles. Shown in Figure 25 are the fluid fraction results: f = 1.0 represents
ocean water, f = 0.0 represents the sediment slurry stream and intermediate f values indicate
slurry–ocean water mixture states. Sediment deposits on top of, and on each side of, the
original subsea ridge provide the barrier mechanism for accretion of inland sand and
flood deposits. A trace ridge accumulates seaward of the main sediment ridge and affects
subsequent ridge development as the sea bottom geometry has been altered together with
the river discharge outlet geometry. This result, when repeated for multiple flood events,
Water 2022, 14, 1403 26 of 38

qualitatively demonstrates how sand and flood sediment accumulates inland and behind
(and to a lesser degree, in front of) a beach ridge by multiple flood, river, canal drainage,
and aeolian sand/fines transport. Such changes in the seabed geometry from multiple
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 40
ENSO events alter the composition of fish species available, as well as the availability of
shellfish types that can only exist at certain water depths.

Figure30.
Figure 30.Furthest
Furtheststone
stonewall
wallaeolian
aeoliansand
sandbarrier.
barrier.The
Thebarrier
barriersequence
sequencerepresents
representsefforts
effortstotolimit
limit
sand inundation into urban Caral.
sand inundation into urban Caral.

CFD-generated
The current research Figure[36]24demonstrates
and Figure 26the detail
timethe effects
change in of a later flood event
marine-resource dietarythat
superimposed sediment deposits upon a previously established
patterns derived from beach ridge formations originating from ENSO events occurring over subsea ridge with results
a specific
long time toperiod
shallow onseabed angles.shoreline.
the Peruvian Shown inHere, Figurethe25 are the fluid
cumulative fraction
effect of ridgeresults: f = 1.0
formations
represents seaward
proceeding ocean water,on thef = seabed
0.0 represents the sediment
from sequential ENSO slurry
eventsstream and intermediate
gradually infills bays f
values 24,
(Figures indicate
26 andslurry–ocean
27) and creates water mixture
a changed states.
marine Sediment deposits
environment, on top of,
accommodating and on
different
each
fish side of,
species theshellfish
and original types
subseaover ridge provide
time. For athe barrier
major ENSO mechanism
event, such for accretion
as that whichof in-
land sand
occurred andSupe
in the flood deposits.
Valley area inA the
trace ridge
Late accumulates
Archaic seaward of
Period, adaptation to the main sediment
a changed marine
ridge and affects
environment, subsequent
coupled ridge development
with induced changes in theasvalleythe sea bottom geometry
agricultural has been
environment from al-
tered together
coastal with the
zones to limited river valley
inland discharge outlet geometry.
bottomlands, eventually Thisledresult, when repeated
to limitation in the areas for
inmultiple flood events,
which general qualitatively
agriculture products demonstrates how sandvarieties
and certain agricultural and flood sediment
could accumu-
be grown. As
each
latescoastal
inlandvalley had different
and behind (and tosoil types
a lesser and landscape
degree, in front of)geometries,
a beach ridge it is expected
by multiplethatflood,
the
effect
river,ofcanal
a major ENSOand
drainage, flood eventsand/fines
aeolian would have differentSuch
transport. effects on different
changes valleysgeom-
in the seabed and
affect local sources of food supply.
etry from multiple ENSO events alter the composition of fish species available, as well as
the The composition
availability of beach
of shellfish ridges
types thatdepends
can only onexist
the soil composition
at certain water of individual valleys;
depths.
due toThe thecurrent
northward ocean
research [36]current carryingthe
demonstrates of time
dilute slurryinmaterials,
change beach ridges
marine-resource dietary
occasionally
patterns derivedcontainfrom
a mixture
beachofridge
floodformations
sediments from adjacent
originating southern
from ENSOvalleys.
eventsIn certain
occurring
cases,
over beach
a longridges subjecton
time period to current
the Peruviananalysis ~4600 years
shoreline. Here,afterthe their formation
cumulative may
effect ofhave
ridge
continuity gaps, due to millennia of landscape erosion and
formations proceeding seaward on the seabed from sequential ENSO events graduallydeposition events.
When
infills baysa (Figures
mega El 24,Niño26 flood
and 27)simultaneously
and creates aaffects
changed multiple
marineriver valleys with
environment, a steep
accommo-
offshore seabed slope, sediment fields coalesce to form a large unitary
dating different fish species and shellfish types over time. For a major ENSO event, such ridge spanning the
coastline typical of the ~100 km long Medio Mundo ridge observed
as that which occurred in the Supe Valley area in the Late Archaic Period, adaptation to a to span the littoral
ofchanged
five north central
marine coast river valleys.
environment, coupled A withresult of prograding
induced changes in processes
the valley behind ridge
agricultural
barriers results in the formation of brackish water lagoons and
environment from coastal zones to limited inland valley bottomlands, eventually led to marshes, such as those
limitation in the areas in which general agriculture products and certain agricultural va-
rieties could be grown. As each coastal valley had different soil types and landscape ge-
ometries, it is expected that the effect of a major ENSO flood event would have different
effects on different valleys and affect local sources of food supply.
The composition of beach ridges depends on the soil composition of individual val-
Water 2022, 14, 1403 27 of 38

