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COMPLEX VARIABLES
A PHYSICAL APPROACH
WITH APPLICATIONS
SECOND EDITION
Textbooks in Mathematics
Series editors:
Al Boggess and Ken Rosen

MATHEMATICAL MODELING: BRANCHING BEYOND CALCULUS

Crista Arangala, Nicolas S. Luke and Karen A. Yokley

ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, SECOND EDITION

Charles Roberts

ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO THE LEBESGUE INTEGRAL

Steven G. Krantz

LINEAR METHODS FOR THE LIBERAL ARTS

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS WITH DUCKS, SECOND EDITION

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GRAPH THEORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS, THIRD EDITION

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A FIRST COURSE IN FUZZY LOGIC, FOURTH EDITION

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EXPLORING LINEAR ALGEBRA

Crista Arangala

A TRANSITION TO PROOF: AN INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED MATHEMATICS

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COMPLEX VARIABLES: A PHYSICAL APPROACH WITH APPLICATIONS, SECOND EDITION

Steven G. Krantz
COMPLEX VARIABLES
A PHYSICAL APPROACH
WITH APPLICATIONS
SECOND EDITION

STEVEN G. KRANTZ
Cover graphic created by Professor Elias Wegert of the Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg. The graphic is
used with his permission.

CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Krantz, Steven G. (Steven George), 1951- author.

Title: Complex variables : a physical approach with applications / Steven G.
Krantz.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018061709 | ISBN 9780367222673 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Functions of complex variables. | Functions of complex
variables--Textbooks. | Numbers, Complex--Textbooks. | Mathematical
analysis--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QA331.7 .K732 2019 | DDC 515/.9--dc23
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To the memory of Lars Ahlfors.
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition for the Instructor . . . . . . xvii

Preface to the Second Edition for the Student . . . . . . . xxi
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

1 Basic Ideas 1
1.1 Complex Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 The Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Complex Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Algebraic and Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Modulus of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 The Topology of the Complex Plane . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 The Complex Numbers as a Field . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . 14
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 The Exponential and Applications 17

2.1 The Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Laws of Exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 The Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . 19
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.3 Roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.4 The Argument of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.5 Fundamental Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

vii
viii CONTENTS

3 Holomorphic and Harmonic Functions 27

3.1 Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Continuously Differentiable and C k Functions . . . 27
3.1.2 The Cauchy–Riemann Equations . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1.4 Definition of Holomorphic Function . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.5 Examples of Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.6 The Complex Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.7 Alternative Terminology for Holomorphic Functions 34
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Holomorphic and Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.2 Holomorphic and Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . 37
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Complex Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 Conformality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 The Cauchy Theory 45

4.1 Real and Complex Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.2 Closed Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.3 Differentiable and C k Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.4 Integrals on Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus along Curves 48
4.1.6 The Complex Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.7 Properties of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 The Cauchy Integral Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.1 The Cauchy Integral Theorem, Basic Form . . . . . 54
4.2.2 More General Forms of the Cauchy Theorem . . . . 56
4.2.3 Deformability of Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.4 Cauchy Integral Formula, Basic Form . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.5 More General Versions of the Cauchy Formula . . . 64
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Variants of the Cauchy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4 The Limitations of the Cauchy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
CONTENTS ix

5 Applications of the Cauchy Theory 75

5.1 The Derivatives of a Holomorphic Function . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.1 A Formula for the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.1.2 The Cauchy Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.1.3 Entire Functions and Liouville’s Theorem . . . . . . 78
5.1.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . 79
5.1.5 Sequences of Holomorphic Functions and
Their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.1.6 The Power Series Representation of a Holomorphic
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1.7 Table of Elementary Power Series . . . . . . . . . . 85
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 The Zeros of a Holomorphic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.1 The Zero Set of a Holomorphic Function . . . . . . 87
5.2.2 Discrete Sets and Zero Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.3 Uniqueness of Analytic Continuation . . . . . . . . 90
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6 Isolated Singularities 95
6.1 Behavior Near an Isolated Singularity . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.1 Isolated Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.2 A Holomorphic Function on a Punctured Domain . 95
6.1.3 Classification of Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1.4 Removable Singularities, Poles, and Essential
Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1.5 The Riemann Removable Singularities Theorem . . 97
6.1.6 The Casorati–Weierstrass Theorem . . . . . . . . . 98
6.1.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Expansion around Singular Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.2.1 Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.2.2 Convergence of a Doubly Infinite Series . . . . . . . 100
6.2.3 Annulus of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.4 Uniqueness of the Laurent Expansion . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.5 The Cauchy Integral Formula for an Annulus . . . 102
6.2.6 Existence of Laurent Expansions . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.7 Holomorphic Functions with Isolated Singularities . 105
x CONTENTS

