Download the full version of the ebook at

https://ebookfinal.com

Heating ventilation and air conditioning

3r.e. Edition Richard Nicholls

https://ebookfinal.com/download/heating-
ventilation-and-air-conditioning-3r-e-edition-
richard-nicholls/

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookfinal.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

2015 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Applications Heating Ventilating

and Air Conditioning Applications SI includes CD in I P
and SI editions Ashrae Handbook Heating Ventilation and
Air Conditioning Applications Si Ashrae
https://ebookfinal.com/download/2015-ashrae-handbook-hvac-
applications-heating-ventilating-and-air-conditioning-applications-si-
includes-cd-in-i-p-and-si-editions-ashrae-handbook-heating-
ventilation-and-air-conditioning-applications/
ebookfinal.com

Faber Kell s Heating Air conditioning of Buildings Tenth

Edition Doug Oughton

https://ebookfinal.com/download/faber-kell-s-heating-air-conditioning-
of-buildings-tenth-edition-doug-oughton/

ebookfinal.com

HVAC Design Manual for Hospitals and Clinics 1st Edition

Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers American
Society Of Heating
https://ebookfinal.com/download/hvac-design-manual-for-hospitals-and-
clinics-1st-edition-refrigerating-and-air-conditioning-engineers-
american-society-of-heating/
ebookfinal.com

Refrigeration and Air conditioning 1st Edition R.K. Rajput

https://ebookfinal.com/download/refrigeration-and-air-
conditioning-1st-edition-r-k-rajput/

ebookfinal.com
Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration 2nd ed
Edition Shan K Wang

https://ebookfinal.com/download/handbook-of-air-conditioning-and-
refrigeration-2nd-ed-edition-shan-k-wang/

ebookfinal.com

Air Conditioning Engineering 5th ed Edition W.P. Jones Msc

Ceng Finste Fcibse Mashrae

https://ebookfinal.com/download/air-conditioning-engineering-5th-ed-
edition-w-p-jones-msc-ceng-finste-fcibse-mashrae/

ebookfinal.com

Heat exchanger engineering techniques process air

conditioning and electronic systems 1st Edition Michael J.
Nee
https://ebookfinal.com/download/heat-exchanger-engineering-techniques-
process-air-conditioning-and-electronic-systems-1st-edition-michael-j-
nee/
ebookfinal.com

Adobe AIR For Dummies Richard Wagner

https://ebookfinal.com/download/adobe-air-for-dummies-richard-wagner/

ebookfinal.com

Nicholls Montgomery and Knowles on The Law of Extradition

and Mutual Assistance 3rd Edition Clive Nicholls

https://ebookfinal.com/download/nicholls-montgomery-and-knowles-on-
the-law-of-extradition-and-mutual-assistance-3rd-edition-clive-
nicholls/
ebookfinal.com
Heating ventilation and air conditioning 3r.e. Edition
Richard Nicholls Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Richard Nicholls
ISBN(s): 9780953940912, 0953940918
Edition: 3r.e.
File Details: PDF, 8.94 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
BELIMO AUTOMATION (UK) . BUILDING CONTROLS GROUP .
BUILDING RESEARCH ENERGY CONSERVATION SUPPORT UNIT
. CALOREX HEAT PUMPS . HEVACOMP . JOHNSON AND
STARLEY . SPIRAX_SARCO . TREND CONTROL SYSTEMS .
GASFORCE . GILBERTS (BLACKPOOL) . HALTON PRODUCTS .
HAMWORTHY HEATING . JOHNSON CONTROL SYSTEMS . JS
HUMIDIFIERS . ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS .
SIEMENS BUILDING TECHNOLOGY . UNIVERSITY OF
NORTHUMBRIA . UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD .
UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE . BELIMO AUTOMATION (UK)

Heating
. BUILDING CONTROLS GROUP . BUILDING RESEARCH ENERGY
CONSERVATION SUPPORT UNIT . CALOREX HEAT PUMPS .
HEVACOMP . JOHNSON AND STARLEY . SPIRAX_SARCO . TREND

Ventilation
CONTROL SYSTEMS . GASFORCE . GILBERTS (BLACKPOOL) .
HALTON PRODUCTS . HAMWORTHY HEATING . JOHNSON
CONTROL SYSTEMS . JS HUMIDIFIERS . ROYAL INSTITUTE OF
and
Air
BRITISH ARCHITECTS . SIEMENS BUILDING TECHNOLOGY .
UNIVERSITY OF NORTHUMBRIA . UNIVERSITY OF

Conditioning
HUDDERSFIELD . UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE . BELIMO
AUTOMATION (UK) . BUILDING CONTROLS GROUP . BUILDING
RESEARCH ENERGY CONSERVATION SUPPORT UNIT .
CALOREX HEAT PUMPS . HEVACOMP . JOHNSON AND STARLEY
. SPIRAX_SARCO . TREND CONTROL SYSTEMS . GASFORCE .
GILBERTS (BLACKPOOL) . HALTON PRODUCTS . HAMWORTHY
HEATING . JOHNSON CONTROL SYSTEMS . JS HUMIDIFIERS .
ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS . SIEMENS
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY . UNIVERSITY OF NORTHUMBRIA .
UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD . UNIVERSITY OF
STRATHCLYDE . BELIMO AUTOMATION (UK) . BUILDING
CONTROLS GROUP . RICHARD NICHOLLS . BUILDING
RESEARCH . ENERGY CONSERVATION SUPPORT UNIT .
CALOREX HEAT PUMPS . HEVACOMP . JOHNSON AND STARLEY
. SPIRAX_SARCO . TREND CONTROL SYSTEMS . GASFORCE .
GILBERTS (BLACKPOOL) . HALTON PRODUCTS . HAMWORTHY
HEATING . JOHNSON CONTROL SYSTEMS . JS HUMIDIFIERS .
ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS . SIEMENS
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY . UNIVERSITY
i
OF NORTHUMBRIA .
UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD . UNIVERSITY OF
Heating
Ventilation
and Air
Conditioning

Third Edition - Academic Year 2001-2002

ii
P R I N T I N G . C O P Y R I G H T

Interface Publishing,
310 Den Lane, Springhead,
Oldham, OL4 4RE, England.

Ó Richard Nicholls 2001

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior
written permission of the Publishers.

First published 1999 R E V I E W E R S

Third edition September 2001

ISBN 0-9539409-1-8 Book reviews are an important tool for ensuring the
validity of textbooks. This book has been reviewed by
Printed in Great Britain by Browns CTP, Oldham. industry specialists. Their training, experience and
Tel. 0161 627 0010 knowledge of current trends place them in an ideal
position for this task. I would therefore like to thank
the following for agreeing to review, suggest changes
and contribute, to sections of this book;

Roger Hitchin - BRECSU

Tony Bowen - Calorex Heat Pumps Ltd.

Marjorie Nicholson - Fenchurch Environmental Group

John Cooper - GasForce Ltd.

Andrew Clarke - Halton Products Ltd.

Chris Lincoln - Hamworthy Heating Ltd.

Doug Paterson - IMI Air Conditioning Ltd.

Rik Prowen - JS Humidifiers plc.

Reg Cross - Nationwide Filter Company Ltd.

John Ledger - Royair Ltd.

...and any other contributors who I have failed to

mention. Any inaccuracies, poor English or other faults
found in this publication are the responsibility of the
author alone.

iii
C O N T E N T S
H E A T I N G - S Y S T E M S V E N T I L A T I O N

1.0 Introduction 3 4.0 Introduction 59

1.1 Wet Indirect Heating 5 4.1 Domestic Ventilation 59

1.2 Gas Boiler 5 4.2 Ventilation of Commercial Buildings 61

Ventilation Systems 63
1.2.1 Boiler Efficiency 11
Boiler Load and Efficiency 15 4.3 Fans 63
Multiple Boilers 15
4.4 Heat Recovery 65
1.2.2 Combined Heat and Power 17
A I R - C O N D I T I O N I N G
1.3 Pumps 19

1.4 Heat Emitters 21 5.0 Introduction 71

Commercial Heat Emitters 23
5.1 Cooling 73
1.5 Domestic Hot Water 27
dhw for Commercial Buildings 29 5.1.1 Heat Pumps 75
dhw Distribution 31
5.2 Absorption Chilling 77
1.6 Controls 33
Controls for Commercial Buildings 35 6.0 Local Comfort Cooling Systems 81
Zoning 37
Building Energy Management Systems 7.0 Centralised Air Conditioning Systems 87
(BEMS) 39
7.1 Filtration 87
1.7 Valves 41 Mechanical Filters 89
Electrostatic Filters 91
1.8 Feed and Expansion 43 Activated Carbon filters 91

2.0 Indirect Warm Air Heating 45 7.2 Heater Coil 93

Commercial Systems 47
7.3 Cooling Coil 93
3.0 Direct Heating Systems 49 Waste Heat Rejection 93

3.1 Convector Heaters 49 7.4 Humidifiers 99

Commercial Warm Air Heaters 51 Wet Humidifiers 99
Steam Humidifiers 103
3.2 Radiant heaters 53
7.5 Dehumidifiers 105
3.3 Direct Water Heating 57
Commercial Systems 57

iv
7.6 Diffusers 107 University of Huddersfield 120
Positioning of Supply Diffusers 109
Extract grilles 111 Halton Products Ltd. 122

7.7 Ducting 111 Hevacomp Ltd. 124

7.8 Dampers 113

Fire dampers 115 E N E R G Y. E F F I C I E N C Y. A D V I C E

7.9 Delivery Systems 115

Keeping Tabs on Energy Efficiency (KTEE) Panels
8.0 Partially Centralised Air/Water Systems 119
KTEE 1 - Energy Efficiency Advice 2

I N D U S T R Y . P A N E L S KTEE 2 - Environmental Effects of Energy

Consumption 8

BRECSU 6 KTEE 3 - Combined Heat and Power 16

Hamworthy Heating Ltd. 14 KTEE 4 - Holistic Low Energy Design 18

Siemens, Landis and Staefa Division 34 KTEE 5 - Home Energy Ratings 24

Johnson Control Systems Ltd. 36 KTEE 6 - Airtightness of Buildings 62

Trend Controls Ltd. 38 KTEE 7 - Energy Efficiency in Mechanical

Ventilation 64
Building Controls Group 40
KTEE 8 - Passive Cooling 70
Belimo Automation UK Ltd. 42, 112
ADDITIONAL.INFORMATION
Johnson and Starley Ltd. 50

GasForce Ltd. 76 Information Panels (IP)

JS Humidifiers plc 98 IP1 - Insulation of Distribution Pipework 4

Spirax-Sarco Ltd. 100 IP2 - Temperature, Energy and Power 10

Calorex Heat Pumps Ltd. 104 IP3 - Motors and Drives 20

Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd. 106 IP4 - Sizing Boilers and Heat Emitters 22

Royal Institute of British Architects 114 IP5 - Human Thermal Comfort 26

University of Strathclyde 116 IP6 - Thermal Capacity, Sensible and Latent

Heat 28
University of Northumbria 118
IP7/1 - Plantroom Position and Size 30

v
IP7/2 - Plantroom Position and Size (2) 32 Directory of Industrial Sponsors 135

IP8 - Schematic - Two Zone Multiple Boiler

System 44

IP9 - Heat Transfer Mechanisms 48

IP10 - Indoor Air Quality 60

IP11 - The Fan Laws 66

IP12 - Economics of Heat Recovery 68

IP13 - Latent Heat Recovery Using Heat

Pumps 72

IP14 - Careful Use of Refrigerants 74

IP15 - Refrigerants and the Environment 78

IP16 - Ventilation and Air-Conditioning

Selector 80

IP17 - Centralised A/C System - Main

Components 86

IP18 - Air Filter Characteristics 90

IP19 - Management of Filters 92

IP20 - Refrigeration Plant Efficiency 94

IP21 - Psychrometric Chart - Structure 96

IP22 - Psychrometric Chart - Uses 102

IP23 - Psychrometric Chart - Diagram 108

Q U E S T I O N S

Questions 126

R E F E R E N C E

Index 132

vi
H e a t i n g . Ve n t i l a t i o n . a n d . A i r. C o n d i t i o n i n g
INTRODUCTION companies and the range of products and services they
offer at an early stage in their careers.
Building services is not a theoretical academic subject.
It is a living, developing field of endeavour which ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
touches everyone's lives. You are probably reading
this in a heated (or air conditioned?) room right now! I would like to thank the many building services and
This book reflects the closeness between the academic environmental science lecturers throughout the
study of building services with its practical application country who have provided information on student
in its format. A traditional textbook is presented on the numbers and have agreed to receive these books and
right hand pages and additional details including distribute them to their students. As such a lecturer
information on commercially available products and myself I know that the increased work load due to rising
their suppliers is given on the left. By linking the student numbers, reductions in funding, course devel-
theoretical descriptions with systems which can be seen opment and research responsibility make any additional
around us in everyday life learning will be enhanced. tasks difficult to accommodate.

CONTRIBUTION FROM INDUSTRY I would like to thank all of the companies whose
advertisements appear in this book and in particular
This publication represents a new way of supplying the marketing managers and reviewers with whom I
textbooks to students studying courses which have have liaised.
strong industrial links. It has been issued free of charge.
All costs have been paid by members of the building ABOUT THE AUTHOR
services industry who, as professionals, are pleased
to contribute to the education of the next generation of Richard Nicholls is a senior lecturer in the department
Architects and Building Services Engineers. The book of Architecture at Huddersfield University. He teaches
can also be purchased by those outside the free environment and services on the Architecture degree
circulation list at £19.99 from the publishers. and postgraduate diploma pathways and is pathway
leader for the MSc. in Sustainable Architecture. He
AIMS has experience of research as a research assistant in-
vestigating low energy housing in the department of
· To give students access to a basic text at no Building Engineering, UMIST and industrial experience
cost to themselves. as a local authority Energy Manager. His most recent
publication is a chapter on water conservation in the
· To introduce students to the basic concepts book "Sustainable Architecture" edited by Professor
and components of heating, ventilation and air Brian Edwards
conditioning systems.

· To improve uptake and understanding of the PUBLISHERS NOTE

subject by presenting photographs of commercially
available equipment alongside the textbook The information given in this book is for guidance only.
description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive. All
relevant standards, regulations and codes of practice
· To enhance the link between education and should be consulted before any work is carried out.
practice.