observed at the Supe Valley river mouth that represent the physical reality of the CFD
prediction. Figure 27 shows a Medio Mundo beach ridge segment and the marsh area that,
prior to a major ENSO event, was a large part the agricultural area for the Archaic Period
coastal site of Áspero [35], whose existence from ~3600 to 2400 BC is noted in Figure 2.
After ~2400 BC, new interior Supe Valley sites proliferated, as additional highland rainfall
supplied amuna water transfer to the Supe Valley served to elevate the groundwater level
and permit extensive interior valley-bottom agriculture [3,35]. As ~1600 BC was the start
of major ENSO events [19,37], as noted in Figure 2, it is likely that a major flood event (or
sequence of events) negatively influenced nearby coastal agricultural field systems.
To date, the continuous extent of the Medio Mundo beach ridge is not available due to
millennia of erosion/deposition events compromising sections of the beach ridge; given
its relation to the demise of Preceramic Archaic Period sites in the 1600 BC time period
due to a major El Nino event (or events), its approximate formation date is on the order of
1600 BC. However, a more reliable estimate of its formation date can be made by examining
the broader history of beach ridges along the northern coast of Peru (Figure 6). The Medio
Mundo beach ridge could not have been deposited prior to sea-level stabilization, so it
is younger than ~6000 cal BP. Given the ridge-forming processes identified in the region,
El Niño floods were active for Medio Mundo to form; this provides a maximum limiting
date of 5800 cal BP. Furthermore, rains associated with El Niño events are attenuated to
the south. Given these formation date limits, the northernmost dated beach ridge plain
(Chira and Colán) began forming ridges earlier than the ridge plains further south. The
available dates place the origin these ridges between about 5000 and 5200 cal BP [37,38]. To
the south, the earliest Piura date is around 4100 cal BP, and the earliest Santa ridge date
is around 4000 cal BP [37,38]. Following this trend, the Medio Mundo ridge should date
between ~3900 and 3700 cal BP. This time span overlaps the latest dates for most of the
north central coast Late Archaic centers and exists in a time frame necessary to influence
the marine resource base of Norte Chico societies.
A further CFD result relates to the Salinas de Huacho area in which vast aeolian sand
accumulation infilled bays. During El Niño events occurring in the southern reaches of
the north central coast, flood sediment was mainly composed of sand transferred from the
Chancay and adjacent southern rivers valleys; a calculation of sand-rich sediment emanat-
ing from the Chancay River (slurry density is approximately ~2.34 slugs/ft3 = 1206 kg/m3 )
indicates sand transfer to the Salinas de Huacho area ~25 km north of the Chancay River.
Multiple flood events would continue the infilling processes to create the observed vast
beach flat area. Again, individual velocity vector patterns, according to the geophysical
values (Figure 23), prevail to create different types of near-shore deposits.
The C14 dates of shallow-water mollusks that lived 0.5–1.0 m below shoreline sands
indicate the 4000–4500 BC shoreline was about 3 to 4 km from the present-day shoreline
(Figure 8), indicating that large scale sediment accretion continuously altered both the
marine and inland farming area resource bases through numerous flood and sand transfer
processes, similar to what Figure 26 predicts. Similar shoreline and inland infilling processes
behind the massive Medio Mundo ridge characterize the north central coastal valleys
bounded by that ridge.
A further example illustrates the ridge-formation process in the presence of the irreg-
ular coastline of the Sanu Peninsula, which forms the southern boundary of the bay on
which Bandurria and Áspero are located (Figure 1). The far offshore Peru Current velocity
is ~4 cm/s, while the shoreline drift currents are ~3 to 7 cm/s but vary northward due to
coastal geometry effects. Figure 31 indicates that the coastal current caused the shifting and
deposit of sediment, creating a curvilinear bay ridge and an inland marsh area, as sediment
drainage was blocked by the ridge (Figure 26).
 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 40

is ~4 cm/s, while the shoreline drift currents are ~3 to 7 cm/s but vary northward due to
Water 2022, 14, 1403
coastal geometry effects. Figure 31 indicates that the coastal current caused the shifting
28 of 38
and deposit of sediment, creating a curvilinear bay ridge and an inland marsh area, as
sediment drainage was blocked by the ridge (Figure 26).