6.2.8 Classification of Singularities in Terms of Laurent

Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7 Meromorphic Functions 109

7.1 Examples of Laurent Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.1.1 Principal Part of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.1.2 Algorithm for Calculating the Coefficients of the
Laurent Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2 Meromorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.2.1 Meromorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.2.2 Discrete Sets and Isolated Points . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.3 Definition of Meromorphic Function . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.4 Examples of Meromorphic Functions . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.5 Meromorphic Functions with Infinitely Many Poles 116
7.2.6 Singularities at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2.7 The Laurent Expansion at Infinity . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.8 Meromorphic at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2.9 Meromorphic Functions in the Extended
Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

8 The Calculus of Residues 121

8.1 Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.1.1 Functions with Multiple Singularities . . . . . . . . 121
8.1.2 The Concept of Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.1.3 The Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.1.4 Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.1.5 The Index or Winding Number of a Curve about a
Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.6 Restatement of the Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . 127
8.1.7 Method for Calculating Residues . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.1.8 Summary Charts of Laurent Series and Residues . . 127
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.2 Applications to the Calculation of Integrals . . . . . . . . . 133
8.2.1 The Evaluation of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . 133
8.2.2 A Basic Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
CONTENTS xi

8.2.3 Complexification of the Integrand . . . . . . . . . . 136

8.2.4 An Example with a More Subtle Choice of Contour 137
8.2.5 Making the Spurious Part of the Integral Disappear 140
8.2.6 The Use of the Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.2.7 Summing a Series Using Residues . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.2.8 Summary Chart of Some Integration Techniques . . 145
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

9 The Argument Principle 151

9.1 Counting Zeros and Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.1.1 Local Geometric Behavior of a Holomorphic
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.1.2 Locating the Zeros of a Holomorphic Function . . . 151
9.1.3 Zero of Order n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.1.4 Counting the Zeros of a Holomorphic Function . . . 153
9.1.5 The Argument Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.1.6 Location of Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.1.7 The Argument Principle for Meromorphic Func-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.2 Local Geometry of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.2.1 The Open Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.3 Further Results on Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.3.1 Rouché’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.3.2 A Typical Application of Rouché’s Theorem . . . . 165
9.3.3 Rouché’s Theorem and the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.3.4 Hurwitz’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

10 The Maximum Principle 169

10.1 Local and Boundary Maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.1.1 The Maximum Modulus Principle . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.1.2 Boundary Maximum Modulus Theorem . . . . . . 170
10.1.3 The Minimum Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.1.4 The Maximum Principle on an Unbounded Domain 171
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
xii CONTENTS

10.2 The Schwarz Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

10.2.1 Schwarz’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.2.2 The Schwarz–Pick Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

11 The Geometric Theory 177

11.1 The Idea of a Conformal Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.1.1 Conformal Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.1.2 Conformal Self-Maps of the Plane . . . . . . . . . . 178
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2 Mappings of the Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2.1 Conformal Self-Maps of the Disc . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2.2 Möbius Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.2.3 Self-Maps of the Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
11.3 Linear Fractional Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.3.1 Linear Fractional Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.3.2 The Topology of the Extended Plane . . . . . . . . 183
11.3.3 The Riemann Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11.3.4 Conformal Self-Maps of the Riemann Sphere . . . . 185
11.3.5 The Cayley Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.3.6 Generalized Circles and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.3.7 The Cayley Transform Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.3.8 Summary Chart of Linear Fractional
Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.4.1 The Concept of Homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.4.2 The Riemann Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.4.3 The Riemann Mapping Theorem: Second
Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.5 Conformal Mappings of Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.5.1 Conformal Mappings of Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.5.2 Conformal Equivalence of Annuli . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.5.3 Classification of Planar Domains . . . . . . . . . . 191
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.6 A Compendium of Useful Conformal Mappings . . . . . . 193
CONTENTS xiii