· To make students aware of the existence of

vii
Downloads - Links - Information
Bookshop

www.info4study.com

The Site for

Students of Architecture,Building
Services and Construction

Page
viii1
2
H E A T I N G - S Y S T E M S

temperatures at the same time. This is because personal

1.0 Introduction preferences vary. However the system should aim to
make the majority of the occupants comfortable. To
During the heating season, from early autumn to late achieve this the heating system should provide design
spring, the weather becomes too cold for comfort. The temperatures and then control them within a narrow
building fabric protects us from the climatic extremes band of variation during occupancy hours.
to an extent, but not enough to provide the comfort
levels that modern society has grown to expect. Com- · Environment - (see page 8) The combustion
fort can only be guaranteed using a space heating sys- of fossil fuels releases gases which contribute to global
tem. Most buildings in Britain require some form of warming and acid rain. To limit the damage, the amount
space heating for the majority of the year. Heating not of pollutant gasses released per unit of heating must
only gives thermal comfort to the building occupants be minimised. Type of fuel used, combustion
but also ensures their health and, in a working characteristics, control and efficiency all contribute to
environment, contributes to their productivity. Finally, minimising the volume of gas released.
heating protects the building fabric from deterioration
by driving away moisture and preventing frost damage. Heating systems can be categorised into one of two
main types these are; indirect heating systems and di-
A requirement parallel to the need for space heating is rect heating systems. The differences between the two
the need for a method of providing hot water for systems will be outlined below. Section 1.1 considers
washing and bathing. Unlike the seasonal requirement indirect heating and section 3.0 considers direct
for space heating, hot water is required all year round. heating.

The basic principle behind heating systems is very Direct heating systems use individual stand alone heat-
simple. Heat is released by burning fossil fuels or by ers in each room where heating is required. The most
passing an electric current through a wire. This heat is common form of direct heating is the use of gas, coal or
used to warm the occupants by radiant or convective electric heaters in a domestic property. The capital and
means (see IP9). Whilst the principle is simple the func- installation costs of any heating system are determined
tions must be carried out in a manner that ensures the by size and complexity. For small systems direct heating
following are satisfactorily considered; has a low initial cost and can be easily expanded at a
later date. Control of individual heaters is simple to
· Economy - There are various costs associated achieve but group control, because of the physical
with heating that must be minimised. These are, initial separation, is more complex. Each heater must be
capital cost, maintenance costs and running costs. provided with its own fuel supply and flue. Direct heat-
During a typical twenty year life of a heating system ing is extensively used as a cost effective form of heat-
running costs will outweigh the initial capital costs ing in domestic, industrial and commercial buildings.
many times over.
Indirect heating systems are known as central heating
· Safety - Heating systems use combustible fu- systems in houses because they generate heat at a
els, operate at high temperatures and release asphyxi- central location, the boiler. The heat must then be re-
ant flue gases. These hazards must be managed so moved from the boiler and delivered to each room. It is
that they do not present a risk to the building or its carried there by a heat transfer medium, which can be
occupants. water, steam or air. Pipes are used to direct the flow of
steam and water and ducts guide the movement of warm
· Comfort - (see IP5) It is not possible to make air. Heat emitters such as radiators (section 1.4) are
all the occupants of a building satisfied with the internal required in the rooms to "hand over" the warmth from

3
I P 1 - I N S U L AT I O N . O F. D I S T R I B U T I O N . P I P E W O R K
Pipework is required to carry fluids as hot as 150oC ture. This is achieved using closed cell insulation prod-
(hthw) and as cold as -20oC through both heated and ucts which have a high resistance to the passage of
unheated spaces. The outcome of this is heat loss from water vapour and by sealing any joins made in the
hot pipes and heat gain by and condensation on cold material.
pipes. Both conditions eventually result in a lack of
system control and thermal discomfort.

HEAT LOSS FROM HOT PIPES

The heat loss rate from a pipe depends predominantly

on its surface area (length of pipe run and pipe diam-
eter), the temperature difference between it and its sur-
roundings and the thermal conductivity of the pipe
and any insulation materials surrounding it. Given that
the pipe length, diameter and fluid flow temperatures
are fixed by heating system design considerations, the
element we can modify to reduce heat losses is the
level of insulation around the pipe. This is recognised
by the building regulations and water bylaws which Figure IP1: Pipe insulation and identification
lay down regulations governing the use of pipe
insulation. CONTROL AND COMFORT

Increasing the thickness of the layer of insulation Pipework is required to carry hot or cold fluids from
increases its resistance to the flow of heat. However, plantroom to location of use such as a heating or cool-
the cost also increases. The cost effective thickness of ing coil. Any heat lost or gained by the pipework will
insulation must be determined change the temperature of
from a knowledge of system the fluid. As a result tem-
design characteristics, fuel perature sensor readings
costs and insulation costs. In Inadequately insulated located early in the
addition to insulating pipes it pipework causes energy pipework may no longer
is necessary to insulate valves wastage, condensation reflect delivery
and other pipe fittings such as temperatures. The ab-
suspension rods. Specialist risks, thermal discomfort sence of reliable sensor in-
jackets are available for this and lack of system formation makes control
purpose or sheet materials can difficult. In addition to this
be used by cutting and forming control thermal discomfort may be
them into an appropriate shape. created as rooms overheat
due to unregulated heat
CHILLED WATER PIPEWORK lost from pipes running through occupied spaces.

Heat gains by chilled water pipework must be consid- THE OZONE LAYER
ered in a similar manner to heat losses. However an
additional feature which must be considered is the pos- chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (see IP15) are no longer
sibility of condensation forming on the cold pipework. used to make foamed pipe insulation as they damage
To avoid this moisture laden air must be kept away the ozone layer. Environmentally responsible manu-
from the cold surface of the pipe or any layer within the facturers now use ozone benign blowing agents such
insulation which is at or below the dew point tempera- as air or carbon dioxide.

4
the heating system to the room air. also be made for horizontal and vertical service
distribution runs throughout the building [see IP7].
The advantages of indirect heating systems arise from
the fact that most of the equipment is concentrated at
a single location. This means only one flue and one
fuel supply are needed to satisfy the entire building.
This centrality means it is also possible to achieve a
high level of control over the entire system.

There are many types of building with various func-

tions such as domestic, retail, industrial, educational
and commercial. Within each of these categories there
are different forms, fabric and heat loadings. Because
of this it is impossible here to describe suitable heating
systems to suit all buildings. This book will simplify
matters by referring to two basic types of building:
domestic which refers to housing and commercial
which are buildings larger than domestic such as
offices. In section 1.1 the components which make up
an indirect heating system will be described using
domestic central heating as a basis. Detail will also be
given on how the domestic system is modified to sat-
isfy the heating demands of large buildings. Figure 1.1 Wet indirect heating system

A number of companies produce packaged plant rooms

1.1 Wet Indirect Heating which are delivered to site pre-assembled resulting in
savings in both time and costs. These units may be
A wet indirect heating system uses water as the heat accommodated within the building or are containerised
transfer medium. The main components of a wet indirect for locating outside the building or on the roof top.
heating system are shown schematically in figure 1.1.
Each of these components will be discussed more fully
in sections following the numbering on the diagram. 1.2 Gas Boiler
In domestic properties it is likely that the boiler is ac- The heart of an indirect space and water heating system
commodated in the kitchen either floor standing or wall is the boiler. This section will concentrate on gas boilers
mounted. In commercial buildings where the quantity however it should be remembered that oil fired boilers
of heating plant is greater it is necessary to have a are available using liquid instead of gaseous fuels. The
purpose built plant room. The plant room must be well disadvantage of oil boilers is that oil deliveries must be
ventilated and have sufficient room for the equipment organised and space allocated for oil storage. Electric
and access to it for maintenance. Plant rooms are usu- boilers are also available, here the system water circu-
ally situated on the ground floor where the weight of lates over an electrical heating element. Electricity is
the heating system can easily be supported. Ventila- more costly than gas or oil per unit of energy but the
tion air for the plant room is typically provided through system has the advantage of small physical size, no
an access door leading to the outside which has requirement for a flue and ability to function where no
louvered openings. Initial estimates of plant room size gas supplies exist.
are based on rules of thumb, usually a small percent-
age of the total floor area. The actual percentage varies A gas boiler is a device which burns gas in a control-
depending on the complexity of the heating system. led manner to produce heat. This heat is transferred,
As well as space for the plant room allowance must using a heat exchanger, to water which circulates

5
Energy Efficiency Best Practice
Programme (EEBPP) Web site

Log on
and register for
FREE
Information
Events
Advice and Support
News

WWW.
ENERGY-EFFICIENCY
.GOV.UK
6
around the heating circuit. Burner. For optimum performance all of the gas that
enters the boiler must be burned. To achieve this the
Boilers are specified in terms of their power measured burner must mix the gas with the correct quantity of air.
in kilowatts (kW). A boiler for a typical four bedroom This is known as a stoichiometric mix of gas and oxy-
detached house would be rated at approximately 15 gen. Insufficient air would result in incomplete com-
kW. A small flat or low energy house may need a boiler bustion with carbon monoxide being produced and
as small as 5 kW. Large buildings would need several dangerous unburnt gas building up. Too much air and
hundred kilowatts of boiler power. the combustion gases will be diluted and cooled. The
burner is designed to mix gas and air to give the most
The main components of a boiler are shown in figure safe and efficient combustion possible. Atmospheric
1.2 and are described below. burners use the pressure of gas in the mains and
buoyancy in the flue to draw combustion air into the
burner. Forced draught burners use a fan to input com-
bustion air. This allows a greater degree of control over
the combustion process resulting in reduced boiler
sizes.

In commercial buildings large amounts of fuel are used

so it is important to buy it at the lowest price. To help in
fuel purchasing boilers supplying large buildings can
be fitted with dual fuel burners. These can use either
gas or oil. It is possible to switch between fuels to use
the fuel which at that time is the cheapest.

Amongst the combustion products of gas or oil are

various nitrous oxides collectively known as NOx. NOx
is a polluting gas and so European regulations exist to
limit the amount of NOx produced by burners for a
given heat output. In response to this burner manufac-
turers have updated their products to meet and often
exceed the requirements of this legislation.

Flame Failure Device (FFD). Flames are detected by

Figure 1.2 Parts of a boiler this unit and if present gas is allowed to enter the burner.
If the flames are extinguished for any reason the gas
Gas Valve. This valve is normally closed. It is opened valve will be closed. This avoids a dangerous build up
by a solenoid allowing gas to flow into the burner if of unburnt gas within the boiler.
there is a call for heat and safety conditions are satis-
fied. If there is a loss of power or a signal indicating a Control Unit. This is an electronic device which re-
fault is sent from the control unit then the valve will ceives signals from the FFD and Thermostats. Using
automatically close. this information it controls the operation of the gas
valve, pump and ignition systems. Time control is also
Pilot Light. This is a small flame which burns continu- carried out by this unit to make sure that the heating
ally. Its function is to ignite the gas/air mix as it leaves system only operates when it is required. Each type of
the burner. An alternative is to use electronic spark boiler has its own control strategy, individual boiler
ignition. Electronic ignitions have a greater degree of manufacturers should be consulted for further details.
technical complexity but give improved boiler economy
by eliminating the gas used by the pilot light at times Boiler Thermostat. This is a temperature sensor which
when the boiler is not required to fire. is used to control the boiler flow temperature. Boiler

7
8
flow temperature is the temperature of water leaving movement of flue gases in atmospheric burners is by
the boiler. It is this which determines the radiator natural buoyancy. Forced draught boilers use fans to
temperature. The hotter the water the greater is the discharge the products of combustion
heat output of the radiators. It is usual to set the boiler
thermostat higher in winter than summer because of There are various arrangements of flue. However, each
this. This process is carried out manually on domestic one exhibits the common functions of safely exhaust-
boilers however commercial boilers are fitted with a ing flue gases whilst at the same time preventing the
device called a compensator which carries out the func- burner flames being blown out by excessive draughts
tion automatically. Compensators are discussed more through the system. One method of preventing this is
fully on page 35. A separate overheat thermostat pro- to use a draught diverter (figure 1.3). Upwardly mov-
vides a safety function by cutting out the burner if the ing flue gases pass up and around a baffle plate. If
temperature should increase too much. Thus avoiding wind causes the direction of flow to reverse then the
overheating of the boiler. plate causes the flue gases to temporarily spill over
into the boiler house rather than enter the boiler. The
Heat Exchanger. Made of materials such as cast iron, draught diverter also prevents excess air being pulled
steel and aluminium the heat exchanger is designed to through the boiler should there be excess suction from
give maximum thermal contact between the hot com- the flue itself due to wind or buoyancy effects.
bustion gases and the circulating water. The heat ex-
changer of large boilers may be delivered to site in
sections which are then bolted together. There is a
variety of heat exchanger forms. Some are positioned
over the burner and the hot flue gases rise up through
the heat exchanger. Other heat exchangers surround
the burner and the combustion gases have to pass
through channels in the heat exchanger to escape. This
means the flue gases have to pass the heat exchanger
twice thereby improving the transfer of heat into the
heating circuit.