Figure 31. Dot trajectories of the sediment transport paths from the coastal valleys south of the Sanu
Figure 31. Dot trajectories of the sediment transport paths from the coastal valleys south of the Sanu
Peninsula. North of the Sanu peninsula, extreme ocean turbulence and induced rotational flow in
Peninsula. North of the Sanu peninsula, extreme ocean turbulence and induced rotational flow in the
the upper concave shoreline region enhance particle settling, resulting in the shoreline shape mod-
upper concave shoreline region enhance particle settling, resulting in the shoreline shape modification.
ification.
Figure 31 shows the dot trajectories of light sediment particles from flood runoff enter-
Figure 31 shows the dot trajectories of light sediment particles from flood runoff en-
ing the coastal current from southern reaches. Here the shape of a portion of the coastline
tering the coastal current from southern reaches. Here the shape of a portion of the coast-
has influence on the shape of its northward reaches due to the influence on the ocean
line has influence on the shape of its northward reaches due to the influence on the ocean
current velocity distribution. The sediment trail loops around the (gray) Sanu promontory
current velocity distribution. The sediment trail loops around the (gray) Sanu promontory
(near site 1 in Figure 1) to deposit sediments along the shoreline, adding to the expansion
(near
of site 1 in pre-ENSO
the original Figure 1) toevent
deposit sediments
shoreline area. along the shoreline,
The northward adding toshows
dot sequence the expansion
vortical
of the original pre-ENSO event shoreline area. The northward dot
currents depositing sediment to form a further coastal shoreline extension. The CFD resultssequence shows vorti-
cal currents
indicate depositingnature
the qualitative sediment to form
of the a further
prograding coastal
process; shoreline
the extension.
quantitative The CFD
determination
involves detailed knowledge of the rainfall intensity and duration, geographicdetermi-
results indicate the qualitative nature of the prograding process; the quantitative extent,
nation involves
event-time durationdetailed
and theknowledge
amount/type of theofrainfall
surfaceintensity and duration,
material available geographic
for transport by theex-
tent, event-time duration and the amount/type of surface material
eroding action of floods. Sediment transport from the upper-valley areas from flood events,available for transport
by the
river eroding
and aeolianaction of floods.
transport, Sediment
as well as sandtransport
transport from the southern
from upper-valley areasfrom
valleys fromocean
flood
events, river
currents, and aeolian
accelerated transport,
coastal infillingas wellahead
both as sand transport
of and behind from
the southern
Medio Mundo valleysbeach
from
ocean currents, accelerated coastal infilling both ahead of and
ridge extending from the Huara to the Fortelaza Valley. Based on a survey of the lower behind the Medio Mundo
beachValley,
Supe ridge ~3extending
to 5 km from the Huara
of accreted sand,tofines
the and
Fortelaza
clays Valley.
depositedBased
to aon a survey
depth of 3 toof5 the
m
lower Supe Valley, ~3 to 5 km of accreted sand, fines and clays
over the Holocene beach littoral inland of the present shoreline since El Niño floods deposited to a depth of 3
began
tothe
at 5 mtime
overofthe Holocene
sea-level beach littoral
stabilization. Theinland
sandofseas
the inpresent shoreline
the Huara area,since
southElof Niño
the floods
Supe
began subject
Valley, at the time of sea-level
to strong onshore stabilization.
winds, sourced The sand seas in transport
the aeolian the Huaraof area,
vastsouth of the
quantities
Supe
of sandValley,
over thesubject to strong onshore
southernmost mountain winds,
chainsourced
that bounded the aeolian transport
the Supe Valleyof tovast quan-
inundate
tities
the of sand
inland over
valley the southernmost
farming areas. Sand mountain
accumulationschainappear
that bounded the Supe
on the north and Valley to in-
south sides
of the Supe Valley, as the small, intermittent discharge Supe River presented no barrierand
undate the inland valley farming areas. Sand accumulations appear on the north to
south river
across sidesvalley
of theaeolian
Supe Valley, as the small,
sand transport. intermittent
Buried sand layers discharge
covered Supe
over byRiver
laterpresented
farming
no barrier
surfaces areto acrossthroughout
present river valleythe aeolian sand transport.
Supe Valley Buried20),
profiles (Figure sand layers covered
indicating continuousover
by latersand
aeolian farming
and surfaces are present
flood sediment throughout
transfer events over the millennia.
Supe Valley Asprofiles (Figure 20),
a consequence in-
of the
dicating
infilled continuous
bays and lagoon aeolian sand and
formation flood sediment
landward transfer
of the ridges, events
coastal over millennia.
lagoons dominatedAs bya
reeds were created under brackish water conditions; this environment exists in lower valley
plains landward of Áspero.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 29 of 38

8. Changes in the Agricultural Landscape of the Supe Valley

Figures 23 and 25 show the beach ridge formation from a single large-scale El Niño
event to produce the Medio Mundo ridge. This large-scale event sealed off the bay at the
Supe Valley and the shallower Albufero and Medio Mundo inlets and the Pariso bay below
Huacho and to the South, created the Salinas de Huacho sand flats. To the north, bays
and inlets through Bermejo were closed off [1]. With this ridge in place, northward ocean
currents narrowed the width of the ridge in time and deposited material westward of the
ridge to form new beach areas. In time, another El Niño event followed, with river-borne
material cutting through the earlier ridge and depositing new material further westward of
the earlier ridge on the beach deposited by the prior El Niño deposit. This process leads
to sequentially spaced ridges propagating westward into the ocean; due to northwesterly
winds carrying sand, the land between the ridges was gradually buried, leading to the
beach ridge areas shown in Figures 17, 18 and 27. The sequences of ridges formed in
this manner are clearly observed in the infilled Supe Bay, as well as in the Santa Valley
areas among other nearby valleys. With exposed beach flats covered with aeolian sand,
plus sand transport over the northern mountains of the Supe Valley, large sand dunes
formed in the lower Supe Valley, limiting agricultural land areas. The high water table
in the Supe Valley with moist soils provides for increased erosion transport during El
Niño flood events, further reducing valley-bottom arable land; this, in combination with
sand incursion and a loss of marine resources because of a sequence of major El Niño
events, clearly limited Caral’s survival. Limited agriculture on the plateau adjacent to Caral
(Figure 19) provided the only option left to sustain the small population left in Caral post
the ~1600 BC time period.