12 Applications of Conformal Mapping 207

12.1 Conformal Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.1.1 The Study of Conformal Mappings . . . . . . . . . 207
12.2 The Dirichlet Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.2.1 The Dirichlet Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.2.2 Physical Motivation for the Dirichlet Problem . . . 208
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.3 Physical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.3.1 Steady-State Heat Distribution on a Lens-Shaped
Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.3.2 Electrostatics on a Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
12.3.3 Incompressible Fluid Flow around a Post . . . . . . 218
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.4 Numerical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.4.1 Numerical Approximation of the
Schwarz–Christoffel Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.4.2 Numerical Approximation to a Mapping onto
a Smooth Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

13 Harmonic Functions 231

13.1 Basic Properties of Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 231
13.1.1 The Laplace Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
13.1.2 Definition of Harmonic Function . . . . . . . . . . . 232
13.1.3 Real- and Complex-Valued Harmonic Functions . . 232
13.1.4 Harmonic Functions as the Real Parts of
Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.1.5 Smoothness of Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . 234
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
13.2 The Maximum Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.2.1 The Maximum Principle for Harmonic Functions . 235
13.2.2 The Minimum Principle for Harmonic Functions . . 235
13.2.3 The Maximum Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.2.4 The Mean Value Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.2.5 Boundary Uniqueness for Harmonic Functions . . . 237
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
13.3 The Poisson Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.3.1 The Poisson Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xiv CONTENTS

13.3.2 The Poisson Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

13.3.3 The Dirichlet Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.3.4 The Solution of the Dirichlet Problem on the Disc . 240
13.3.5 The Dirichlet Problem on a General Disc . . . . . . 241
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

14 The Fourier Theory 245

14.1 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
14.1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
14.1.2 A Remark on Intervals of Arbitrary Length . . . . 247
14.1.3 Calculating Fourier Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 247
14.1.4 Calculating Fourier Coefficients Using
Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.1.5 Steady-State Heat Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 249
14.1.6 The Derivative and Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . 252
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.2 The Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.2.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.2.2 Some Fourier Transform Examples that Use
Complex Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
14.2.3 Solving a Differential Equation Using the Fourier
Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

15 Other Transforms 273

15.1 The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
15.1.1 Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
15.1.2 Solving a Differential Equation Using the Laplace
Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2 The z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.2 Population Growth by Means of the
z -Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
CONTENTS xv

16 Boundary Value Problems 283

16.1 Fourier Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
16.1.1 Remarks on Different Fourier Notations . . . . . . . 283
16.1.2 The Dirichlet Problem on the Disc . . . . . . . . . 285
16.1.3 The Poisson Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
16.1.4 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Appendices 305

Glossary 307

List of Notation 333

Table of Laplace Transforms 335

A Guide to the Literature 337

References 341

Index 345
Preface to the Second Edition
for the Instructor

An earlier edition of this book has enjoyed notable success, and it is a

pleasure now to prepare this new edition.
Complex analysis is still a central part of modern analytical thinking.
It is used in engineering, physics, mathematics, astrophysics, and many
other fields. It provides powerful tools for doing mathematical analysis,
and often yields pleasing and unanticipated answers.
It is the purpose of this book to make the subject of complex analysis
accessible to a broad audience of undergraduates. This will include en-
gineering students, mathematics students, and many others. We present
the key ideas of basic complex analysis without all the theoretical niceties
that would be included in a graduate course. We do not prove the hard
theorems; and, when we do prove a theorem, we do not use the word
“proof.” The idea is to make the subject user-friendly. A proof is a sub-
jective device for convincing someone that something is true. Calling it
a “proof” does not aid in the process, and runs the risk of alienating the
audience.
This book has an exceptionally large number of examples and a large
number of figures. Complex analysis, properly viewed, is a quite visual
subject. There is an exercise set at the end of each section. Challenging
problems are marked with a (∗). At the end of the book are solutions to
selected exercises.
One of the main thrusts of the book is this: We present complex anal-
ysis as a natural outgrowth of the calculus (something that the students
will already know quite well). It is not a new language, or a new way of
thinking. Instead, it is an extension of material already mastered. This
approach sets the text apart from others in the market, and should make

xvii
xviii PREFACE TO THE INSTRUCTOR

the book more appealing to a larger group of students and instructors.