Flue. When gas is burnt in air carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, nitrous oxides and water vapour are pro-
duced. Carbon monoxide is an asphyxiant and would
kill the occupants of any room in which it accumulated.
To avoid this, it is necessary to have a flue which car-
ries away the waste products of combustion and safely
discharges them outside of the building. A flue is es-
sentially a duct connected to the boiler combustion Figure 1.3 Flue draught diverter
chamber, terminating outside of the building. The flue
run should be as straight as possible to avoid unnec- The Balanced Flue (Figure 1.4) is a dual function flue
essary restriction to the flow of flue gas. Horizontal which takes combustion air from outside the building
runs should be avoided to allow flue gases to rise and supplies it to the burner. The same unit discharges
continuously. It should terminate at a location where the flue gases outside. The benefit of this flue is that
the flue gases cannot re enter the building. Hence, for any wind pressures act on the inlet and outlet equally.
example, flues cannot discharge near windows. The As a result flows through the flue will be stable ensur-
flue will also have a terminal unit which acts to keep ing the burner flames will not be blown out. Because
the outlet of the flue open by, for example, excluding both the combustion air and flue gases enter and leave
the entry of nesting birds. Flue gases are hot and so the boiler without making contact with the room air the
the terminal should not be located in a position where boiler is known as a "room sealed" appliance.
it could be touched by anyone passing by. The

9
IP2 - T E M P E R AT U R E , E N E R G Y. A N D . P O W E R
Three terms commonly used in building services stud- The amount of energy held in any of the above forms
ies are temperature, energy and power. The latter two can be quantified. To do this we need units of energy.
can easily be confused. This information panel aims to The basic scientific unit of energy is the Joule (J). But
clarify the definition of these terms and give examples this unit is too small for describing the quantities of
related to buildings. energy used in buildings. Instead we normally use the
unit, Watt hour. This is still small so we use
TEMPERATURE thousands(kilo (k)) of Watt hours i.e. kilowatt hour
(kWh). 1kWh is equivalent to 36,000,000 Joules! or 0.036
The scale of temperature commonly used in building Gigajoules (GJ). Typical energy values encountered in
studies is the Centigrade scale. This is a scale set be- buildings are;
tween the temperature of melting ice and the tempera-
ture of boiling water. These temperatures are zero de- Energy used by a 1 bar electric fire each hour = 1 kWh
grees centigrade (0oC) and one hundred degrees centi- Energy used to heat a house for one year, 40,000kWh
grade (100oC) respectively. Typical temperatures en- Energy contained in 1m3 of gas = 10.5 kWh
countered in buildings are; Energy contained in 1kg of coal = 9.02 kWh
Energy contained in 1 litre of oil = 10.4 kWh
Design outside air temperature, -1oC
Average annual outside air temperature, 6oC Note when heat is added to an object its temperature
Chilled water flow temperature, 6oC increases. When heat is removed from a body its tem-
Room temperature (active e.g. gymnasium), 16oC perature decreases.
Room temperature (sedentiary e.g. office), 21oC
Human core body temperature, 37.5oC POWER
Boiler flow temperature, 82oC
Boiler return temperature, 70oC Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can change
Max. temperature of radiant tube heater, 450oC from one form to another. The rate at which this change
occurs in a system is called the power of the system.
Another scale of temperature used by building scien- For example, a gas boiler is a machine to convert chemi-
tists, and one which you may encounter, is the Kelvin cal energy (gas) to thermal energy (heat). This conver-
scale of temperature. The divisions on this scale are sion is not instantaneous, it occurs over time. If, in a
exactly the same as on the centigrade scale i.e a change given time, a boiler converts more gas to heat than a
(D) of one degree centigrade is equivalent to a change second boiler, then the first boiler has a greater power.
of one degree Kelvin (D1oC º D1K). The kelvin scale
starts at 0K which equals -273oC so 0oC would therefore The unit of power is the Watt (W) (1W=1Joule/second).
be equivalent to 273K. Once again this is a small unit so we often use kilowatts
(kW). Typical power values encountered in buildings
ENERGY are;

Energy is thought of as the ability to do work. There Light bulb = 100W

are various forms of energy, for illustration they can be 1 bar electric fire = 1 kW
described in relation to a CHP unit (page 17). The forms Boiler for a low energy house = 4kW
of energy are; chemical energy as is contained in fuels Boiler for a detached house = 12 - 18 kW
such as coal, oil or gas, mechanical energy which is Commercial boiler = 150kW
held by rotating objects such as the flywheel of a CHP Domestic refrigerator = 150W
unit, thermal energy (Heat) that is released by burning Typical split A/C unit = 0.8 to 3kW (electrical input)
fuels and electrical energy which is produced by the giving 2.4 to 9kW of cooling
CHP unit generator. Note that thermal energy is often
simply referred to as heat

10
Ventilation and combustion air is required in rooms boiler discharges its combustion gases into this air-
where non room sealed combustion appliances are op- flow and so they become cooled and diluted. It is then
erating. It is needed to supply sufficient air to allow possible to discharge the flue gases into a well venti-
complete and safe combustion of the gas. In large in- lated area such as above the rear exit of a building.
stallations ventilation also helps to disperse unwanted Dilution air inlet and flue gas outlet should preferably
heat build up. In housing, purpose provided ventila- be on the same side of the building to avoid draughts
tion for small (less than 7 kW) and room sealed appli- blowing through the system.
ances is not required. However for non room sealed
and larger appliances purpose built air vents should
be provided connecting the room to the outside air.
There are exceptions and reference should always be
made to current regulations and manufacturers data.

Figure 1.5 Fan dilution system

1.2.1 Boiler Efficiency

The efficiency of a boiler is a measure of how well it
converts fuel to heat.

Figure 1.4 Balanced flue Boiler heat input is in the form of gas or oil. When this
is burnt the aim is to transfer all of the heat that is
In commercial buildings ventilation is usually provided released into the heating circuit. A system that achieved
through ventilation openings in the plant room walls this aim would be 100% efficient. For safety reasons
or door. It can also be supplied to internal plant rooms waste combustion gases must be cleared from the boiler.
using a fan and ducting running from outside to the This is carried out by allowing the natural buoyancy of
plant room. Sensors in the ducting are interlocked with the hot flue gases to carry them up and out of the flue.
the boiler controls. These interlocks switch off the Unfortunately the heat contained in these gases is lost
boilers if the ventilation air supply is stopped for any to the system. As a result any flued combustion appli-
reason such as failure of the ventilation fan. ance can never operate at 100% efficiency. When se-
lecting a boiler reference is made to manufacturers in-
Fan Dilution is a flue system which cools and dilutes formation contained in product data sheets. Figures
the flue gases so that they may be discharged at low for efficiency are usually given but if not it can be eas-
level. The system works by drawing air from outside ily worked out from quoted heat input and output val-
the building along a horizontal duct (figure 1.5). The ues (figure 1.6).

11
12
Three classes of boiler efficiency can be identified; (hence the name). In this way the heat exchanger re-
covers both sensible and latent heat from the flue ga-
Standard Boilers. A standard boiler is one which pro-
vides good quality utilitarian heating but has no cost
increasing features that would enhance its efficiency.
The efficiency of all boilers varies with the amount of
work they are required to do, known as the boiler load.
For this reason the average efficiency of a standard
boiler over the heating season is usually given as the
seasonal efficiency. For a standard boiler this is typi-
cally 75%. The variation of efficiency with load is dis-
cussed more fully in a later section.

Figure 1.7 Features of a high efficiency boiler

ses. To ensure that the boiler condenses the return

water temperature must be below 53oC. Seasonal
efficiencies are as high as 92%. This mode of operation
does however, present design challenges. Firstly the
cooled flue gases lose their buoyancy and are generally
cleared by a fan (figure 1.8). Secondly the flue gas con-
densate is slightly acidic and so the heat exchanger
must be made of none corrosive materials such as stain-
less steel. The condensate itself must be collected and
drained away. All of these features add about 50% to
the cost of a condensing boiler in comparison to a
standard boiler for the same rating. However their high
efficiency makes them economical with the extra capi-
tal costs typically being recovered in the value of en-
Figure 1.6 relationship between efficiency and heat ergy savings within three years.
output and input.

High Efficiency Boilers. These boilers are more costly

than standard boilers because they include features
such as a larger heat exchanger, additional casing in-
sulation, electronic ignition and flue dampers (fig 1.7).
These features; absorb more heat from the flue gases,
reduce casing heat losses, stop gas usage when there
is no call for heat and prevent convective loss of heat
when the boiler finishes firing respectively. As a result
the seasonal efficiency is improved to approximately
85%

Condensing Boilers. These boilers have a high oper-

ating efficiency. This is due to their large heat exchanger
which extracts so much heat out of the flue gases that
the vapour in them condenses onto the heat exchanger Figure 1.8 Features of a condensing boiler

13
www.hamworthy-heating.com

14
BOILER LOAD AND EFFICIENCY specific controls for heating systems over 100 kW rat-
ing. As an example, a multiple system of boilers used to
The efficiency of a boiler varies with the load upon it. satisfy a 100 kW load is shown in figure 1.10. It can be
High load is when the boiler is being asked to do a seen that the 100 kW load is provided by four 25 kW
great deal of work. For example, first thing in the morn- boilers feeding heated water into a common flow pipe
ing when the building and domestic hot water are both and supplied by a common return. The first benefit of
cold. In this situation the boiler will fire continuously this arrangement of boilers is that there is back up if
and the flue and casing losses will be small when com- one of the boilers should fail. It can be isolated and
pared to the heat being input to the rooms. An example heating can still be provided, albeit at a reduced capac-
of a low load situation is at the end of the day when the ity, by the other boilers. The second benefit is that the
building has warmed through and the tanks are filled boilers are fired in a progressive manner to satisfy the
with hot water. The boiler will be cycling, that is firing load. So for example in the morning when there is a
for short periods then stopping just to keep heat levels high load situation all of the boilers will fire. Later in
topped up. Almost as much heat will be lost by the day when the building has started to warm through.
convection up the flue as is given to the heating system. Boilers 1 and 2 will fire continuously with boilers 3 and
Hence efficiency will be low. Figure 1.9 shows a graph 4 shut down. At the end of the day when top up heat-
of efficiency against proportion of full load for the ing only is required only boiler 1 will be firing. The
three types of boiler discussed previously. progressive mode of operation means that each boiler
will only be firing near its full output rating. The sys-
tem as a whole will therefore maintain a high efficiency
even though the load is decreasing.

Figure 1.9 Graph of efficiency vs load

From the graph it can be seen that whilst standard

boilers are effective when operated at high loads their Figure 1.10 Multiple boilers for a 100 kW load
efficiency falls off when the load on them decreases.
The efficiency can fall as low as 35%. In comparison, Progressive operation of the boilers requires a control
the high efficiency boiler has a higher efficiency over- process known as boiler step control. It is based on
all and has improved low load efficiencies. The con- boiler flow temperature. If this falls it is an indication of
densing boiler has high efficiencies at all loads. The increased demand for heating. As a result more boilers
efficiency at low loads remains high at 75%. Higher will be made to fire. Boiler 1 will be required to fire for
efficiencies mean lower fuel costs and less pollution. more hours than any other boiler since it will operate
during both high and low load situations. The boiler
MULTIPLE BOILERS which is the first to fire up and last to switch off in any
heating period is known as the lead boiler. To avoid
In non-domestic buildings one way of ensuring that unbalanced wear on the boilers the lead boiler will be
boilers fire near their high load rating is to operate them cycled each week. So in week one boiler 1 will lead, in
as part of a multiple system of boilers. This is recog- week two boiler 2 will lead and so on until after four
nised by the building regulations (L4) which require weeks boiler one will once again be the lead boiler.

15
16
 the use of CHP units. These are derived from replacing
1.2.2 Combined Heat and power station generated electricity by CHP generated
electricity. For example, the efficiency of a coal fired
Power power station at producing electricity is approximately
35%. 65% of the energy value of the coal is lost as
Combined heat and power (CHP) units are an additional waste heat in the flue and cooling towers of the power
source of heat for some buildings. CHP units are based station and in transmission losses in the grid cables. A
on internal combustion engines similar to car or tractor CHP unit has comparable electricity production effi-
engines (figure 1.11). They have spark plugs an engine ciency but the waste heat is used in the buildings heat-
block and cylinders. The first difference to a vehicle ing system.
engine is that instead of running on petrol or diesel
they run on gas (natural, biogas or bottled). Secondly The economics of CHP units is complex and involves a
rather than drive a set of wheels the motive force balance between savings in energy bills against capi-
generated by the engine is used to drive an electricity tal and running costs. CHP units produce electricity at
generator. This is the "power" part of the output. In- a unit cost which is much cheaper than can be pur-
stead of a radiator to exhaust the waste heat from the chased from the grid. But for the savings from this to
engine to atmosphere the CHP unit has a heat exchanger pay back the capital cost of the installation the CHP
which transfers this heat into the heating system unit must run for the maximum number of hours possi-
circulation. CHP units are also based on gas turbine ble. Balanced against this is the fact that the CHP unit,
technology giving increased heat and power outputs. like any engine, requires periodic routine maintenance.
This involves changing oil, filters and spark plugs. CHP
maintenance costs are high.
Figure 1.12 Energy flow diagram for a CHP unit

Figure 1.11 Combined heat and power unit

The efficiency of the CHP unit at producing heat is

lower than that of a gas boiler at approximately 60%. To maximise the running hours, which is necessary to
This can be increased by 5% if an extra heat exchanger save energy and pay back the capital and maintenance
is used to recover additional heat from the exhaust costs, the following three stranded strategy must be
pipe and oil cooler. This gives a heating efficiency followed.
which is still lower than a gas boiler. However, when
the heat output is combined with the energy value of Firstly the CHP energy output must be matched to the
the electricity output the efficiency is greatly increased, building in which it is installed. A unit must be selected
to approximately 85%. This is illustrated in the energy whose output satisfies the base heating and electricity
flow diagram for the CHP unit shown in figure 1.12. demand which occurs all year round. If the CHP gives
There are environmental benefits to be obtained from out more heat than is required the system controls will

17
18
switch it off to avoid over heating, cutting down the fice. However commercial heating systems contain
running hours. If the CHP gives out more electricity a large volume of water which may have to be
than is required by the building it will have to be used pumped great distances. In this situation high ca-
by other buildings on the site or exported to the grid. pacity twin head pumps are required. Twin pumps
The export of electricity requires the installation of extra are required to give stand-by capacity if one of the
meters and unfortunately the price paid by the electricity pumps should fail. This is because a loss of pump
companies for electricity deposited into the grid is low. power in a commercial building would result in an
It can be seen therefore that a high and consistent unacceptable loss of heating.
base demand is required for economic operation of the
CHP unit. This tends to make them more suitable to
buildings such as leisure centres and hotels with swim-
ming pools.

Secondly, the CHP unit will be part of a heating system

incorporating gas boilers to provide the above base
heat demand. To make sure the CHP has maximum
chance to run it must be the first heating device the
system return water encounters on its way back to the
plant room. In other words the CHP must be in series
with the boiler heating system.