9. Groundwater Amplification Processes Affecting Supe Valley Agriculture

The limitations to the groundwater drainage due to hydraulic conductivity resistance
from accreted sediment and clays behind beach ridges affected areas and led to the gradual
elevation of the up-valley groundwater profile, causing numerous springs and water pools
to appear in the upper reaches of the Supe Valley (Figures 9–11). Since the lower valley
near the coastal delta areas originally comprised most of the agricultural lands, farming
land loss and reduced soil fertility due to sand accumulation overlays and deposited flood
sediments consisting of eroded sierra gravels and stones, gradually led to agriculture being
transferred further inland to narrow bottomland and plateau locations nearer to Caral
(Figure 4). This transition was further reinforced by flood events that compromised coastal
farming areas. In the near-coastal areas, sediment buildup caused the water table to appear
lower with respect to the ground surface limiting spring formation; in the mid-valley
locations, the water-table height increased due to near-shoreline clay deposits increasing
the aquifer-flow resistance as well as a subterranean geological ‘choke’ contraction on
the Supe River that elevated the local upvalley water table height. To provide surface
water to coastal field systems, river or spring flows would have to be channeled from far
upriver locations to achieve elevation over coastal plains; no such channels are apparent on
valley mountainside margins, indicating the abandonment of coastal agricultural zones.
The rough mountain corridor topography incised by erosion gullies and sand deposits
covering Supe Valley margins prevented long canals originating from valley neck areas
to be extended along valley sidewalls to provide water to lower elevation lands. The
reconnaissance of the southern Supe Valley mountain corridor areas yielded no trace of
long, high-elevation canals.
As a result of flood sediment accretion over the coastal farming zones and sediment
infilling of coastal zones behind the coastal beach ridges forming the Medio Mundo ridge,
only narrow, mid-valley bottomland farming areas irrigated by spring-sourced, short canals
and amuna water supplies remained to replace extensive coastal-zone agricultural areas.
As coastal rainfall is on the order of a few centimeters per year, producing an intermittent
Supe River flow, springs resulting from inland groundwater elevation and sierra amuna
sources (lakes and reservoirs) supported valley agriculture throughout the year, albeit
Water 2022, 14, 1403 30 of 38

in narrow inland valley bottom areas. As testament to the high volume of groundwater
underlying the Supe Valley, a current drainage channel adjacent to the access road to Caral
from the Pan-American Highway flows continuously throughout the year, with a high
velocity drainage flow indicating that water abundance, rather than shortage, to support
multi-cropping throughout the year in the present, as in the past. This drainage channel,
presumed to have an ancient counterpart, was vital to drain fields of excess irrigation water;
this, in turn, limited the salt deposits in agricultural fields that, over time, would limit field
system productivity.
A survey of the Supe River choke point revealed Canal A with a river inlet (Figures 1, 14 and 15)
to support the ramped canal to Chuapacigarro. Due to the riverbed meander and braiding
characteristics of low-slope rivers, rainy season canalized flow to valley bottomland farm
areas proved unreliable as the river channel frequently deviated from the established canal
inlets. As springs developed in the valley bottomland areas distant from the coastline from
amuna-based groundwater elevation as shoreline prograding progressed, the changeover
to spring-supplied canals provided reliable, year-round irrigation systems that additionally
maintained the high-valley groundwater level.
The long, low slope, ramped canal (whose entrance and path is now obscured by dense
plant growth (Figures 12 and 13)) supported the spring-sourced Canal A–C (Figure 15) to
provide water to the plateau field areas. The embankment ramped canal brought water
to Caral and Chupacigarro and was the remedy to add plateau agricultural land areas to
supplement the limited narrow inland bottomland areas subject to flood erosion and/or
coverage by flood sediment. As an anecdotal note, one local farmer employing valley
bottomland for agriculture reported that, as a result of the 1989 El Niño event, 50 hectares
of his farmland were washed away; this observation also held true in ancient times, so that
devastating floods reduced valley bottomland agriculture irreversibly requiring new lands
to be developed on the Caral plateau (Figure 15) to avoid land loss. In the Supe Valley,
the excavation house indicates that a canal provided water integral to Caral city precincts,
although its path remains unexcavated and is no longer available due to landscape erosion.
Canals E, G and C served the site of Chupacigarro, canal D serves modern field systems
and an early Canal B–C (Figure 1) provided irrigation water from a spring at the origin
point of the ramped embankment canal.

10. Sand Incursions Affecting the Supe Valley Agricultural Base

With the formation of the Medio Mundo beach ridge in the ~1600 BC time frame, sand
flats and marsh areas formed near the Supe Valley river mouth near the modern shoreline.
Figure 32 illustrates the aeolian sand transport from the southern Huara Valley south of
the Supe Valley originating from northwesterly winds. Sand accumulations exist from the
archaic times to the present day (Figure 7) in the Supe Valley margins that compromise
agricultural soil fertility and, in Late Archaic period, required sand barriers (Figures 27–29)
to limit sand incursion into the site of Caral proper. The sand incursion extended to swamp
areas behind the Medio Mundo beach ridge and compromised formerly productive coastal
agricultural lands in the Late Archaic Period, as well as in the present day.
Figure 32 summarizes the following processes: localized El Niño flood drainage paths
(1) combined with river fluvial sediment from Fortelaza, Patavilca, Supe and Huara rivers
delivered sediment to coastal areas; (2) flood sediment coalesced into an existing segment
of the Medio Mundo beach ridge with ridge geometry determined by sequential sediment
transport amounts and the oceanic/drift current magnitude; and (3) sand areas trapped
behind the Medio Mundo ridge subject to onshore winds further compromised inland
agricultural land areas through inland dune transport. Remnant sand accumulations on
the Supe Valley northern side limited river flow, reducing the agricultural potential of the
coastal delta area. Increased hydraulic resistance to groundwater drainage from sediment
deposits and clay formation in saturated coastal soils backed up the groundwater height
and led to increased numbers of springs appearing in the valley bottom areas inland from
the coast. This effect was amplified by the northside mountains close to the Supe River exit
Water 2022, 14, 1403 31 of 38

region that choked the groundwater passage; this subterranean contraction effect required
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 40
a groundwater height change to provide the hydrostatic pressure necessary to increase the
groundwater flow velocity through the choke-point region.