Of course an undergraduate course on complex analysis can and should
contain plenty of applications. This book fills that need decisively. The
applications come from physics, engineering, and other parts of science
and technology. Included among these are
• the heat equation
• the wave equation
• the Dirichlet problem on the unit disc
• steady-state heat distribution on a lens-shaped region
• electrostatics on a disc
• incompressible fluid flow
• solving a differential equation with the Laplace transform
• population growth using the z-transform
• the Poisson integral formula
• several different proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
This is only a sampling of the many topics that we cover in this text.
The complex numbers are a somewhat mysterious number system that
seems to come out of the blue. It is important for students to see that
this is really a very concrete set of objects that has very palpable and
meaningful applications. We have meaningful applications throughout
the book.
One unifying theme in this book is partial differential equations. The
Cauchy–Riemann equations and the Laplacian have central roles in our
exposition. Other differential equations also make an appearance.
The thrust of the exercises in the book, and of the text itself, is not to
teach students the theory of complex analysis. Rather, it is to teach them
how to handle complex numbers and complex functions with facility and
grace. This is what people with a practical use for mathematics need to
know.
I am pleased to thank the many fine reviewers who contributed their
wisdom to help develop this book. I particularly thank Ken Rosen for
PREFACE TO THE INSTRUCTOR xix

his keen insights. I am grateful to my editor Robert Ross for his encour-
agement and support. I am also grateful to my readers, and look forward
to hearing from them in the future.

Steven G. Krantz
St. Louis, Missouri
Preface to the Second Edition
for the Student

Complex analysis may have always seemed rather mysterious to you.

Where do the complex numbers come from? Why do they behave the
way they do? Why do they endow negative real numbers with square
roots?
If complex analysis is developed properly, then all these questions are
answered in a comfortable and natural way. This book will do that job
for you. It presents complex analysis as an outgrowth of the calculus that
you have already mastered. Complex analysis is not some mysterious new
world. It is simply an extension of things that you already know.
An important aspect of this book is that it develops a great many
applications of complex analysis. These applications come from physics,
engineering, and other parts of science and technology. Included among
these are

• the heat equation

• the wave equation

• the Dirichlet problem on the unit disc

• steady-state heat distribution on a lens-shaped region

• electrostatics on a disc

• incompressible fluid flow

• solving a differential equation with the Laplace transform

• population growth using the z-transform

xxi
xxii PREFACE

• the Poisson integral formula

This is only a sampling of the many topics that we cover in this text.
The book has many examples and graphics in order to give you a
tactile feel for the subject matter. There are exercises at all levels—from
drill exercises to thought exercises to speculative exercises. Naturally
solutions to selected exercises appear at the end of the book.
In order to make the book most useful for you we have included a
Glossary and a Table of Notation. There are also a Table of Laplace
Transforms and a Guide to the Literature included. The first of these
will help you in your work in the book. The second will be useful as you
become more and more fascinated with complex variables and want to
continue your reading.
In sum, this is a comprehensive introduction to the field of complex
variables—a field that you need to know and understand in order to
be able to develop in the mathematical sciences, in engineering, and in
technology.
We wish you good fortune in your study of complex analysis and your
education as a mathematical scientist.

Steven G. Krantz
St. Louis, Missouri
Preface to the First Edition

Complex variables is one of the grand old ladies of mathematics. Origi-

nally conceived in the pursuit of solutions of polynomial equations, com-
plex variables blossomed in the hands of Euler, Argand, and others into
the free-standing subject of complex analysis.
Like the negative numbers and zero, complex numbers were at first
viewed with some suspicion. To be sure, they were useful tools for solving
certain types of problems. But what were they precisely and where did
they come from? What did they correspond to in the real world?
Today we have a much more concrete, and more catholic, view of
the matter. First of all, we now know how to construct the complex
numbers using rigorous mathematical techniques. Second, we understand
how complex eigenvalues arise in the study of mechanical vibrations,
how complex functions model incompressible fluid flow, and how complex
variables enable the Laplace transform and the solution of a variety of
differential equations that arise from physics and engineering.
It is essential for the modern undergraduate engineering student, as
well as the math major and the physics major, to understand the basics of
complex variable theory. The need then is for a textbook that presents
the elements of the subject while requiring only a solid background in
the calculus of one and several variables. This is such a text. Of course
there are other solid books for such a course. The book of Brown and
Churchill has stood for many editions. The book of Saff and Snider, a
more recent offering, is well-written and incisive. What makes the present
text distinctive are the following features:

(1) We work in ideas from physics and engineering beginning in Chapter

1, and continuing throughout the book. Applications are an integral
part of the presentation at every stage.

xxiii
xxiv PREFACE

(2) Every chapter contains exercises that illustrate the applications.