Thirdly, the CHP must undergo routine maintained at

the specified intervals. In addition, many units are fit-
ted with sensors, control devices and modems that
allow them to auto dial a maintenance company if the
CHP should stop running due to the occurrence of a
fault. This will allow rapid attendance by a service en-
gineer to rectify the fault.
Figure 1.13 Twin head pump

1.3 Pumps Only one pump runs at a time, this is called the duty
pump, the other acts as a stand-by. It is usual to run
It is the job of the pumps to make the water circu- each pump for 1500 hours then change over to the
late between the boiler and heat emitters within the other to even out the wear on them. This process
heating system pipe work. can be carried out manually via the pump control
panel. However in modern systems this is carried
The three main components of a pump (figure 1.13) out automatically using a building energy manage-
are an electric motor, an impeller and the casing. ment system (BEMS) (section 1.6). As well as routine
The electric motor is directly coupled to the drive cycling of pumps a BEMS can detect pumps failing
shaft of the impeller. Water on the inlet side enters if they are fitted with a suitable sensor and auto-
the pump in the centre of the impeller. The impeller matically isolate it and start up the stand-by pump.
rotates driving the water out towards the casing by
centrifugal force. The water outlet is situated off Variable speed pumps. An energy saving develop-
the centre axis of the pump. As a result the pump ment in pump technology is the variable speed drive
casing must be cast to arrange the inlet and outlet pump. This system does not run at a fixed speed
flows to be along the same centre line. The pump is but varies its speed and hence pumping power de-
then known as an "in-line pump". pending on the work it is required to do. For exam-
ple, if a heating zone is warm enough valves will close
In domestic heating systems a single pump will suf- isolating its heat emitters from the heating flow. As

19
I P 3 - M O T O R S . A N D . D R I V E S
Electric motors are everywhere in building services. DRIVE SYSTEMS
They drive fans, pumps, lifts escalators and process
machinery. In a typical prestige air conditioned office, The majority of motors run at a fixed speed. Variations
fans and pumps account for 20% of the total electrical in demand are usually satisfied using flow control de-
consumption (1). For comparison refrigeration only vices. For example in a warm air heating system as the
consumes 11% of the total. Motors are, therefore, key demand for heating falls the supply of warm air to the
services components and major consumers of energy. space will be reduced by closing a damper. The fan
motor continues to operate at fixed speed.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
There is a rule affecting
Most electric motors used in motors, known as the cube
building services are of the AC law, which states that
induction type. Single or three Electric motors are electricity savings are pro-
phase alternating current is fed portional to the cube of
through copper coils in the everywhere in buildings. reductions in speed. This
stator creating a magnetic field. They are key components means that cutting the
This magnetic field induces an- motor speed by 20% will
other in the rotor. This causes and major consumers of give a 50% saving in
the rotor to spin in the same energy. electricity consumption.
way that like poles on bar mag- From this it can be seen
nets push apart. This spin can that even modest
be used to drive the impellers reductions in motor speed
of pumps (section 1.3) and fans (section 4.3). will result in considerable energy savings. There are
three types of variable speed drive (VSD). These are(2);
HIGH EFFICIENCY MOTORS
A two stage motor i.e. fast/slow/off operation. This is
Motors are machines that convert electricity into move- cheap and gives reasonable savings.
ment. Like most machines their efficiency is less than Electromechanical systems. Using gears, drive belts
100%. The wasted proportion is seen as heat, arising and slip disks to vary drive speed. These are robust
from overcoming friction and created as a result of re- but do not give maximum savings.
sistance in the windings of the motor. The efficiency An inverter. This converts 50Hz mains electricity to
of a typical 3kW motor is approximately 81%. DC. It then re converts it to AC at a frequency depend-
ent on load. Increasing the frequency in response to
It is possible to increase the efficiency of motors by increasing load increases the speed of the motor and
using low loss electrical steels and by increasing the vice versa. This system gives maximum flexibility and
thickness of wires used in the motor construction. This so maximises savings.
reduces resistive and inductive heating in the windings.
As a result the motor cooling fan can be made smaller Additional benefits from VSDs are reduced maintenance
which adds to increased efficiency. These modifications costs and reductions in electrical standing charges.
increase the 81% motor efficiency by 4% i.e. up to 85%.
This does not seem a large improvement but when you Further information
consider motors run for up to 24 hours a day the cumu- 1. Energy Efficiency Office. Energy Consumption Guide
lative savings are very large. The additional cost of a 19: Energy Efficiency in Offices. HMSO 1992.
high efficiency motor (about 25% more than a conven-
tional motor) will typically be paid back within the first 2. Energy Efficiency Office. Good Practice Guide 2:Guid-
year of operation. Some manufacturers now offer high ance notes for Reducing Energy Consumption Costs
efficiency motors as standard of Motor and Drive Systems. HMSO 1993.

20
a result less water will need to be pumped around diator warms the room by losing heat to it. The radia-
the heating circuit. A variable speed pump will sense tor gives out heat partly by radiation but mainly by
this and slow down. This is illustrated in Figure convection. Convection occurs when the radiator heats
1.14 which shows that the energy consumption of a up the room air in contact with it. The air becomes less
fixed speed pump remains constant as the demand dense and so rises to the ceiling where it mixes with the
for water flow falls. The variable speed pump slows rest of the room air. Cooler air from beneath the radiator
down to match demand resulting in a fourfold re- is drawn up to repeat the process. Because it has lost
duction in electricity consumption for each halving heat to the room, water leaving the radiator and returning
of pump speed. to the boiler is typically 10oC cooler than the flow tem-
perature. In order to achieve this temperature drop the
flow of water through all the radiators in the system
must be regulated during commissioning. This is car-
ried out by opening or closing lock shield valves fitted
on the radiator outlets to increase or decrease the flow
rate respectively.

For a given boiler flow temperature the heat output of

a radiator is determined by the size of its surface area
for convection. The single panel radiator (figure 1.15)
is the simplest pattern. It is two pressed steel panels
sealed by welding on all sides. Its shape gives it an
internal void, which fills with hot water, and surface
convolutions which increase its surface area. The sin-
gle convector radiator has this same basic panel but
has an additional corrugated plate spot welded to its
Figure 1.14 Graph of pump electrical use against back surface. This plate increases the effective surface
percentage of flow area over which convective heat loss can take place.
Two other patterns are shown which also increase heat
By exercising variable speed control of the pumps output by increasing surface area further. The heat out-
considerable amounts of energy and hence money puts of each of these radiators is given for a 600 mm
can be saved. Using less energy also gives a high by 1000 mm long radiator. It can be seen that in
reduction in the output of pollutant gases from comparison to the single panel radiator the heat out-
power stations (see IP3). puts of the single convector, single panel / single con-
vector radiators and double convector radiators are
43%, 112% and 170% bigger respectively.
1.4 Heat Emitters
The benefit of increased heat output is that the physi-
Heat emitters transfer the heat from the heating system cal size of the radiator can be reduced for a given heat
to the rooms requiring warming. This is usually carried output. A feature which is useful in confined spaces
out by convection and radiation from a surface heated such as where sill heights are low. However it must be
by the hot water flowing through the heating circuit. remembered that the cost and depth of the radiators
To avoid overheating the room some method of con- also increase with increasing heat output
trol is required. This is usually achieved by restricting
the flow of heated water into the heat emitter using a Radiators are usually positioned beneath windows.
valve. This is a useful location as it is unlikely that furniture
will be positioned here and also the heat output of the
In most domestic buildings heat is emitted to the rooms radiator will counteract the cold down draughts from
using radiators. Water heated to 80oC by the boiler the glazing. Radiators are rated in terms of their heat
flows into the radiator, raising its temperature. The ra- output which should be matched to the peak heat loss

21
I P 4 - S I Z I N G . B O I L E R S . A N D . H E AT. E M I T T E R S
Manufacturers produce a range of boiler and heat these tables.
emitter sizes to satisfy the needs of various buildings.
Before you can buy a boiler and connect it up to the One difficulty of heating large rooms is to get adequate
heat emitters you need to know how much heat is heat distribution throughout the room. Unless some
required by each room which in turn informs you of kind of forced convection system is used, heat tends
the size of the boiler. Over sized boilers should be to be concentrated near the heat emitter. One way of
avoided since they will rarely operate at peak load and achieving better distribution is to divide the heat input
so will have low efficiencies. Under sized boilers will into the space using two or more heat emitters
not give the required distributed evenly through the
output and so room room.
temperatures cannot be
maintained against low
Undersizing of boilers
BOILER SIZING
outside temperatures. means temperatures cannot
be maintained, oversizing The process used to determine
HEAT EMITTER the fabric and ventilation heat
SIZING results in low efficiencies. loss rate for the individual room
must be repeated for all rooms. If
Heat Emitters must be an indirect heating system is
sized to supply the peak being used. The source of heat,
heating demand of a particular room. This is determined usually a boiler, must be able to supply the total heating
by calculating the peak fabric and ventilation heat loss requirement of the heat emitters in all the rooms. For
rates of the room. Examples of how to do this are given the four roomed house shown in figure IP4 it can be
in building science text books. The ambient conditions seen that the boiler power needs to be 3.3kW. If hot
assumed for the calculation use -1oC for the outside air water is to be derived from this boiler an allowance
temperature along with the design indoor temperature. (typically 3kW) must also be added for this purpose.
For a room occupied by people engaged in a low level
of physical activity, such as an office or living room,
the indoor temperature is assumed to be 21oC. The air Heat loss rate
change rate and fabric thermal properties are also
500 W 500 W
required 500W 500W

The outcome of the heat loss rate calculation described

above for a living room might give a heat loss rate of 300 W
2000Watts. This means that when it is 21oC inside and 300 W 2000W
-1oC outside the room will be losing heat at a rate of 20 00W
2000W. To maintain the internal temperature heat must
be supplied to the room at the same rate. This is
Heat emitter output
anologous to water pouring out of a hole in a bucket. Boiler power 3.3kW
To maintain the required water level (21oC) water must
be poured into the bucket at the same speed at which Figure IP4. Heat losses from room counteracted by
it is leaving through the hole (the heat loss rate). For appropriately sized heat emitters
this reason the heat emitter for our example room should
be sized at 2000W. Trade literature for heat emitters In large buildings where the heat output of the boilers
gives a range of useful information such as dimensions is measured in hundreds of kilowatts a multiple system
and mounting details. It also gives information on heat of boilers must be used (section 1.2.1) to maintain high
outputs. A suitable heat emitter can be chosen from operating efficiencies.

22
rate of the room in which they are situated (see IP4). In mercial buildings but in addition, a wide range of
large rooms the radiator output should be split and other heat emitters are encountered.
more than one radiator used. This will distribute the
heat more evenly throughout the room. Low Surface Temperature (LST) Radiator. This is a
radiator which is encased to prevent touching of the
hot surfaces (figure 1.16). A top grille allows heat to
leave the unit. LST radiators are suitable where high
surface temperatures could cause burning. Examples
are aged persons homes or nursery schools.

Figure 1.16 Low surface temperature radiator

Perimeter Radiator. This radiator is constructed from

a tube which has had fins added to increase its surface
area for heat output (figure 1.17).

Figure 1.15 Radiator patterns - plan views

COMMERCIAL HEAT EMITTERS.

As with domestic buildings, radiators are used in com- Figure 1.17 Perimeter radiator

23
24
The unit may only be 150mm high but it is long in Radiant Panel. These heat emitters are composed of
length. Perimeter radiators are typically used along the copper tubes welded onto metal plates (figure 1.19).
entire outer edge of highly glazed spaces. Here their Flexible connectors are then used to connect a series
heat output counteracts cold down draughts from the of these plates together. The panels, which in offices
glazing. Its low height makes it unobtrusive. A modifi- are perforated and painted, are hung to form part of the
cation of perimeter heating is to recess the radiator suspended ceiling. Water from the heating system is
into the floor depth and cover it with a grille to form a passed through the tubing causing the temperature of
perimeter convector heater. the panels to increase. The space below is then heated
by convection and radiation.
Convector Heater. Convector heaters are constructed
from a cabinet in which there is a finned coil heated by
water flowing through it from the heating system (fig-
ure 1.18). Air inside the casing is heated by contact
with the heating coil causing it to rise up through the
convector and out of the upper grille to heat the room.
The convection current carries on this cycle by draw-
ing cool room air into the cabinet via the lower grille. A
filter behind the inlet grille removes dust from the air-
stream.

Figure 1.19 Radiant panel

The advantages of radiant panels is that they do not

take up any wall space and their heat output will not
be affected by furniture such as filing cabinets or desks
pushed up against walls.

Underfloor Heating. This method utilises the entire

floor, and sometimes the walls, of a room as a heat
emitter (figure 1.20). Water from the heating system is
passed through polymer pipes embedded in the floor
screed. The flow temperature, at approximately 24oC, is
much lower than for other types of heat emitter. This is
possible because of the large surface area created by
utilising the floor for heat output. This is in contrast to
Figure 1.18 Convector heater the smaller but hotter surface area of a radiator.

The heat output of the unit can be increased and the There are many benefits from using an underfloor heat-
time taken to heat the room reduced by fitting a fan ing system. These are;
into the casing to drive the circulation of air through
the heater. The heater is then known as a fan convec- · Wall space is not taken up by heat emitters.
tor. Fan noise can be a problem in some quiet locations
but heat output can be regulated more effectively by · large spaces which are difficult to heat evenly
switching the fan on and off as required. from perimeter heat emitters can be uniformly heated.

25
I P 5 - H U M A N . T H E R M A L . C O M F O R T
Human thermal comfort is determined by the way indi-
viduals perceive the temperature of their environment Activity Metabolic Heat Output (W)
i.e is it too hot or too cold. This perception depends on Sedentary 100
personal preferences. As a result, within a group of Active (light work) 150
people in the same room, some will feel comfortable, Very Active 250
some too hot and some too cold. Building profession-
als must use their knowledge of the building fabric, Secondly, additional heat loss arises due to evapora-
heating services and human physiology to ensure that tion of moisture from the lungs and skin. Latent heat is
the majority of people in a absorbed (see IP6) which
space are satisfied with the cools the body. This cooling
temperature. There are some Lack of thermal comfort is a effect is increased in dry (low
serious health concerns in chronic problem which RH) environments. In high
buildings (see IP10). But relative humidity environ-
lack of thermal comfort is a affects many people in ments evaporation is sup-
chronic problem which af- badly designed or serviced pressed. The space is then
fects many people in badly buildings commonly referred to as
designed buildings. being hot and "humid".