Figure 32. Aeolian sand deposit areas in the Huara valley south of the Supe Valley and urban Caral
Figure 32. Aeolian
transferred sandnortheast
by constant deposit areas
windsin (Google
the Huara valley
Earth southphotograph).
satellite of the Supe Valley and urban Caral
transferred by constant northeast winds (Google Earth satellite photograph).
Figure 32 summarizes the following processes: localized El Niño flood drainage
Aeolian sand transport over the low mountains between the Huara and Supe Valleys
paths (1) combined with river fluvial sediment from Fortelaza, Patavilca, Supe and Huara
resulted in burying lower valley agricultural fields with overlays of sand, as shown in
rivers delivered sediment to coastal areas; (2) flood sediment coalesced into an existing
Figures 7 and 32; additional aeolian sand transport to the urban center of Caral was
segment of the Medio Mundo beach ridge with ridge geometry determined by sequential
countered by sand barriers (Figures 28–30) sequentially placed in the southeast canyon
sediment transport amounts and the oceanic/drift current magnitude; and (3) sand areas
open area between the mountain areas. Figure 4 shows the limited extent of the Supe Valley
trapped behind the Medio Mundo ridge subject to onshore winds further compromised
inland bottomlands and the still-existing marsh areas at the Supe Valley mouth bounded
inland agricultural land areas through inland dune transport. Remnant sand accumula-
by the still-existing Medio Mundo ridge. As sand inundation is constant and compromises
tions on the Supe Valley northern side limited river flow, reducing the agricultural poten-
soil fertility, modern farmers are forced to use fertilizer additives to sustain maize crops.
tial of the coastal delta area. Increased hydraulic resistance to groundwater drainage from
Figure 15 indicates that a small part of the lower Supe Valley, nowadays has been restored
sediment deposits and clay formation in saturated coastal soils backed up the groundwa-
for use; this was achieved as clay deposits near the river mouth region have increased
ter height and led to increased numbers of springs appearing in the valley bottom areas
aquifer flow resistance causing a groundwater height amplification that can sustain certain
inland from the coast. This effect was amplified by the northside mountains close to the
marginal crop types with less water needs not requiring irrigation canal networks in the
Supe River exit region that choked the groundwater passage; this subterranean contrac-
near coastal bottomlands.
tion effect required a groundwater height change to provide the hydrostatic pressure nec-
Further east of the valley, amuna water supplies and canalized reservoirs (Figure 11)
essary to increase the groundwater flow velocity through the choke-point region.
to mid-valley farm areas (Figures 12 and 15) now mainly support maize crops for the
Aeolian sand transport over the low mountains between the Huara and Supe Valleys
very limited population that currently exists in the valley. The aeolian sand-transfer
resulted in burying lower valley agricultural fields with overlays of sand, as shown in
process continues to the present day, and it is surmised that, in the Late Archaic times,
Figures 7 and 32; additional aeolian sand transport to the urban center of Caral was coun-
sand incursion episodes were major and extended up to the site of Caral, compromising
tered by sand barriers (Figures 28–30) sequentially placed in the southeast canyon open
agricultural fields far down the river to the coast. This conclusion is supported by a ~3 cm
area between the mountain areas. Figure 4 shows the limited extent of the Supe Valley
sand incursion layer deposited atop the final archaic occupational flood sediment deposits
inland bottomlands and the still-existing marsh areas at the Supe Valley mouth bounded
in many test pit areas of the site, as illustrated by Figure 20.
by the still-existing Medio Mundo ridge. As sand inundation is constant and compromises
In certain Supe Valley areas, the sand layer is stratigraphically overlaid by early
soil fertility, modern farmers are forced to use fertilizer additives to sustain maize crops.
ceramic bearing middens dating to the Initial Period (1600–800 BC), indicating some minor
Figure 15 indicates that a small part of the lower Supe Valley, nowadays has been restored
reoccupation of the Supe Valley sites, other than Caral proper in the valley in which limited
for use; this was achieved as clay deposits near the river mouth region have increased
agriculture could exist. Excavation pits reveal that this sand layer is now largely overlain by
aquifer flow resistance causing a groundwater height amplification that can sustain cer-
soil deposits from extensive modern-day farming. Eventually, the Rio Supe carved a stable
tain marginal crop types with less water needs not requiring irrigation canal networks in
the near coastal bottomlands.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 32 of 38

path to the sea and localized agriculture was returned to near-river margins, in the present
day, but both sides of the valley still show remains of the early inundation of archaic sand
seas. As sand inundation in the post-Medio Mundo epoch compromised valley agricultural
lands and further compromised the marine resource base, an argument for the demise of
the Supe Valley society may be proposed at a time close to the creation of the Medio Mundo
beach ridge in the Late Archaic Period.