(3) A very important attribute (and one not represented in any other book,
as few other authors are qualified to make such a presentation) is that
this text presents the subject of complex analysis as a natural continua-
tion of the calculus. Most complex analysis texts exhibit the subject as
a free-standing collection of ideas, independent of other parts of math-
ematical analysis and having its own body of techniques and tricks.
This is in fact a misrepresentation of the subject and leads to copious
misunderstanding and misuse of the ideas. We are able to present com-
plex analysis as part and parcel of the world view that the student has
developed in his/her earlier course work. The result is that students
can master the material more effectively and use it with good result in
other courses in engineering and physics.

(4) The book will have stimulating exercises at the three levels of drill,
exploration, and theory. There will be a comfortable balance between
theory and applications.

(5) Every section will have examples that illustrate both the theory and
the practice of complex variables.

(6) The book will have copious figures.

(7) We will use differential equations as a unifying theme throughout the

book.
The subject of complex variables has many aspects—from the alge-
braic features of a complete number field, to the analytic properties im-
posed by the Cauchy integral formula, to the geometric qualities coming
from the idea of conformality. The student must be acqainted with all
components of the field. This text speaks all the languages, and shows
the student how to deal with all the different approaches to complex anal-
ysis. The examples illustrate all the key concepts; the exercises reinforce
the basic skills, and give practice in all the fundamental ideas.
Complex variables is a living, breathing part of modern mathemat-
ics. It is a vibrant area of mathematical research in its own right, and it
interacts fruitfully with harmonic analysis, partial differential equations,
Fourier series, group representations, and many other parts of the math-
ematical sciences. And it is an essential tool in applications. This text
PREFACE xxv

will illustrate and teach all facets of the subject in a lively manner that
will speak to the needs of modern students. It will give them a powerful
toolkit for future work in the mathematical sciences, and will also point
to new directions for additional learning.

— SGK
St. Louis, Missouri
Chapter 1

Basic Ideas

1.1 Complex Arithmetic

1.1.1 The Real Numbers
The real number system consists of both the rational numbers (num-
bers with terminating or repeating decimal expansions) and the irrational
numbers (numbers with infinite, non-repeating decimal expansions). The
real numbers are denoted by the symbol R. We let R2 = {(x, y) : x ∈
R , y ∈ R} (Figure 1.1).

1.1.2 The Complex Numbers

The complex numbers C consist of R2 equipped with some special alge-
braic operations. One defines

(x, y) + (x′ , y ′) = (x + x′ , y + y ′ ) ,
(x, y) · (x′ , y ′) = (xx′ − yy ′, xy ′ + yx′ ).

These operations of + and · are commutative and associative.

Example 1 We may calculate that

(3, 7) + (2, −4) = (3 + 2, 7 + (−4)) = (5, 3) .

Also

(3, 7) · (2, −4) = (3 · 2 − 7 · (−4), 3 · (−4) + 7 · 2) = (34, 2) .

1
2 CHAPTER 1. BASIC IDEAS

(x,y)

Figure 1.1: A point in the plane.

Of course we sometimes wish to subtract complex numbers. We define

z − w = z + (−w) .

Thus if z = (11, −6) and w = (1, 4) then

z − w = z + (−w) = (11, −6) + (−1, −4) = (10, −10) .