THERMAL COMFORT
Heat gains Heat losses
To be comfortable a person requires a stable core body
temperature of 37.5oC. To achieve stability any heat Metabolism Evaporation
inputs to the body must be balanced by a heat output.
Extra heat input or reduced heat losses will cause the 37.5oC
Radiation Radiation
subject to feel warmer. Extra heat loss or reduced heat
gains causes the subject to feel colder. Heat gains to Convection Convection
and losses from the body are illustrated in figure IP5.
Convective heat gains and losses are created when warm Conduction Conduction
air moves into or out of contact with the body
respectively. Convective heat transfers are strongly Figure IP5 Balance of body heat gains and losses
dependent on air movement around the body. Conduc-
tive heat gains and losses occur due to body contact FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL COMFORT
with hot or cold surfaces respectively. Since normal
contact with room surfaces is restricted to the soles of Anything which changes the balance of heat inputs
the feet this does not constitute a major component. and outputs will affect thermal comfort. For example, if
Radiative heat gains and losses occur when a person air temperatures rise heat gains will increase. Turning
is positioned next to a warm or cold surface respec- on a fan in response causes air movement increasing
tively. The human body is very sensitive to radiant heat losses. This returns the body to thermal balance
energy and so this component has a strong affect on and comfort. The body itself is very effective at thermo-
comfort. In addition to the three basic forms of heat regulation e.g raising hairs for insulation, shivering for
transfer there are two others related to the human body. metabolic heating, variable skin blood flow to regulate
The first is heat gain by the body due to metabolism. body heat loss and sweating to cool evaporatively.
The body burns food to grow, repair itself and cause Other variables are;
movement. A by-product is heat. The amount of heat Amount of clothing (insulation)
gained by the body is substantial and increases with Temperature gradients (differential losses)
the level of activity. This is illustrated in the following Average surface temperature (radiant transfers)
table. Relative humidity (evaporation)

26
· Thermal gradients decrease from foot to head top of the cylinder to form an integral unit. Since the
improving thermal comfort and reducing the risk of feed water tank is open to the air the system is referred
stratification. to as a vented or non sealed system. The benefits of
indirect water heating are that the central heating boiler
· The low flow temperatures utilised in under- performs two functions (space and water heating) and
floor heating makes them ideal for use with condens- that there is a stored volume of hot water ready to meet
ing boilers (section 1.2.1). The low return temperatures peak demands.
will increase the tendency of the boiler to operate in
condensing mode.

Figure 1.20 Underfloor heating system

Figure 1.21 Indirect dhw cylinder

1.5 Domestic Hot Water
Unvented indirect cylinders are similar to the system
Hot water is obtained from domestic central heating described above in that a calorifier fed from the wet
systems in two ways. Firstly, by the use of indirect heating system is used to heat a stored volume of wa-
cylinders which draw some of the heat away from the ter. The difference is that the cold feed is from a direct
heating circuit to provide hot water. The second is to connection to the cold main instead of from a tank. As
use combination ("combi") boilers which generate hot a result hot water from the cylinder is fed to the taps at
water instantaneously as it is required. mains pressure. This gives a greater flow rate than a
tank fed system. Since there is no opening in the sys-
Indirect Cylinder. Some of the heated water flowing tem to the air it is known as a sealed or unvented sys-
through the heating circuit is diverted, using a three tem. Two of the benefits of this systems are that show-
way valve, through a calorifier within the hot water ers can be successfully fed from them and that the
cylinder (figure 1.21). The calorifier is essentially a coil plumbing necessary for a feed tank is not required.
of copper tube through which the heating system wa-
ter flows. Heat transfer from the calorifier warms up the When water is heated it expands. The increase in pres-
cold water held in the cylinder. The heated water rises sure caused by this would damage an unvented system
to the top of the tank where it is drawn off to the taps. since the pressure cannot be released. Because of this
The cold feed, which enters at the base of the cylinder, unvented hot water storage systems are fitted with a
is from a mains fed tank which is often built in to the small expansion vessel to take up the extra volume of

27
IP6 -THERMAL.CAPACITY,SENSIBLE.AND.LATENT.HEAT
THERMAL CAPACITY the object as it cools.
Sensible and latent heat are best illustrated using water
Thermal capacity is a measure of the ability of a mate- as an example.
rial to absorb heat. It is usually specified in terms of the
specific heat capacity of the material. This is the amount Figure IP6 shows what happens if a 1kg block of ice at
of heat, measured in Joules (see IP2), that one kilogram 0oC is placed in a beaker over a Bunsen burner. The ice
of the material must absorb to raise its temperature by absorbs heat from the flame but its temperature does
1oC. The units of specific heat capacity are J/kg/oC. not increase instead it changes state, it begins to melt.
The heat absorbed is called the latent heat of fusion
For example the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 (units J/kg). When completely melted, further heat input
J/kg/oC, of air is 993J/kg/oC and of stone is 3300J/kg/oC. causes the temperature of the water to rise. The thermal
It can be seen that per kilogram stone has a much energy now being absorbed is called sensible heat.
greater heat carrying capacity than air and that water The temperature rise continues until 100oC is reached.
has a higher heat carrying capacity than stone. This At this point the temperature once again stabilises and
has consequences for the building services industry. a second change of state occurs. This time from liquid
Air cannot carry as much heat per unit volume as water. to vapour. The heat absorbed is called the latent heat
As a consequence heat distribution systems which of vaporisation. This continues until all the liquid is
use air must be much larger than hydronic distribution converted to vapour.
systems to carry the greater volumes required. The
relatively high thermal capacity of dense materials such
as stone is used for thermal storage. One example is
the use of special blocks in electric storage heaters
(section3.1).

SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT

Sensible heat and latent heat are both forms of thermal

energy. The difference in name arises as a result of
what happens to a material when the thermal energy is
being absorbed.

The absorption of Latent heat causes a change of state.

One example is the absorption of the latent heat of
vaporisation by water to change it from a liquid to a Figure IP6: Heating of ice
gas (water vapour). It should be noted that a substance
gives out latent heat when the phase change is Consideration of figure IP6 shows some interesting
reversed. For example the latent heat absorbed by a features. The first is that substantially more energy is
refrigerant in the evaporator coil of a vapour required for the phase change from water at 100oC to
compression chiller is released once more when the steam than for the heating from 0 to 100oC. This means
refrigerant condenses in the condenser. that steam at 100oC contains far more energy than water
at this temperature. This is why steam is a useful heat
Absorption of sensible heat causes an increase in the transfer medium. It contains a lot of energy so
temperature of the object. The amount by which the distribution pipes can be kept small whilst transferring
temperature rises depends on the amount of energy large amounts of heat to the heat emitters. It is also
absorbed, the mass of the material and its specific heat dangerous. If steam escapes and condenses onto
capacity (see above). Sensible energy is released by human skin all of the latent heat of vaporisation is re
released which can cause severe burns.

28
water created by heating. 1.23 which shows a combination boiler heating system
with figure 1.1 which shows an open vented heating
Energy issues. In summer the low loads encountered system with indirect cylinder.
by a central heating boiler required to generate hot
water only leads to reduced boiler efficiency. It is
therefore recommended that indirect cylinders are used
in conjunction with a condensing boiler (section 1.2.1).
The cylinder itself must be well insulated to reduce
heat loss from the stored hot water. These heat losses
are known as standing heat losses. The alternative
approach to energy efficiency is to use a stand alone
direct water heater (section 3.3)

Combi Boiler. A combi boiler is a combustion device

which has two heat exchangers, one for the space heat-
ing system and one for the domestic hot water (figure
1.22). Cold water is fed into the unit directly from the
mains. Turning on the hot tap allows cold mains water Figure 1.23 Combination boiler heating system
to flow through the boiler which in turn causes the
burner to fire. Hot water is therefore generated as DHW FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.
needed. There is little or no stored volume of water.
The casing of the boiler also houses pumps, controls Hot water in commercial buildings can be provided by
and a pressure vessel. A pressure vessel is required indirect cylinders as discussed previously. The cylin-
since the system is sealed and provision has to be ders are however much bigger due to the increased
made for the increase in pressure that occurs as water demand for hot water experienced in larger buildings
in the system is heated. and are often referred to as calorifiers. Another method
of dhw production is to replace the indirect cylinder
with a water to water plate heat exchanger. The source
of heat is still the indirect heating system.
Hot water dhw heat
to taps exchan ger
Water to water plate heat exchangers are built from
Cold water layers of convoluted thin plates (figures 1.24 and 1.25).
from mains Alternate voids created by the plates carry heating
Return to circuit and dhw flows respectively. Heat is transferred
boiler from the heating circuit flow to the dhw flow by con-
Heating circuit duction across the thin metal separating them. This
heat exchanger process is fast enough to produce hot water instanta-
neously.
Flow from
boiler Plate heat exchangers have a number of advantages
over storage systems;

· There are no standing heat losses since there

Figure 1.22 Combination boiler is no stored volume of water to cool down
overnight or at weekends.
One of the major benefits of this system is that it is
simpler and less costly to install as the feed and expan- · Legionnaires disease can arise where water is
sion tank, indirect cylinder and cold water storage tank allowed to stand at the incubation temperature of the
are not required. This can be seen by comparing figure legionella bacteria. Since standing water is eliminated

29
IP7/1 - P L A N T. R O O M . P O S I T I O N . A N D . S I Z E

Building services can represent 50% of the cost of a on the heating or air conditioning system. Reducing
highly serviced building and take up to 30% of its floor the need for heating or air conditioning by using low
area. This brings the importance of building services energy design principles will cut down on the need for
in the construction process clearly into view. It also energy consuming plant and therefore on the space
illustrates the need for early allocation of space for and required to accommodate it.
planning of building services. The main elements
involved are plantrooms and horizontal and vertical At the early design stage rules of thumb will be
service runs. Space allocation must take into sufficient to make an initial allocation of space. (see
consideration the need for adequate space and access BSRIA Technical Note TN 17/95: Rules of Thumb,
for servicing and, if it is felt necessary, provision for BSRIA 1995). This figure can be refined at a later stage
flexibility and future when exact details are known.
developments. Service
runs permeate throughout Having arrived at a figure the
the entire height, length Building Services can space can be concentrated in
and width of a building one place which is usual for
therefore, any building
represent 50% of the cost small to medium sized
services designs must be of a highly serviced building buildings. The possibility of
made with due regard for and take up 30% of its floor dividing the space up and
the structure. Integration spreading it through the
of services with the struc- area building depends on the layout
ture is an important of the building. If the building
element in the building covers a large area then it may
design process. be economical to have smaller
but more numerous plantrooms distributed through-
This information panel does not have enough space to out the site each satisfying individual zones or sections
cover this subject in depth, but three main issues of the building. The advantage is that distribution runs
relating to the planning of services can be highlighted. are kept short and pipe and duct diameters can be
These are space, location and distribution. smaller to reflect the reduced floor areas served.

SPACE FOR SERVICES LOCATION

There are many types of building and each one will Plantrooms can be located anywhere in the building
have a different servicing requirement. Even within simi- but noise considerations, weight of equipment to be
lar building types there are a range of solutions avail- accommodated and ease of access for maintenance
able. One example is office buildings that can be fully means that plantrooms containing heavy equipment
air conditioned, naturally ventilated or operate with such as boilers and chillers tend to be located on the
both systems (mixed mode). The obvious rule is that ground floor or basement. However, modern low water
the greater the need for building services the greater is content boilers (e.g. Hamworthy Wessex)are designed
the need for space to accommodate them. So for to be light for roof top installation. Air handling units
example a simple naturally ventilated heated office will are lightweight but bulky. This means they can be
devote 4-5% of its total floor space to plant whereas accommodated on rooftops where they are not taking
for a speculative air conditioned office this will rise to up lettable space and structural requirements are not
6-9%. Highly serviced buildings such as sports centres critical. The rooftop is a useful location for taking in air
with leisure pools may need to allocate 15-30% of the which is generally fresher than at ground level. The
total floor area to services. For an individual building rooftop also gives the cooling system condenser access
the final determinant of space requirement is the load to the outside air for waste heat rejection.
Continued on page 32

30
with plate heat exchangers the possibility of infection Since there is no stored hot water, which is used to
is avoided. satisfy demand at times of peak usage, the heat ex-
changer must be sized to satisfy the peak hot water
· Plate heat exchangers are physically much demand of the building.
smaller than indirect cylinders. This makes them useful
where space is limited. DHW DISTRIBUTION

A significant difference between domestic and com-

mercial dhw systems is the way in which the hot water
is distributed to the taps. In domestic properties a sin-
gle pipe directs water from the cylinder to the tap. In
combi systems the energy to do this comes from mains
pressure. In indirect cylinder systems the water is
moved by gravity. Both of these mechanisms are ad-
equate because the pipe lengths are small. In large
buildings, however, the pipe lengths become longer
due to the large distances between hot water produc-
tion and use. Standing heat losses from these long
pipes would cool the water in them and result in tepid
water being drawn off from remote taps. Running off
this tepid water until hot water was obtained and the
heat lost from the pipes themselves wastes energy. To
ensure that hot water is always available at the tap
they are usually supplied from a secondary hot water
Figure 1.24 Water to water plate heat exchanger loop (figure 1.26). A secondary dhw pump continually
circulates hot water from the cylinder or heat exchanger
around this circuit. As a result hot water is always
available at the taps. Pipe insulation ensures heat lost
from the pipes is minimised (see IP1).

Figure 1.26 Secondary dhw circuit

Figure 1.25 Cross sectional diagram of a plate heat

exchanger

31
IP7/2 -PLANT.ROOM.POSITION.AND.SIZE
From page 30

DISTRIBUTION a suspended ceiling.

There are a number of services which may require Ducting is the most difficult system to accommodate
distribution throughout a building. These include; hot since it has a much larger cross sectional area than
and chilled water, potable water, electrical power and water pipes. This is especially so close to the air
lighting, control cabling, conditioned air, handling unit where the ducting must carry all the con-
communications cables and fire systems cabling. Taking ditioned air for each space. The cross sectional area
heating as an example hot water is generated in the reduces the further away from the air handling unit
plantroom by the boilers. It must then be distributed to you are as the conditioned air is progressively divided
the heat emitters in each room. Finally, water which has off into successive spaces.
had its heat removed must be returned to the plantroom
for re heating. It can be seen that vertical runs of pipe Service runs should preferably be linear. This provides
are required to carry heated water to each floor. economy of installation and operation. A change of
Horizontal runs of pipe are required to distribute the direction in ductiong or pipework requires additional
hot water to each heat emitter. In domestic buildings components and fabrication. Bends and junctions of-
vertical pipes are surface mounted and boxed in for fer greater resistence to fluid flow. As a result a larger
cover. Horizontal runs are made between joists and and therefore greater energy consuming pump or fan
under the floorboards. In commercial buildings vertical would be required.
service shafts are required. Horizontal distribution
usually takes place under a raised floor system or above
Flue header
Expansion vessels
dhw flow pipe (unvented dhw system) Flue from water heater Draught diverter

Water heater Expansion

(Dorchester vessel (heat-
direct fired) ing system)

Top to bottom Twin pump

recirculation set
pipe

Cold water feed

pipe
Pressurisation
dhw return unit
pipe (Portland)

Atmospheric
Gas burner

Figure IP7. Some of the components found in a typical heating plantroom Multiple boilers (Purewell cast
photo: Hamworthy Heating Ltd. iron, atmospheric boilers)

32
 the room as required.
1.6 Controls
Controls are required to ensure that the heating system Programmer. This is a time switch that determines
operates safely, efficiently and provides comfort for the the times within which the heating will respond to a
building occupants. Figure 1.27 shows a typical arrange- call for heat from the room thermostat. The start and
ment of controls for a domestic central heating system. It stop times between which the heating will be allowed
is comprised of the following components. to operate are entered into the programmer. For ex-
ample, heating may be required from 07:00 to 08:30 in
the morning then 17:00 to 23:30 in the evening. Mod-
ern microprocessor controlled programmers allow
multiple daily heating periods and the ability to pro-
gramme each day of the week with a different heat-
ing programme. An example is that the first "on"
period at the weekend may start at 8:00 and end at
12:00 to reflect the fact that the occupant is not in
work on that day.