11. Conclusions
Based upon the estimated formation date of the Medio Mundo ridge, a major El Niño
event (or sequence of events) started a progression of geophysical landscape changes that
compromised both the Supe Valley near coastal agricultural field systems and the coastal
marine resource base through flood sediment infilling. Additionally, the flood erosion of
thin valley bottomland saturated topsoil led to the reduction in available productive farm
areas. ENSO flood and sand incursion into wide expanses of lower-valley bottomlands
led to the abandonment of near-coastal agricultural lands and the use of narrow upper-
valley land areas that limited agricultural production to lower levels beyond that necessary
to maintain high population levels. Further flood events in the ~1800 BC period led to
agriculture being moved to small terrace areas (Figure 15) close to urban Caral, which
limited the food supply for the growing population of the Supe Valley. This climate crisis
also affected other nearby preceramic sites (Figure 2). The effects of the Medio Mundo beach
ridge barrier and subsequent closely spaced in time flood events (Figure 6) reduced the
agricultural and marine resource base to the extent that large valley populations dependent
upon the pre-existing food resource base experienced a collapse of the coastal–inland trade
network established during earlier periods in which major flood events were not occurring
to any degree. Based upon the decline of food resources related to ENSO events, Supe
Valley sites underwent abandonment, as Figure 2 indicates. Figure 6 confirms the frequency
of major flood and beach ridge events in the ~1600 BC time period to support the reduction
in the agricultural and marine resource base. As further research may show, the large
number of sites in the upper Supe Valley region (Figure 4) may have been an attempt to
redistribute the valley population around transitory functioning land and water sources, as
water and farmland availability for agriculture rapidly decreased in the lower bottomlands
part of the valley over a short time period. Although rainfall continued to charge sierra
basins during El Niño events, the amuna source of water to the Supe Valley bottomlands
only made matters worse by contributing additional flood water over highly saturated
farmland soils. Estimates of the maximum Caral population size [8,10,13] are on the order
of several thousand, based upon the number and the extent of excavated housing areas;
the reduction in food supplies from increasingly smaller agricultural areas, together with a
reduction in the marine resource base, then made life untenable past ~1600 BC.
Ancient (and modern) civilizations of Peru experienced recurrent ENSO episodic
climate change patterns inducing floods, drought and landscape change through inflation
and deflation cycles that affected their cities and agricultural base. Despite these challenges,
several of these societies demonstrated continuity throughout time by relocating their
population to areas with more land and water resources and/or instituting large-scale
inter- and intravalley water-transfer projects [43,44]. While such changes provided a form
of societal continuity for several societies, other societies vanished from the archaeolog-
ical record when their agricultural systems did not respond or permit modification to
use alternate water sources for their agricultural fields. While some societies managed
to overcome environmental challenges by technological innovations applied to modify
agricultural landscapes to maintain food productivity, other Andean societies unable to
implement successful modifications, due to the irreversible damage to agricultural and
marine resource areas, and unable to return to their current resource base, terminated their
existence from the archaeological record [22,27,43–45]. For Late Archaic Period Norte Chico
societies, landscape changes induced by the establishment of large beach ridges from a
major ENSO flood event severely altered the agricultural and marine resource base, to
Water 2022, 14, 1403 33 of 38

the extent that the intra-valley trade network no longer functioned. As food resources di-
minished from reduced farming areas and decreased marine resource availability, changes
in social structure to accommodate a population out of balance with the available food
supply was a likely source of population decline or resettlement to other life-sustaining
areas, although further details of this transformation of Caral society structure is now only
in its early stages of research.
El Niño flood deposition events formed subsea ridges that initiated progradation
processes infilling coastal zones trapped by the ridges. A comparison of the duration
dates of preceramic coastal societies (Figure 1) to beach ridge dates (Figure 2) indicates an
overlap period accompanied by intense El Niño activity. By ~1800 BC, most local sites were
depopulated (Figure 2), indicating a common cause for the abandonment of the central
north coast area. The effects of the gradual loss of the marine and agricultural base of north
central coast societies were likely contributing factors to the abandonment of these major
sites (Figure 2). Evidence of flood events from depositional silt layers and later marsh
formation in the regions west of Áspero [34] verify major flood-event consequences in the
Late Archaic Period. Within the Supe Valley, excavation profiles reveal sedimentary layers
dispersed with sand layers indicative of major erosion and deposition events from ENSO
events. Recent research [36] in the Norte Chico region related to subsistence changes in the
Preceramic and Initial Periods indicates that the presence of littoral changes brought about
by ENSO events caused a shift in the dietary composition of site inhabitants. Bay infilling
in the Huaca Negra area (close to the present-day town of Barranca) was apparently slower,
due to different landscape and valley geophysical conditions than in bay areas to the north,
permitting longer-term shellfish gathering in shallow-bay areas, as well as a shift in netting
small schooling fish to catching fish species found in deeper offshore waters. The gradual
changes in the landscape and offshore bed geometry particular to different coastal valleys
from sequential ENSO events permit, in certain cases, continued, but limited, availability
of a modified food resource base sufficient to reinstitute previous food supply norms. Only
when such transformations are possible, can societal continuance occur, but, in a limited
condition, compared to previous norms.
Since the inland valley bottomlands and sierra foothill areas at the western edge
of the Cordillera Blanca Andes were the source of most springs and water basins that
penetrated the groundwater level (Figures 9–11), agriculture was limited to up-valley
narrow bottomlands and limited ramped canal plateau areas (Figure 19) as a result of
the geophysical landscape changes and aeolian sand incursion from exposed beach flats.
As marine resource extraction was the purview of coastal communities and inland sites
that supported farming, reciprocal product trade diminished between inland and coastal
communities as a result of a major ENSO event (or series of events) that altered previous
trade-basis norms.
To sustain large-scale agriculture in the gradually infilling coastal environment, river
or spring water would have to be channeled onto land surfaces lower than the riverbed
choke point; this would require canal inlets originating far upriver to achieve elevation
over the near-coastal land surface and canal construction on the steep and erosion-incised
mountainside corridor topography on the upper reaches of the Supe Valley to revitalize
lower-valley agricultural lands.
Sand accumulation on mountain slopes limited ambitions for canal extension to lower-
valley areas. Extensive surveys of the southern mountain corridor flanks of the Supe
Valley revealed no high-level canal construction. Thus, the coastal area was progressively
removed from agricultural exploitation and could not be irrigated by canalized river
sources. Since coastal areas decreased in agricultural productivity over time from erosion
of topsoil, overlays of flood sediments and aeolian sand deposition, transfer of agriculture
to narrow valley-bottom farming areas in inland valley locations could not support a large
population. The disruption of the marine resource base from bay infilling and sediment
deposits over mollusk shell beds accompanied the loss of farmlands and the viability of
the economic model upon which Supe Valley society was based. A later Formative/Initial
Water 2022, 14, 1403 34 of 38