We denote (1, 0) by 1 and (0,1) by i. We also denote (0, 0) by 0. If

α ∈ R, then we identify α with the complex number (α, 0). Using this
notation, we see that

α · (x, y) = (α, 0) · (x, y) = (αx, αy) . (1.1)

In particular,
1 · (x, y) = (1, 0) · (x, y) = (x, y) .
We may calculate that

x · 1 + y · i = (x, 0) · (1, 0) + (y, 0) · (0, 1) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = (x, y) . (1.2)

Thus every complex number (x, y) can be written in one and only one
fashion in the form x · 1 + y · i with x, y ∈ R. We usually write the number
even more succinctly as x + iy.
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 THE YALE LITERARY
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Contents
DECEMBER, 1922

Leader F. O. Matthiessen 75
Poems Russell W. Davenport 79
Five Sonnets Maxwell E. Foster 94
Dagonet Herbert W. Hartman, Jr. 97
The Dark Priest K. A. Campbell 98
Poem R. C. Bates 99
Sonnet Winfield Shiras 100
Book Reviews 101
Editor’s Babel 106
 The Yale Literary Magazine

Vol. LXXXVIII DECEMBER, 1922 No. 3

EDITORS

MAXWELL EVARTS FOSTER

RUSSELL WHEELER DAVENPORT WINFIELD SHIRAS
ROBERT CHAPMAN BATES FRANCIS OTTO MATTHIESSEN

BUSINESS MANAGERS

CHARLES EVANDER SCHLEY HORACE JEREMIAH VOORHIS

 Leader
Here at Yale we are inclined to take things rather too much for
granted. We talk glibly of our traditions as something everlasting,
and forget that most of them originated in the vague limbo of
eighteen-ninety. We unconsciously consider the College of to-day to
be the same as our fathers knew, and so it is astonishing to find in
the musty pages of an old Lit. an account of “the more splendid
entrances of Durfee, a building which is certainly ornamental and
whose rooms are spacious and elegant”.
For, in general, we have accepted our surroundings as a
permanent matter of fact, and have not stopped to analyze just why
they are as they are. Most of us hardly know the reason for our being
here at all. In our four years we are continually passing through a
series of changes—παντα ρει—everything is in a state of flux. Our
ideas and ideals, our opinions and our minds are ever changing,
developing, broadening. The Senior is the Freshman only in that he
is the unifying body in which during the four-year span these many
shifting thoughts have been welded together, and the instant has in
truth been made eternity. For the Freshman is too engrossed with
the business of becoming acclimatized, heeling some publication or
other activity, and making friends to have much time for anything
else. Towards the close of the spring term he looks forward to
Sophomore year with a certain relish. Then is when he will do all that
reading and extra study, that plain living and high thinking, which he
has planned. But, curiously enough, Sophomore year brings with it
new and unforeseen petty distractions which devour the time at an
incredible rate, and leave no more room for contemplation than the
year previous.
And so with the last half of the cycle: the two final years swing by
confusedly and bring us to the precipice of graduation, a charm or
two on our watch chain, a smattering of knowledge which we may or
may not find comforting, nothing more.
 Our development has been somewhat of a hand to mouth affair.
We have learned certain unrelated facts about this and that, and
have sketchily attempted to piece them together. But ordinarily they
have not fitted, because we have not devoted enough sheer
intellectual effort to the analysis of our own ideas. We have not the
slightest conception of what we believe. We may have learned to
think with reasonable clarity, and our ideals may be rather high, but
we have built up no scheme of life, nothing by which to live. Any
philosophy or creed which we may possess is, at best, vague,
inchoate, and fragmentary.
This, as I have said, is because we have never searched our souls
with the cold, relentless light of reason in an attempt to understand
every fiber of our make-up, we have taken things for granted, we
have known only our exteriors, we have not known ourselves.
And living thus almost entirely on the surface, we have inevitably
grown to think of a philosophy of life as hardly an essential. “What
need have I for all this truck about religion?”, we ask frankly, for we
have not yet been brought face to face with the Truth that in order to
realize our highest possibilities we must be utterly dominated by an
ideal. We wish to move the world, but we have not yet been
impressed with the necessity of having a place to stand. We have
not been convinced that we must believe in something.
The whole question has seemed to be something ethereal,
something far removed from our own natural lives. Consequently we
have been inclined to think of religion as little else but repression and
that its followers knew nothing either of happiness or of life. They
seemed to belong to a world apart—to a world that was drab and
unreal.
So Christianity has become the most forbidding word in the
language. Judging it by its present fruits—by a decadent church and
by sweaty Y.M.C.A. gymnasiums—we have pronounced it to be
woefully lacking. We have not seen that these are in reality not fruits
at all, but abortions, that although the church in its present form has
outlived its usefulness, the spirit which exists in each one of us is as
dominating now as it ever was, if only we will open our hearts to it.
We have never stopped to think these questions through to their
conclusion. We take untruths and half-truths for granted, and allow
misconceptions to pass current without ever a sincere effort to get at
the eternal strength of things.
And so we hear men talk of humility, and we laugh at them. We
wish to assert ourselves, to express our own individuality, and being
humble seems to convey the very opposite. We look upon it as
something synonymous with servility, as a state of grovelling self-
abasement in which a man must sacrifice both his personality and
his self-respect.
We hear men talk of brotherly love and it seems to us a farce. How
could anybody pretend to care for everyone equally, to put his
closest friend and the man in the street in the same class? What
could be more unnatural, more hypocritical?
And again we hear men talk of self-surrender and we hate them
for it. Why should I surrender myself? I am I. I possess my ideas and
ideals, and these are enough. Why should I not strive to realize them
without any external aid, any “something not myself”?
Thus we argue and thus we feel because we are repelled by
words whose meaning we do not really understand. Our minds have
never pried deeply enough to find the Truth that humility is nothing
mean, nothing subservient, but rather the natural consciousness of
reverence before everything beautiful and sacred in the universe.
We have thought the ideal of brotherly love to be futile because we
have looked upon it only superficially. We have not realized that
instead of a mere question of surface like or dislike, it involves a
tremendous tolerance and sympathy with all of mankind, and that
although difficult, if not impossible, to attain in its fulness, it certainly
is the antithesis of hypocritical. We have loathed the very sound of
self-surrender because we have taken the word in its cold and literal
sense, and have not understood that instead of sacrificing any trace
of individuality in giving ourselves up to the spiritual and the ideal, we
find instead a new fulness and depth to life. For self-surrender is
actually a self-realization more compelling than our brightest dreams.
F. O. MATTHIESSEN.
 Poems
I.