Cylinder thermostat. This is a temperature control-

led switch similar to the room thermostat. The differ-
ence is that it is clamped on to the indirect cylinder
and therefore senses and controls the temperature
of the dhw. When the switch is closed and therefore
calling for heat, the three way valve will be instructed
to divert boiler flow through the calorifier in the cyl-
Figure 1.27 Domestic heating controls inder. This will cause the temperature of the water in
the cylinder to rise. When the temperature reaches
Room Thermostat. Is a device which controls room tem- the setting on the thermostat the switch will open.
peratures. Control is made in relation to a preferred tem- The three way valve will then direct the flow away
perature setting made on the thermostat by the occu- from the cylinder and back to the heating circuit.
pant. The thermostat is in fact a switch opened and closed
as the room temperature rises above or falls below the Thermostatic Radiator Valve (TRV). This is a valve
temperature setting respectively. (section 1.7) fitted to the inlet of the radiator. Gas in
the TRV head (figure 1.28) expands with temperature
The thermostat should be positioned in a representative and pushes a gate downwards blocking the inlet
room such as the living room at standing chest height flow. This will restrict or even stop the flow of heat
away from sources of heat such as direct sunlight. This into the radiator. The heat output will then be reduced
means it will accurately sense the air temperature experi-
enced by an occupant in the room. When the thermostat
switch is closed, current can flow through it. This is inter- Gas expands as temperature
Gas filled Belows increases
preted by the boiler as a call for heat. The boiler will fire,
the pump will run and the three way valve will direct hot
water to the radiators. When the room temperature rises
above the preferred temperature setting, changes within
the thermostat either electronically sensed or due to the
differential expansion of metal in a bi metallic strip cause
the thermostat switch to open. As a result the control
current will stop and the boiler and the pump will switch
off. It can be seen therefore that room temperatures are
controlled by stopping and starting the flow of heat into Figure 1.28 Thermostatic radiator valve