Period occupation occurred at some valley sites with limited construction overlay over
earlier temple sites; the sand layers between the construction phases attest to large sand
incursions during the hiatus period.
The results presented relate to the investigations conducted in the Supe Valley and
reconnaissance of the coastal areas of the adjacent Fortaleza, Patavilca and Huara valleys.
These valleys contain Late Archaic Period sites and yield terminal C14 dates for these
sites consistent with those sites in the Supe Valley [30,31,41]. The present analysis extends
investigations [34] detailing reasons for the collapse of the agricultural and marine re-
source base of the Supe Valley society in the Late Archaic Period from the geomorphic
changes described to date and are causative elements contributing to societal disruption
from previously established societal norms established over long time periods with stable
environmental conditions.
Several climate-driven events that altered the ecological conditions beyond recovery
have influenced Andean prehistory. Notable is the collapse/transformation of the southern
Moche V society in the 6–7th Century AD by cycles of high rainfall, severe drought and
sand incursion into their Moche–Chicama Valley homeland [1]; the collapse of the altiplano
Tiwanaku society in the 12th Century AD due to extended drought [37,43,44]; the collapse
of the Lambeyeque Valley Sican and Wari societies in the 12th Century AD due to extended
drought; the collapse of the Chimú intravalley (Moche Valley) canal systems in the 11th
Century AD [43] and El Niño flood catastrophes experienced by the Chirabaya [45] in
far-south Peru. To this list, Caral is a further example based on the rapid decline in
the agricultural and marine resource base, which exerted a profound influence on the
continuance of the economic model of Supe Valley sites. Given the abandonment of major
Late Archaic sites in ~1800 BC in nearby valleys, the environmental change based upon
the formation of the Medio Mundo beach ridge was likely a key event for the similar fate
experienced by the Supe Valley societies.

12. Further Text Notes

1. Evidence of the ENSO events: Refs. [5–7,37]; Figure 6 shows the sequence of events in
the Medio Mundo date range over the extensive length of the Peruvian coastline.
2. Bay infilling results: Figure 27 shows a satellite view of the infilled bay at the mouth
of Supe Valley due to the beach ridge blockage of river drainage paths creating a
marsh area.
3. Farming of the Supe Valley bottom areas: as later phases of coastal Áspero were
contemporary with early phases of Caral origination in 4600 BC, early agriculture
was located close to the Supe River coastline, close to Áspero, with its high water
table and flood transferred fertile sierra soils. The land area was extensive, prior to a
Medio Mundo ENSO flood event that transformed the land area into the later marsh
area location.
Mid-valley Caral amuna water systems for agriculture then provided a safer mid-
valley location for Caral and subsidiary sites, given its amuna water supply that could
accommodate substantial population increases. As later ENSO events created sediment
blockage of previous coastal farming areas and marsh creation, mid-valley agriculture with
mainly amuna water supplies and reservoir-based (Figures 9–11) canal systems permitted
agricultural expansion to support the population increase.
1. Contemporary ENSO events and unsuitability for agriculture: Santa-Viru coastal
area flood events were contemporary with Forteleza–Huara coastal area flood events
caused by a major Medio Mundo event (or closely timed series of events); the de-
struction of mid-valley agricultural soils from flood-amplified, valley bottomland
erosion further amplified by amuna supplied saturated soli thin farming layer erosion,
together with the fact that the Supe River runs over relatively flat land causing the
Supe River to meander under a flood event and overspill its banks and erode river-
side farming areas, indicates that Caral food supply sustainability was continually
challenged by flood events in early phases of its development.
Water 2022, 14, 1403 35 of 38