Sometimes you are younger than the dawn;

But sometimes you are older than the stars.
Your eyes are made that way: new light is drawn
From the piled gold where ancient suns have gone,
When your gaze reaches mine. Immersed in wars,
I seek rebellion, fearing to rebel;
And sigh, not yet desirous of relief;
And grieve, not yet relinquishing my grief;
And love the more—I who have loved so well.

II.

I love you. But it is a sorry task

To probe the depths of why or how I love.
We lovers are more fools the more we ask
What lurks behind our kisses, what the mask
Of rotting flesh conceals. Surely I love.
Surely? Great heaven, who would tell the moon
That she’s the light when she herself is cold?
Without your love mine would be growing old;
Without your eyes, mine would be ashes soon.

III.

Ashes? Yet there is something infinite

About an ash—hoary and cold and wise.
Across the spent fires of the night they flit,
And often when the day grows pale, they sit,
Like monarchs, on a vanished enterprise.
Ah, even thus my young love would endure!
Without her light the moon would still express
Her strength, in shadows not yet bodiless—
Hoary and cold and wise: thus am I sure.

IV.

I have addressed you with love’s first address:

I’ve sealed the envelope with all my soul.
Each day you add one burden to distress:
Your silence! Ah, what icy ghosts caress
Expectant hearts when women are the goal—
What undreamt women do we hope to see
When gazing like tired children heavenward!
We say: God help us if our souls are barred
From the white arches of infinity.

V.

Strange that your silence is so deafening

And your unwritten page so full of thought!
Each time they do not come your letters bring
A chaos of conjecture, gathering
Its forces like mad winds, ’till I am caught—
And swept—and swept into an agony.
Ah, ruinous silence that awakes such stress!
The noisy thunders of my heart suppress
The frail, pale music of my memory.

VI.

How long! How long, great God, must I regret

Fleshly communions with the scattered ghosts
Whom in the by-ways of the past I met,
And whom I am desirous to forget,
Lest at their feasts they shout aloud old toasts
And grin with laughter that is desolate?
For then the crimson tinge would cross your cheek—
A tragic color—and your heart would seek
Mutely for spring, though shorn of leaves by Fate.