33
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
were killed and wounded, and their captain taken prisoner.
25. 160 of Gen. Fremont’s Body-guard, under command of Major
Zagonyi, charged 2,000 rebels, drawn up to receive them, near
Springfield, Mo., routed them, and occupied the town. Rebel loss,
106 killed, many wounded, and 27 prisoners. Zagonyi’s loss, 15
killed, 27 wounded, 10 missing. The Missouri “Prairie Scouts,” under
Maj. F. J. White, attacked the rear of the rebel force, at the same
time, making three successful charges, and inflicting severe loss on
the enemy. The loss of the “Scouts” was 33 in killed, wounded and
missing.
26. An artillery fight across the Potomac, at Edward’s Ferry, for
several hours. Two killed in Gen. Banks’ encampment, and 3
wounded. Both parties were compelled to move back their
encampments.
26. Gen. B. F. Kelly, with 2,500 Virginia and Ohio Volunteers,
from New Creek, Va., attacked an inferior rebel force near Romney,
who were routed and pursued through that town with severe loss.
Col. Thos. Johns, of 2d regiment, Potomac Home Brigade, made a
diversion of the enemy’s force, by marching to the rear of Romney,
by way of Frankfort, and engaged and held in check a regiment of the
rebels. The expedition was successful in capturing a large supply of
military stores and provisions. Federal loss, 2 killed, 14 wounded.
Rebel loss, 10 killed, 15 wounded, and a number of prisoners,
including Col. Angus McDonald, their commander: their artillery
wagons, camps, etc., were captured.
26. Parson Brownlow was forced to suspend the publication of the
Knoxville (Tenn.) Whig.
26. A wagon train was established between Baltimore and
Washington, for want of sufficient railway facilities, consequent on
the danger from rebel batteries in navigating the Potomac.
26. Major Phillips, with 300 of the 9th Illinois, from Paducah,
sailed on the steamer Conestoga to West Eddyville, Ky., on the
Cumberland river, where they landed and marched 6 miles to
Saratoga, and surprised a detachment of rebel cavalry, under Capt.
Wilcox. After a brief resistance the enemy fled, losing 13 killed, many
wounded, 24 prisoners, and 52 horses. Four of the Illinois men were
wounded.
 26. Surprise of a rebel encampment at Plattsburg, Clinton co., Mo.,
by a superior force of Federals. Rebel loss, 8 killed, 12 prisoners, one
cannon, and a quantity of small arms.
28. Three rebel vessels were surprised and burnt at Chincoteague
Inlet, Va., by a portion of the crew of U. S. gunboat Louisiana, under
Lieut. A. Hopkins.
28. D. Davis, of Ill., J. Holt, of Ky., and H. Campbell, of Mo., were
appointed Commissioners by Pres. Lincoln to audit all unsettled
military claims in Missouri.
29. 250 U.S. Kentucky volunteers, under Col. Burbridge, marched
from Owensboro’ to Morgantown, Ky., crossed the river at that point,
defeated a superior rebel force and destroyed their camp. Federal
loss, 2 wounded.
28. Gen. J. B. Henderson, with a superior force, surrounded and
captured 400 rebels at Dyer’s Mills, near Concord, Mo. They were
allowed to lay down their arms and return home.
29. Nearly 100 “contrabands” arrived at Fortress Monroe in two
days.
29. Rebel State “Conference” at Russellville, Ky.
29. The great naval expedition sailed from Fortress Monroe, under
the command of Flag-officer Com. Samuel F. Dupont, comprising 77
vessels of all classes. The land forces, numbering 20,000 men, were
commanded by Brig.-Gen. Thos. W. Sherman.
31. Skirmish at Morgantown, Green River, Ky. Col. McHenry’s
command drove a party of rebels attached to Buckner’s camp across
the river, with loss.
31. At N. York, the jury empaneled for the trial of the sailors
captured on the privateer Savannah, the first rebel armed vessel that
was commissioned, failed to agree.
Nov. 1. Lieut.-Gen. Winfield Scott, at his own request, was retired
from active service, and Maj.-Gen. George B. McClellan was
appointed to succeed him as Commander-in-chief of the U. S. army.
1. Lieut.-Col. Morse, with 450 cavalry and infantry, surprised and
routed a rebel force 800 strong, under Col. Sweeny, in camp near
Renick, Randolph co., Mo.
 1. Rebels from Gen. Floyd’s command attacked a Federal camp at
Gauley Bridge, Va., by cannonading from the opposite shore. They
were driven into the hills by 3 companies from Gen. Benham’s camp,
at Hawk’s Nest.
1. A violent storm overtook the naval expedition off the N. C. coast.
3 vessels were disabled and returned, 2 were driven ashore, and 2
foundered. Seven lives lost.
2. Gen. Fremont, at Springfield, received an order from
Washington, relieving him from command of the Department of
Missouri. Gen. Hunter was appointed temporarily to the command.
2. An address was issued by Gov. Harris, of Tenn., calling upon the
people to furnish every shot-gun and rifle to defend the soil.
2. Major Joseph’s Missouri militia, numbering 129, were attacked
at Platte City, Mo., by Silas Gordon with 300 rebels, who were
repulsed with a loss of 13 killed and wounded, 30 prisoners, many
guns, and all their equipments.
2. The English steamer Bermuda ran the blockade at Charleston, S.
C., with 2,000 bales of cotton.
2. Prestonburg, Ky., was occupied by Union troops under Gen.
Nelson, without opposition.
3. et seq. Rising of Union men in E. Tenn., who burned or broke
down several important railroad bridges.
3. Five rebel boats made an attack on Fort Hatteras, N. C., but
were repulsed by the U. S. gunboat National, and the Fort.
3. Col. Greensle drove rebel troops from Houston, Mo., and
returned to Rolla with several prisoners and a large amount of
property.
4. Enthusiastic Union meeting in Baltimore Co., Md., addressed by
Reverdy Johnson.
4. Barboursville, Ky., was occupied by 1,500 Federals without
opposition.
6. Extra session of South Carolina Legislature adjourned, after
choosing Presidential electors and ordering the banks to loan the
State $300,000.
5. Colonel Corcoran and 15 other national officers who were
prisoners, were selected by lot by the rebels, as hostages, to be hung
in the event of that punishment being awarded to the privateers held
by the national government.
6. Two parties of rebel troops met above Newport News, Va., and
by mistake fired on each other, killing and wounding a number.
Among the killed was Major Bailey, of Mobile.
6. The grand jury at Frankfort, Ky., found indictments for treason
against 32 prominent citizens, among whom were R. J. Breckinridge,
Jr., J. C. Breckinridge, Humphrey Marshall, and Benj. Desha.
6. Electors for President and V. President were chosen throughout
the revolted States, and also members of Congress.
6. 120 Federals, under Capt. Shields, were captured by 500 rebels
near Little Santa Fé, Mo. They were on their way to join Gen.
Fremont’s column.
6. The 13th Indiana regiment, Col. J. J. Sullivan, and Capt.
Robinson’s Ohio cavalry, returned to Huttonsville, Va., from an
extensive march through Webster Co. Several rebels were killed and
wounded in scouting, and 13 prisoners taken.
7. Battle of Belmont, Mo., Gens. Grant and McClernand with 2,850
men, landed at Belmont at 8 A. M., drove in the rebel pickets and
captured their camp, which was burnt. A battery of 12 guns was
taken, and about 200 prisoners. Meantime, a large reinforcement of
rebels was landed from Columbus, on the opposite side of the river,
which intercepted Gen. Grant’s army in their return to their boats.
The Federals cut their way through a much superior force of the
enemy, losing 150 of their number prisoners, together with their
killed and wounded, who fell into the hands of the rebels. Federal
loss, 89 killed, 150 wounded, 150 missing. The rebel loss was greater,
155 were taken prisoners.
7. Gen. Hunter, Fremont’s successor in Missouri, repudiated the
agreement just, made between Gens. Fremont and Price, the rebel
commander, concerning the privileges of unarmed citizens, and the
disarming of unrecognized bodies of men.
7. Skirmishing on New river, near Gauley Bridge, Va. Federal
forces under Gen. Rosecrans, drove off a body of rebels who had
besieged his camp for several days. Several rebels and one private of
13th Ohio killed.
 7. The Federal fleet under Com. Dupont captured Forts Warren
and Beauregard at Port Royal entrance, and took the town of
Beaufort, S. C., with a loss of 8 killed, 6 badly wounded, and 17
slightly. None of the national vessels seriously damaged. Rebel loss
unknown, but not large.
7. Two launches and 40 men, commanded by Lieut. Jas. E. Jouett,
from the U.S. frigate Santee, off Galveston, Texas, surprised and
burnt the rebel privateer Royal Yacht, by night, after a sharp conflict,
killing several of the rebels, and capturing 13. Federal loss 2 killed
and 7 wounded.
8. U. S. gunboat Rescue shelled out a rebel battery at Urbana
Creek, on the Rappahannock, Va., and captured a large schooner
with stores.
8. Five railway bridges were burned in E. Tennessee by Unionists.
8. Capt. Wilkes, with the U. S. steam sloop-of-war San Jacinto,
overhauled the English mail-steamer Trent in the Bahama channel,
and took from her the rebel emissaries Mason and Slidell, with their
secretaries, who had taken passage for England.
8. Col. Grensle returned with his command to Rolla, Mo., from an
expedition against the rebels in Texas co., bringing 9 prisoners, 500
head of cattle and 40 horses and mules.
8. A portion of Gen. Nelson’s Ky. brigade were ambuscaded while
on their way to Piketon, Ky., by 200 rebels in a strong position. The
rebels were dispersed with the loss of 10 killed, 15 wounded. Gen.
Nelson had 6 killed and 24 wounded. Another portion of Gen.
Nelson’s brigade under command of Col. Sill, reached Piketon by a
circuitous route, and attacked a body of rebels, defeating them with a
small loss, and having one Federal soldier killed.
8. A bridge on the E. Tenn. railway, 200 feet span, was destroyed
by Unionists. Also 4 on the line N. of Knoxville, and a heavy wooden
bridge at Charleston, Bradley co., Tenn.
9. Maj.-Gen. Henry W. Halleck, of Cal., was ordered to take
command of the Department of Missouri, in place of Gen. Fremont:
Brig.-Gen. Don Carlos Buell, of Ind., was appointed to command the
Department of Kentucky: Maj.-Gen. Hunter to command the
Department of Kansas: Col. E. R. S. Canley, the Department of N.
Mexico.
 10. A band of rebel marauders was captured by Lieut. Shriver, with
a squad of 1st Iowa cavalry, near Clark’s Station, Mo.
10. A portion of Gen. Cox’s brigade crossed the New river near
Gauley, Va., and attacked Floyd’s forces posted there, who retreated
after a severe skirmish, in which the 11th Ohio regiment lost 8 killed
and 10 wounded.
10. 150 of the 9th Virginia regiment, Col. K. V. Whaley, were
surprised at Guyandotte, Va., on the Ohio river, by a superior force of
rebels, and after a sharp skirmish, in which 8 of the Federals were
killed and 12 wounded, and nearly the same loss sustained by the
rebels, Col. Whaley and 45 of his men were captured, and the rest
escaped. About two-thirds of the town was burned next day by the
Union Virginia and Ohio troops who arrived there, in retaliation for
the treachery and cruelty of the rebel inhabitants evinced in the
scenes of the engagement.
11. At Columbus, Ky., two rebel lieutenants and six privates were
killed by the explosion of a Dahlgren gun. Rev. Maj.-Gen. Polk
narrowly escaped.
11. 110 of Col. Anthony’s regiment attacked a rebel camp on the
Little Blue river, near Kansas City, Mo., which proved too strong for
them, and after severe fight, Col. Anthony’s men were drawn off in
good order, losing 8 killed and 8 wounded.
12. Reconnoissance in force by Gen. Heintzelman, with 6,000
men, to Occoquan Creek, Va., 18 miles from Alexandria. Capt. Todd’s
company of Lincoln cavalry were surprised by a superior force of
rebels, 3 killed, 1 wounded and 3 taken prisoners, including the
captain.
12. Attack on the U.S. fleet at the Passes of the Mississippi, by the
Manassas Ram, 5 gunboats and several fire ships, under command of
Capt. Hollins. U. S. ship Vincennes grounded, and the Richmond was
damaged by the ram and also grounded: but the enemy were driven
off without obtaining any advantage.
12. The privateer Beauregard, of Charleston, S. C., with 27 men,
was captured 100 miles E. N. E. of Abaco, by the U. S. sloop-of-war
W. G. Anderson, Lieut. W. C. Rogers, commanding.
12. Skirmish on Laurel Creek by portions of Gen. Benham’s with
Gen. Floyd’s forces, in which the rebels retreated after small loss.
 12. Skirmish of Gen. Kelly’s pickets near Romney, Va., losing 2
killed and several wounded. 12 rebels taken prisoners.
13. Rebel Gen. Zollicoffer retreated from Cumberland Ford to
Cumberland Gap, Tenn.
14. The privateer schooner Neva, from China, was seized at San
Francisco, Cal., by Capt. Pease, of U. S. cutter Mary.
14. Lieut. J. H. Rigby, with 20 men of the Gist Artillery, on an
expedition from Salisbury, Md., to Wilmington and Newcastle, Md.,
seized 3 brass 6-pounders and 100 muskets, in possession of
secessionists in those places.
14. The Gov. of Florida, by proclamation, forbade the enlistment of
citizens of that State to serve in any other portion of the Confederacy.
14. $30,000 had been raised by Southern people for the widow of
“the martyr Jackson,” who killed Col. Ellsworth, at Alexandria, Va.
14. Gen. Benham, in pursuit of the army of Gen. Floyd, in W. Va.,
overtook the rear guard near McCoy’s Mills, and defeated it, killing
15 rebels, among them Col. Croghan. Floyd, in his retreat, destroyed
200 of his tents, and lost 10 wagon loads of ammunition and arms.
14. Fast day was observed in the rebel States.
14. Steamship Champion arrived at New York from Aspinwall,
bringing Gen. Sumner and several companies of regular soldiers
from San Francisco, having under arrest ex-Senators Gwin and
Brent, and C. Benham, late Attorney General of California, charged
with complicity with the rebels.
16. A party of 57 of the N. Y. 30th, attached to Gen. Keyes’ brigade
on the Potomac, while out foraging west of Upton’s Hill, Va., were
betrayed and surrounded by 200 rebel cavalry, and one-half their
number, with the teams and wagons, captured.
16. 50 wagons and 500 oxen, with the teamsters and stores, were
captured near Pleasant Hill, Cass co., Mo., by the rebels.
16. 68 Federal prisoners, the crews of fishing smacks captured off
the Florida coast, were taken to Tallahassee, Fla.
17. Union troops under Col. Alcorn, defeated Hawkins’ regiment at
Cypress Bridge, McClean co., Ky., routing them with severe loss, and
taking 25 prisoners, 300 horses, etc. Federal loss, 10 killed, 15
wounded.
 17. A party of Union troops recaptured nearly all the wagons and
cattle seized the day before near Pleasant Hill, Mo.
17. U. S. gunboat Connecticut captured British schooner Adelaide,
with military stores and supplies for rebels, near Cape Canaveral,
and took her into Key West.
17. Lieut. G. W. Snyder, U. S. A., a valuable engineer officer, died at
Washington, of typhoid fever.
17. The 3d Missouri cavalry routed a large number of rebels near
Palmyra, Mo., while on their way to join Price’s army, killing 3,
wounding 5, taking 16 prisoners.
18. The rebel Congress met at Richmond, Va., Howell Cobb, of Ga.,
in the chair.
18. Capt. A. H. Foote was appointed Flag-officer of the fleet of the
Western Military Department.
18. Gen. Halleck assumed charge of the Missouri Department, vice
Gen. Hunter.
18. Information was received at Washington of the imposition
practised upon the Indians west of Arkansas, by Albert Pike, rebel
Commissioner.
18. Rebel troops in Accomac and Northampton cos., Va.,
disbanded, and Union troops, under Gen. Lockwood, seized their
arms and took possession of the peninsula.
18. 150 rebels were taken prisoners by Federal cavalry, near
Warrensburg, Mo.
19. Missouri rebel legislature, at Neosha, Newton co., passed an
ordinance of secession.
19. N. Y. ship Harvey Birch was captured and burnt in the British
channel by the rebel steamer Nashville.
19. The principal part of Warsaw, capital of Benton co., Mo., was
burnt by rebels.
19. Lieut. Worden, U.S.N., held prisoner by the rebels, was
exchanged for Lieut. Short, of the Confederate army.
19. U. S. gunboat Conestoga engaged rebel batteries on the
Tennessee river, and silenced them, receiving but slight damage
herself.
 19. First flotilla of the “Stone Fleet” sailed for the South, from
Conn. and Mass.
20. Col. Burchard, with Lieut. Gregg and 24 men, attacked a large
company of rebels under Capts. Hays and Gregg, near Kansas City,
Mo., and defeated them, killing 5 and wounding 8. The Col. and
Lieut. were slightly wounded.
20. A special Committee from the Virginia State Convention to
consider proposed amendments to the State Constitution, reported
in opposition to free schools and free suffrage for poor whites.
20. Secession State Convention at Russelville, Ky., adopted an
ordinance of secession, and appointed Commissions to the rebel
government.
22. Two U. S. gunboats, Cambridge and Hertzel, from Fortress
Monroe, shelled out the camps of the 2d Louisiana and 10th Georgia
regiments, at the junction of James and Warwick rivers.
22. Fort Pickens opened fire on the rebel encampments and forts,
near Pensacola, Fla., which was replied to by them, and a severe
cannonade ensued for two days. Much damage was experienced by
Fort McRae, the Navy Yard, and town of Warrington—loss of life
slight on either side. The U. S. fleet in the harbor took part. The
Richmond was badly damaged by a shot. 1 killed, 6 wounded at Fort
Pickens: 1 killed, 7 wounded on the Richmond.
23. The Confederate gunboat Tuscorora accidentally took fire and
was destroyed on the Mississippi, near Helena, Ark.
24. An explosion took place at Fort Pickens, Fla., by the careless
handling of a shell, by which 5 men were killed, and 7 wounded.
24. A skirmish in Lancaster, Mo., between 450 Federals under Col.
Moore, and 420 rebels commanded by Lieut.-Col. Blanton. The
rebels were routed with the loss of 13 killed, and many wounded and
prisoners. Union loss, 1 killed and 2 wounded.
24. Tybee Island, in Savannah harbor, was occupied by U. S. forces
under Flag-officer Dupont.
24. Rebel Commissioners Mason and Slidell were imprisoned in
Fort Warren, Mass.
25. Col. Bayard with the 1st Pa. Cavalry made a reconnoissance
from Langley to Dranesville, Va., and in a skirmish killed 2 and
captured 4 rebels. 3 or 4 were wounded. 6 secessionists were also
arrested. 2 of the Cavalry were wounded.
25. Com. Tatnall, with 3 steamers and a gunboat, attacked the
Federal fleet in Cockspur Roads, Ga., but withdrew without injury,
after 40 or 50 shots were exchanged.
25. The State of Missouri, as represented by the late Governor
Jackson and the Commissioners from the rebel members of the
Legislature, was unanimously received by the Richmond Congress as
a member of the Confederacy.
26. The house of Mr. Bell, near Franklin, Tenn., was attacked by an
armed party of rebels, the building fired, and the inmates, some 10 or
12, all killed or burned but two, who escaped.
26. Skirmish at Black Oak Point, Hickory co., Mo. Capt. Cosgrove
and Lieut. Bobbitt, with 25 men, surprised a rebel camp, killed 5,
captured 8, and took 75 tents, 6 wagons, 10 horses, 35 guns, and
other property, and released 6 loyal prisoners.
26. A squadron of the 3d Pa. Cavalry, near Vienna, Va., were
attacked on three sides by a superior force of cavalry and infantry,
and retreated after a short engagement. 29 of their men were
missing.
26. The Convention to form a new State in W. Va., met at
Wheeling.
27. Federal troops, from Gen. Sherman’s command, visited Bear
Island and Edisto Island, near the mouth of the Ashepoo river, S. C.
27. Henry R. Jackson was appointed a Maj.-Gen. in the Georgia
army.
27. Gen. McClellan appointed the hour of 11 each Sabbath for
religious worship throughout the U. S. army, and directed that all
officers and men off duty should have opportunity to attend.
27. Transport Constitution sailed from Fortress Monroe to Ship
Island, Mississippi Sound, with a portion of Gen. Butler’s expedition,
under Brig.-Gen. Phelps.
28. Capts. Robb and White, and Lieut. Moonlight, three U. S.
officers, were captured from the railway train at Weston, Mo., by Sy.
Gordon.
 28. S. C. planters on the seaboard burnt their cotton, to prevent its
capture by the Federal forces or the coast.
29. The English Government forbade temporarily the exportation
of cotton.
29. Major Hough, with 4 companies of Missouri cavalry, in defence
of the Sedalia railway train, had an engagement at Black Walnut
Creek, Mo., in which 17 rebels were killed and wounded, and 5 taken
prisoners. 5 of the cavalry, including the Major, were wounded.
29. Col. De Kay, Maj. Sharpf and other Federal officers, and 40
men, had a skirmish about a mile beyond New Market, Va., in which
the rebels were routed, leaving 2 dead, and carrying off their
wounded.
Dec. 1. The U. S. steamer Penguin arrived at Brooklyn with the
prize “Albion,” captured while attempting to run the blockade at
Charleston, S. C., with arms, ammunition, provisions, &c., worth
$100,000.
1. A party of Federals attacked the rebel pickets at Morristown, E.
Tenn., killing a large number and putting the rest to flight.
1. Skirmish near Hunter’s Chapel, Va., between a squadron of Gen.
Blenker’s horsemen and a squadron of rebel cavalry, who were
defeated, losing 3 or 4 killed and wounded, and 2 prisoners. 1
Federal killed.
2. The first regular session of the 37th Congress commenced at
Washington.
2. A party of citizens in Mo., near Dunksburg, 20 miles west of
Sedalia, attacked a body of rebels under Capts. Young and Wheatley,
killing 7 and wounding 10 of them. Several citizens slightly wounded.
3. Skirmish at Salem, Dent co., Mo. A party of Federal soldiers,
commanded by Maj. Bowen, were surprised and fired on, while
sleeping in a house near headquarters, by 300 rebels under Cols.
Freeman and Turner, and 15 killed and wounded. The main body of
the Federals were drawn out by Maj. Bowen, who attacked the rebels
in turn and drove them from the town. 1 Federal killed and 4
wounded. Rebel loss unknown.
3. H. C. Burnett of Ky. and J. W. Reed of Mo. were expelled from
U. S. House of Representatives as traitors.
 4. Col. Taylor with 30 men of the 3d New Jersey had a skirmish
with a number of rebel cavalry near Annandale, Va., three or four of
whom were captured, and several killed and wounded without
Federal loss.
4. Gen. Phelps, with 2,000 men, attached to Gen. Butler’s
expedition, occupied Ship Island, Mississippi Sound.
4. A detachment of Federal cavalry surprised the rebel guard at
Whip-poor-will Bridge, on the Memphis Branch railway, Ky., taking
11 prisoners. 5 or 6 Confederates were killed or wounded. 4 Federals
were wounded.
4. J. C. Breckinridge was expelled from the U. S. Senate.
5. Reports of the Secs. of War and Navy show the Government had
in service for the war 682,971 men.
5. Skirmish at Brownsville, Ky. 100 Home Guards defeated a
superior rebel force under Gen. T. C. Hindman, of Ark. Rebel loss, 3
killed, 5 wounded; the Guards sustaining no loss.
5. Successful foray of the 13th Mass., Col. Leonard, from the
Potomac to Berkley Springs, Va., capturing a large quantity of
provisions.
5. Riot at Nashville, Tenn., occasioned by the attempt of the rebel
authorities to enforce the endraftment of the militia. Two persons
were killed and several wounded.
7. At Sedalia, Mo., 106 mule teams and the teamsters were seized
by rebels.
7. Capt. Sweeney, with 35 rebel guerrillas, were captured near
Glasgow, Mo., by Capt. Merrill’s cavalry.
7. Skirmish near Dam No. 5 on the Potomac. Rebels driven off,
losing 12 men.
7. Skirmish near Olathe, Mo. 2 Federals killed. 3 rebels killed and 5
wounded.
8. Capt. McGuire’s company of 27th Mo., captured 14 rebels at
Sedalia, Mo.
8. U. S. steamer Augusta captured schr. E. Waterman, loaded with
provisions, coal and war munitions, off Savannah, Ga.
9. Gen. Halleck required all municipal officers at St. Louis, Mo., as
well as State officials, to subscribe to the oath of allegiance
prescribed by the State Convention in October previous.
9. The U. S. steamer Harriet Lane, and 6 steamers attached to the
upper Potomac flotilla, shelled the woods at Budd’s Ferry, and
exchanged shots with the rebel batteries opposite, at Shipping Point.
Some large buildings, containing rebel stores, were burnt, by
boatmen from the Jacob Bell and Anacosta.
9. Gov. Pickens of S. C. proclaimed the State invaded, by land and
sea, and called for 12,000 twelve-month volunteers.
9. A detachment of the “Stone Fleet” left New Bedford, Mass., for a
southern port.
9. Garret Davis was elected a senator from Ky., in place of J. C.
Breckinridge.
9. The rebel Congress “admitted” Kentucky to the Confederacy.
11. Federal troops, under Lieut.-Col. Rhodes, had a skirmish near
Bertrand, Mo., losing 1 man. They took 16 prisoners and a number of
horses and fire-arms.
11. Five vessels of the Stone Fleet, and the ships George Green and
Bullion, of Gen. Butler’s expedition, sailed from Boston, Mass.
11. Skirmish at Dam No. 4, on the Potomac, near Sharpsburg, Md.
Seven rebels on the Virginia shore were killed, and many wounded.
Capt. Williams and 6 men having crossed the river were captured by
the rebels.
11. Great fire at Charleston, S. C. 600 houses destroyed.
12. A squad of men from Col. Whitaker’s regiment were defeated in
an attempt to arrest secessionists near Bagdad, Shelby co., Ky., and
retreated with one wounded.
12. Col. Merrill’s cavalry regiment returned to Sedalia, Mo., from
Waverley, bringing as prisoners 4 rebel capts., 2 lieuts. and 40 men,
a mortar, and many horses.
12. Co. I, of 15th Ohio, were attacked on the banks of the Green
river, Ky., by a superior force of rebel cavalry, whom they repulsed,
wounding several of the cavalry, without loss themselves.
13. Villages of Papinsville and Butler, Bates co., Mo., rebel
rendezvous, were burned by Maj. Williams of the 3d Kansas.
13. Wm. H. Johnson, of the Lincoln Cavalry, a deserter, who was
captured, under military order was shot.
 13. The British ship Admiral was captured off Savannah, Ga., while
attempting to run in, by the Augusta.
13. Rebel Gov. Jackson, of Mo., issued a proclamation, from New
Madrid, praising the valor, fortitude and success of the rebel army,
and calling for more volunteers.
13. Battle of Camp Alleghany, Va. 2,000 Federal troops, under
Brig.-Gen. R. H. Milroy, marched from Cheat Mountain Summit to
attack a rebel camp on Alleghany Summit, of 2,000 troops, under
Col. E. Johnson. The Federals approached in 2 divisions, of 750 each,
from different directions, but did not arrive simultaneously, and
alternately attacked the whole rebel force. They retired after a well
contested fight of 8 hours, losing 20 killed, 107 wounded, and 10
missing. The rebels reported about the same loss.
14. Ex-minister Faulkner was released on parole, to be exchanged
for Congressman Ely.
14. Reconnoissance by Federal troops, within 28 miles of
Charleston, S. C. The rebels, as they retreated, burnt their cotton.
15. Skirmish on the Virginia shore, opposite Berlin, Md. A
detachment from the 28th Penn. were attacked by 120 rebels in
ambush, but cut their way through to their boat, and escaped, having
1 wounded, and 2 taken prisoners. 2 of the enemy were killed and 5
wounded.
15. Many Union refugees escaped from Arkansas. Capt. Ware, late
of the Ark. Legislature, organized a military company of Ark. Union
men at Rolla, Mo.
16. Platte City, Mo., was fired by rebels, and the principal public
buildings destroyed.
16. The Europa arrived from England, with news of the excitement
among the British people occasioned by the arrest of Messrs. Mason
and Slidell, and also the ultimatum of the British Government,
demanding a surrender of the rebel commissioners, and an apology
for their seizure. Mr. Seward’s dispatch to Mr. Adams, dated Nov. 30,
having settled the matter in anticipation, there was but little
excitement in the public mind.
16. Gen. Zollicoffer established a camp on the banks of the
Cumberland river, six miles from Somerset, Ky.
 16. A party of 8 men from the 2d and 4th N. J. advanced to
Annandale, on the south bank of the Potomac. They were surprised
by the enemy and 3 of them captured.
17. Battle at Munfordsville, Green river, Ky. The rebels defeated;
33 killed and 60 wounded. Federal loss, 10 killed and 17 wounded.
17. Gen. Pope captured 300 rebels near Osceola, Mo.
17. Entrance to the harbor at Savannah, Ga., blockaded by sinking
7 vessels laden with stone.
18. A part of Gen. Pope’s forces under Col. J. C. Davis and Col. F.
Steele, surprised a rebel camp near Milford, north of Warrensburg,
Mo., and captured nearly 1300 men, 70 wagons loaded with stores,
and all their camp equipage and arms. Federal loss, 2 killed, 17
wounded.
18. Gen. Barnard, Chief-engineer of the U. S. army, reported to
Congress that the defences around Washington consisted of 48
works, the perimeter of which was 48 miles, mounting above 300
guns.
18. The Island City sailed from Boston for Fortress Monroe with
240 rebel prisoners, to be exchanged.
18. Rebel Gen. Jackson attempted a movement against
Williamsport, Md., but Gen. Williams being on the alert, the rebel
force retired.
18. News from Ky., that Gen. McCook, was at Munfordsville, Gen.
Mitchell at Bacon Creek, and Gen. Zollicoffer, (rebel) at Cumberland
river, near Mill Springs.
19. Skirmishing at Point of Rocks, Md. Rebels from Va. shore
commenced shelling the encampment of Col. Geary’s Pennsylvania
regiment, but were repulsed after half an hour’s fight, without loss on
the Federal side.
19. A band of 25 rebels visited the town of Ripley, Jackson Co., Va.,
and seized all the arms in the place, some ammunition and clothing.
They also robbed the post-office and the principal store in the place.
20. George W. Jones, late U. S. Minister to Bogota, was arrested in
New York on a charge of treason.
20. Battle of Dranesville, Va. Federal forces, under Gen. E. O. C.
Ord, defeated about 2,800 Confederates from South Carolina,
Alabama, and Virginia. Federal force about 4,000 men, of whom 7
were killed and 61 wounded. Rebel loss, 75 killed 150 wounded and
30 prisoners, together with a large supply of forage.
20. A scouting party under Capt. Wood, captured 100 rebels near
Springfield, Mo., who were released upon taking the oath of
allegiance.
20. A party of rebels from Gen. Price’s army committed extensive
ravages on the N. Missouri railway, between Hudson and Warrenton.
The bridges, wood-piles, water tanks, ties and rails were destroyed
along the route for 80 miles.
20. 103 Federal soldiers, under Major McKee, repulsed a superior
force of rebels four miles S. of Hudson, Mo., killing 10 and capturing
17 prisoners and 30 horses, at the same time rescuing a stock train
which had just been seized by the rebels.
20. The main ship channel at Charleston harbor, was obstructed
by sinking 16 vessels of the “stone fleet.”
22. Reconnoissance in the vicinity of Tybee Island and Broad river,
Ga., from Gen. Sherman’s command.
22. Skirmish near New Market bridge, Newport News, Va. Two
companies of 20th N. Y. regiment, under Major Schoepf, were
attacked by 700 rebel cavalry and infantry, and escaped with loss of 6
wounded. Ten of the enemy were killed and a number wounded,
when they retreated.
23. Gen. Pope sent an expedition to Lexington, Mo. Two boats of
the rebels were captured and burnt.
26. A skirmish took place at Camp Boyle, Columbia, Ky. A body of
rebels were attacked by a detachment of Col. Hazzard’s regiment,
under Major Ousley, who dispersed them, killing 5 and wounding
others, without loss themselves.
26. Gen. McCall sent a reconnoitering party towards Dranesville,
Va., which was driven back by the rebels, who had a force of 10,000
men there.
26. A Cabinet Council at Washington, decided to give up Mason
and Slidell, on the ground that they could not be held consistently
with the doctrine of neutral rights always maintained by the U. S.
Government.
 26. Gen. Scott arrived at New York, in the Arago, from France.
26. Bluffton, S. C., was occupied by Federal troops under Gen.
Stevens.
26. The Lighthouse on Morris Island, Charleston, S. C. harbor, was
blown up by order of rebel authorities.
26. Major Gower, with a squadron of 1st Iowa cavalry, arrived at
Jefferson City, Mo., bringing as prisoners, 1 capt., 13 men, and 10
wagon loads of stores.
26. Philip St. George Cook, a Brig.-Gen. in the rebel army, shot
himself, at his residence in Powhatan Co., Va.
26. A fire occurred in the government stables at Washington, D. C.,
in which nearly 200 horses were burned.
27. Lord Lyons, the British minister at Washington, was notified
that Mason and Slidell awaited his disposal.
27. Alfred Ely, U. S. representative from Rochester, N. Y., taken
prisoner at Manassas Plains, was released in exchange for C. J.
Faulkner.
27. The rebel privateer Isabel, ran the blockade off Charleston, S.
C.
27. The bridges over Fabias river on the Palmyra railway, Mo.,
destroyed by rebels.
28. Gen. Buell’s army in Ky., was reported by the War Department
to number 60,000 men.
28. The rebels at Bowling Green, Ky., were reported to number
30,000, under Gens. A. S. Johnston, Buckner, and Hindman.
28. Gen. Prentiss, with 5 companies 3rd Missouri cavalry, under
Col. John Glover, and 5 companies of Col. Birge’s sharpshooters, 470
in all, attacked a rebel camp at Mount Zion, in Boone Co., Mo.,
numbering nearly 900 men. The rebels were routed, losing 25 killed,
150 wounded, and 40 prisoners. 90 of their horses and 105 stand of
arms were captured. The Federal loss was 3 killed and 46 wounded.
28. A squadron of Federal cavalry, from Col. Jackson’s regiment,
commanded by Major Murray, left their camp near Calhoun, Ky., on
a scouting expedition across Green river. They were attacked near
Sacramento, by a large force of rebels under Col. De Forrest, and
after a short engagement compelled to retire. Capt. A. G. Bacon was
killed, and Lieut. R. H. King, of Frankfort, and 8 privates wounded.
Capt. Merriweather and two privates of the rebels were killed, and a
number wounded.
30. The rebel Gen. H. H. Sibley having entered New Mexico with a
military force without opposition, took possession of it, and annexed
it to the Southern Confederacy by proclamation.
30. Messrs. Thomas and Burnett, of Ky., were “qualified” and took
their seats in the rebel Congress at Richmond, Va.
31. Two boats under Acting Masters A. Allen, and H. L. Sturges,
from the U. S. steamer, Mount Vernon, destroyed a light ship off
Wilmington, N.C., which the rebels had fitted up for a gunboat. The
expedition was at night, and the boats were under fire from Fort
Caswell, but escaped injury.
31. Capt. Shillinglaw and Mason, N. Y. 79th, and Lieutenants
Dickinson, 3rd U. S. infantry, J. W. Hart, 20th Indiana, and other
officers and men were released by the rebels from Richmond, Va.
31. Capture of the town of Biloxi, Miss, by U. S. gunboats Lewis,
Water Witch, and New London, with national forces from Ship
Island. The town and fort surrendered without a fight. The guns were
removed by Commander Smith, and the Federals retired.