2. Drainage channels: these are seen in modern times alongside the entry road to Caral;
due to the amuna supplied high water-table amplification, drainage channels were the
only means to regulate local water-table height for specific crop types, both in ancient
and present times. Since ancient mid-valley agricultural systems were likely in form
similar to what exists today, it is likely that a similar drainage system was in use in
ancient times.
3. Level of groundwater post-flood and duration: Supe Valley groundwater remains
within a meter of the farming surface due to the continuous amuna water supply that
continues from ancient times to the present day. The Supe Valley is unique compared
to most other Peruvian valleys as it has too much water and needs a drainage network
to control the water-table height for agriculture. Later ENSO events threatened
agricultural sustainability as flood water easily washed away thin saturated farming
topsoil, given the current-event example described in the manuscript.
4. Abandonment of the valley bottom: Figure 15 indicates the valley-bottom story;
initially, agriculture in the early Late Archaic Period was close to the Supe Valley
coastline area in which sediments over large river-mouth areas had fertile farm soils
washed down from mountain areas. Later, as flood events became more common,
flood events and beach ridges created marsh areas in which farmland once existed;
as mid-valley near-river farm areas were the next alternative after coast area aban-
donment, these areas were, in time, also compromised as saturated amuna thin soil
layers were easily washed away from floods. What remained, as Figure 15 shows,
was that agriculture was moved to the upper plateau area on which Caral was located,
along with far up-valley sites where Supe River water could be used for local, but
smaller, agricultural fields. There were long stretches of time between destructive
events on agricultural systems, where mid-valley agriculture could be successively
used between major El Niño flood events. Presently, Figure 12 (photo taken about
30 years ago) shows the current status of mid-valley agriculture, where amuna water
still supplies the high groundwater now mainly used for maize crops; the earlier 1959
El Niño event compromised existing near-river lands and, after several years, with
a new soil layer deposited from mountain soil deposition and commercially added
fertilizers, lands were used, once again, to continue agriculture.
5. Productivity of areas: Supe valley crop types used in Late Archaic times are described
in the text; the variety of inner-valley crops (plus extensive cotton-planting areas)
provided reciprocal export trade comestibles to coastal areas for their fish and shellfish
exports. The productivity and fertility of crop types was likely enhanced by plowing
under leaf material for their mineral content; this decomposition fertility increase was
aided by the high moisture level of mid-valley farming soils. There were valley areas
of different heights that provided different groundwater moisture levels for different
crop types; for example, cotton growth requires constant water availability, so cotton
plants would be situated on lower-height land areas where the groundwater height
was closer to the land surface. Other crops would accordingly be assigned to land
areas in which the moisture level was appropriate for their growth.
6. Population supportable with agriculture before and after Enso events: initially, at
the early phases of the Late Archaic Period with the limited Supe Valley population,
Caral and near-coastal sites were in the preliminary stages of development using
near-coastal valley delta agricultural lands. Population levels were likely on the
order of hundreds and likely drawn from local valley tribal groups realizing the
agricultural potential of the Supe Valley from its water abundance. Later, as ENSO
events originated and intensified, coastal lands, once fertile sources of agriculture
and marine resources, diminished in productivity leading to mid-valley agricultural
land development; this proved a positive move, as population growth could then
be continually supported from the high water-table amuna water supply for multi-
cropping of a wide variety of crops. Population levels were in the low thousands after
this relocation which likely promoted additional valley sites (Figure 4) and provided
Water 2022, 14, 1403 36 of 38

the labor source for new pyramid constructions (Figure 5). As ENSO events progressed
and intensified, agricultural lands and marine resources were compromised in later
time stages leading to site abandonment of most Supe Valley sites as Figure 2 indicates.
This led to the collapse of inland to coastal trade, as food resources diminished to
non-survivorship levels.
7. From field reconnaissance visits starting from approximately 20 plus years ago to a
recent revisit in 2010, notable landscape features were apparent: linear beach ridge for-
mations and coastal landscape changes from recent ENSO activity (Figures 17 and 18).
In order to determine their origins and given that their features derived from the fluid
mechanics of El Niño flood events, recourse to CFD methods were initiated to show how
these feature could originate. The manuscript’s many computer results (Figures 21–26)
now demonstrate the feature origins and help remove conjecture and speculation as to
their origins. To date, the CFD results prove how beach ridges form linear shapes and
how landscape change originated from El Niño flood events conclusively.

Funding: All finding provided by author.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this
study given in the Acknowledgement section to follow.
Data Availability Statement: All data provided by author.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of his colleagues Michael
Moseley, Daniel Sandweiss, Donald Keefer and especially Ruth Shady-Solis, the official director of
Caral excavations during five years of fieldwork at Caral. All the above-individuals cited contributed
their specialist knowledge and research findings to this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A Supe Valley Site Names

(1) Bandurria; (2) Vichama; (3) Aspero; (4) Upaca; (5) Pampa San Jose; (6) Caballete; (7)
Vinto Alto; (8) Haricanga; (9) Galivantes; (10) Culebras; (11) Las Aldas; (12) La Galgada;
(13) Caral; (14) Rio Seco; (15) Las Shicras; (16) Kotosh; (17) Huarico; and (18) Piruru. The
Allpacota site (Figure 15) lies between sites (8) and (9).

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