VII.

Winter! It is not winter when the snows

Whiten the houses and the bare brown trees.
It is not winter when the north wind blows,
Nor yet when mountain lakes are glazed, and floes
On the horizons of the Arctic freeze.
There is no winter if the heart is warm!—
And I would ask you to remember it.
My dear, when you are silent, I must sit
Frozen among the figures of the storm.

VIII.

What do I mean by such queer similes?

O heart beloved, I mean to show you how
The red autumnal stretches of the trees
In crystal twilight, ere the black ponds freeze,
Would but reflect your stillness, were I now
To tell you things a man’s life most conceals:
And next to say that what the autumn is
To you, winter would be to me. And this
Seems all that any simile reveals.

IX.

When marble wears the touch of Grecian hands,

Or Leonardo’s paints on canvas live,
I think the gods are building on the sands
Castles of stone, but no one understands
How much they can inspire one heart to give:
Though I who dream about your untouched hair
Can follow Leonardo’s rapid brush,
And with it paint those yearning strokes, and crush
Beneath a large ideal, life’s strong despair.
 X.

Dante was more than half of Beatrice!

Thus for a woman’s warm identity
We men go asking where our heaven is,
And having found it, for that woman’s kiss
We build the altars and the destiny.
O Beatrice! How much we would forget,
If Dante had forgotten what to write!
The Silence and the Distance and the Night—
These he erased—and we remember yet!

XI.

But more than half of Dante was her frame—

So fragile and so exquisite that rime
Could but produce the soundings of her name,
And leave all cold the radiance, the flame
Which from her gaze swept Dante out of time.
Oh, say not that a woman ever dies
When Dante loves her! Yet when Dante loves,
His soul becomes the body that he loves:
A woman will not have it otherwise.

XII.

If Beauty can be kind I know it not,

Because you have not touched me with your lips,
Nor yielded with your eyes. It is my lot
To sit, an outcast on some barren spot,
And watch the summer clouds, like treasure-ships,
Sailing beyond me toward the evening.
The beauty there is infinite, is blue!—
But pitiless as effigies of you,
And bitter with remembrance of the spring.

XIII.
I am a madman in the wilderness:
The gods of anger have bestirred my pen.
Where is your magic now? Or your caress?
The pressure of your arms, your tenderness?
I’ll tear myself away from these, since men
Are not as angels are—eternally.
Damnation!—ah, but hush—see, my wild hands!
If pity be the food my heart demands,
Then for the love of heaven pity me.

XIV.

Or do not pity me. Love is too great

For kindly words and sighs and handkerchiefs.
Your eyes will be my stars, your arms my fate,
And I shall wait for these, although I wait
Until the ship goes shattering on reefs
Which lurk beyond horizons sailed in vain.
Then let the ocean froth, let tempests rave;
Let the straight masts bow stiffly to their grave;
Let the old love go—go—nor come again!

XV.

My lady condescends! A little note

Written, upon my soul, in hat and glove,
Leaves everything unsaid: and what she wrote
Would strangle the young cupid by the throat,
If he were not immortal. I may love,
And she—is glad to have it so. Ah me!
How fine a woman draws the thread of hair
Which holds her lover dangling in the air,
Suspended above all eternity.
RUSSELL W. DAVENPORT.
 Five Sonnets
1.

My friends will have it that I might have been

A lover, and not thus have loved in vain,
Had I had strength enough to kill the rain
That showered on the April of our scene.
And art to be impassioned and serene,
And worn the guise of Abel, being Cain,
Worshipping in a mild bucolic vein
The blinding fire of the cold eyes of my queen.

And calmly in their quiet judicial way,

They tell me that the pictures I have drawn
Of you are fantasies of my poor brain,
And when, if ever, we shall meet again
You will not be a person of the dawn,
Or Love, herself, uprising from the spray.

2.

But I can laugh with them at their good jokes,

Knowing they are not serious, and reply
That heaven is something less than a wild sky,
And love only a pretty, human hoax.
Do I not see what all their laughter cloaks,
And know that really they would gladly die,
Rather than idly pass your beauty by,
Which all the dreaming of their hearts invokes.

They are ingenious fellows and will play,

But in the elements they are the same
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