1862.

Jan. 1. The rebel Commissioners Mason and Slidell, with their

Secretaries, left Boston for England, via Provincetown, Mass., where
the British war steamer Rinaldo received them.
1. Col. H. Brown opened fire from Fort Pickens on the rebel vessels
and fortifications within range of his guns, which was returned by
the enemy.
1. The British bark Empress arrived at New York as a prize, with
6,500 bags of coffee, captured by the U. S. sloop-of-war Vincennes,
off New Orleans bar.
1. Part of the Louisville and Nashville railway was destroyed by
order of the rebel Gen. Buckner.
1. Skirmish at Port Royal Ferry, S. C. Federal troops under Gen.
Stevens, with the assistance of five gunboats, crossed from Beaufort
to the mainland and attacked batteries erected by the rebels, who
retreated towards Grahamville. Federal loss, 3 killed, 11 wounded.
Rebels, 6 killed, 12 wounded.
1. Jeff. Owens, Col. Jones, and 50 rebel bridge-burners were
captured near Martinsburg, Adrian Co., Mo., by State militia under
General Schofield.
1. Four Federal soldiers were captured, 1 killed, and 10 guns taken
by a party of rebels on Green river, Ky., near Morgantown.
2. The U. S. gunboats Yankee and Anacosta, exchanged shots with
the rebel batteries at Cockpit Point, on the Potomac.
2. Daniel P. White of Ky., qualified and took his seat in the
Confederate Congress.
3. Col. Glover, with 300 Federal troops, attacked a rebel camp 9
miles N. of Hunnewell, Mo., taking 8 prisoners, putting the rest to
flight, and capturing a quantity of arms, &c.
3. 240 released Federal prisoners arrived at Fortress Monroe from
Richmond.
4. The 84th Pa., 39th Ill., 500 cavalry and other troops were driven
from Bath, Va., by a superior rebel force under Gen. Jackson, who
took 30 Federals prisoners. The Federals retreated to Hancock, Md.
7 rebels were killed and a number wounded. 3 of the Federals were
killed, several wounded.
4. Skirmish at Huntersville, W. Va. A portion of the 25th Ohio, 2d
Va., and Bracken’s Ind. cavalry, all under Major Webster, attacked a
rebel force of 400 cavalry and 350 infantry who were guarding the
rebel supplies at that depot. They were routed with a loss of 2 killed
and 7 wounded, leaving $50,000 worth of army stores which were
destroyed by Unionists.
5. Skirmish on the mainland near Port Royal, S. C. 7 rebels were
captured.
5. Rebel army under Gen. Jackson bombarded Hancock, Md. from
the opposite Va. shore, but were driven away by artillery forces under
Gen. Lander without a close engagement.
5. Five Federal soldiers were killed by rebels in ambush in Johnson
Co., Kansas.
 6. 4,000 Cherokee Indians were driven from their homes by Texas
rebels.
7. Destruction of bridges and culverts on the Balt. and Ohio
railway, near the Cacapon river, by rebel Gen. Jackson.
7. Engagement at Blue’s Gap, near Romney, W. Va. Federal troops
under Col. Dunning, of the 5th Ohio, attacked 2,000 of the enemy,
routing them with the loss of 15 killed, 20 prisoners, 2 pieces of
cannon, their wagons, &c. No Federal loss.
7. 300 of the 32d Ohio, under Capt. Lacey, were sent by Gen.
Milroy into Tucker Co., Va., where they dispersed 400 rebels,
capturing 2 officers and a private, and a large quantity of stores. 4
rebels were found dead and many were wounded.
7. Three brigades of Gen. Smith’s division, S. side of the Potomac,
proceeded toward Peacock Hill, Lewinsville, Fairfax Court House
and Vienna, and captured an immense quantity of hay, oats, corn,
&c.
7. A band of rebels having seized a quantity of army stores from
the depot at Sutton, Braxton Co., W. Va., information was sent to
Col. H. Anisansel, commanding 1st Virginia Cavalry, at Clarksburg.
The Col. overtook the rebels 30 miles E. of Sutton, and, attacking
them, killed or wounded 22, took 15 horses and 56 head of cattle, and
recaptured the greater part of the stores.
7. Skirmish at Paintsville, near Prestonburg, Ky. Col. Garfield
dispersed 2,500 rebels under Humphrey Marshall, killing 3,
wounding a large number, and capturing 15. Federal loss 2 killed and
1 wounded.
8. The newspapers of Missouri were put under military censorship,
and their editors ordered to send two copies of each issue to the
Provost-Marshal.
8. Riot at Warsaw, Mo. Two secessionists were shot.
8. Reconnoissance of gunboats towards Savannah, Ga., under
command of Capt. Davis.
8. Capt. Latham and 17 men of 2d Virginia regiment, encountered
about 30 rebel guerrillas on the Dry Fork of Cheat river, W. Va., and
after a severe fight of an hour’s duration, the rebels were driven from
the field with the loss of 6 killed and several wounded. Federal loss 6
wounded. Capt. Latham destroyed the rebel tents and provisions.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com