FEATURE ARTICLES

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN DETERMINATION

OF EMERALD
Sudarat Saeseaw, Nathan D. Renfro, Aaron C. Palke, Ziyin Sun, and Shane F. McClure

The gem trade has grown to rely on gemological laboratories to provide origin determination services for emer-
alds and other fine colored stones. In the laboratory, this is mostly accomplished by careful observations of in-
clusion characteristics, spectroscopic analysis, and trace element profile measurements by laser
ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Inclusions and spectroscopy can often
separate Colombian emeralds from other sources (although there is some overlap between Colombian, Afghan,
and Chinese [Davdar] emeralds). For non-Colombian emeralds, trace element analysis by LA-ICP-MS is needed
in addition to information from the stone’s inclusions. The relative chemical diversity of emeralds from worldwide
deposits allows confidence in origin determination in most cases. This contribution outlines the methods and
criteria used at GIA for geographic origin determination for emerald.

W
hen the Spanish conquistadors first specific criteria used in the laboratory at GIA to
brought Colombian emeralds (figures 1 and make geographic origin conclusions for emeralds, as
2) onto the international market, they be- well as potential areas of overlap and how these are
came a global sensation in their day. Emeralds from dealt with.
Central Asia and Egypt were known at the time, but
the world had likely never seen emeralds of such
high quality and size. Traders soon developed distri- In Brief
bution channels that brought the Colombian mate-
• Emerald origin determination can be challenging due
rial all the way from the royal courts in Europe to the to the number of deposits and their often similar inclu-
powerful Moguls of India (Giuliani et al., 2000). sion scenes.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw all
• Emeralds can be classified as hydrothermal/metamor-
of this change as new mines sprang up around the phic or schist-hosted based on UV-Vis-NIR spec-
world to challenge the famed Colombian emeralds. troscopy and inclusions.
Most notable in terms of high-quality production • Hydrothermal/metamorphic emeralds, including those
were Brazil, Russia, and Zambia, but smaller deposits from Colombia, have jagged fluid inclusions but can
have been uncovered in Madagascar and Ethiopia and easily be separated by trace element chemistry.
elsewhere. As the market has evolved alongside • For schist-hosted emeralds, a combination of trace ele-
these developments, geographic origin has come to ment chemistry and microscopic observations of inclu-
be an important factor for fine-quality emeralds. The sions is required for a conclusive origin determination.
demand for emerald origin determination was ini-
tially driven by the proliferation of sources. However,
this expansion and diversification of emerald sources
SAMPLES AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
has also complicated origin determination. As the
number of sources grows, so does the overlap in their Emeralds included in this study are dominantly from
characteristics. The following sections will detail the GIA’s reference collection, which was assembled over
more than a decade by GIA’s field gemology depart-
ment. Stones in GIA’s reference collection were ob-
tained from reliable sources and collected as close to
See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 614–646,
the mining source as possible; see Vertriest et al.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.55.4.614 (2019), pp. 490–511 of this issue. When necessary, the
© 2019 Gemological Institute of America data from the reference collection was supplemented

614 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 Figure 1. An 88.4 g
emerald crystal from
Coscuez, Colombia.
Photo by Robert Wel-
don/GIA; courtesy of
the Roz and Gene
Meieran Collection.

by stones gathered by the authors of this study out- gascar, 64 from Russia, 49 from Brazil, 32 from
side of the field gemology program or borrowed from Ethiopia, and 25 from China (Davdar). Emeralds from
GIA’s museum collection. The trace element data Madagascar are much less frequently encountered in
was obtained from 298 samples total, with 36 from the lab. Therefore, these deposits are included in the
Zambia (25 from Kafubu and 11 from Musakashi), 34 trace element section here, but their inclusions are
from Colombia, 36 from Afghanistan, 22 from Mada- not described for the sake of brevity and clarity. More

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 615

 the range of 190–1100 nm with a 1 nm spectral reso-
lution and a scan speed of 400 nm/min. When possi-
ble, polarized spectra of oriented samples were
collected to obtain o- and e-ray absorption spectra.
UV-Vis-NIR spectra are presented either as relative
absorbance with no units or absorption coefficient (a)
in units of cm–1 where a = A × 2.303/t, with A = ab-
sorbance and t = path length in cm.

RESULTS
UV-Vis-NIR Spectroscopy in Emerald Origin Determi-
nation. As with rubies and sapphires, emerald’s geo-
graphic origin determination starts with a coarse
separation into one of two groups based on their geo-
logical conditions of formation: hydrothermal/meta-
morphic and schist-hosted/magmatic-related (the Type
Figure 2. Colombian emerald from Chivor, 4.50 ct. II tectonic metamorphic-related and Type I tectonic
Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
magmatic-related groups from Giuliani et al., 2019;
Giuliani and Groat, 2019, pp. 464–489 of this issue).
This distinction also roughly corresponds to a separa-
information about specific mines within these coun- tion between Colombian emeralds (or those emeralds
tries can be found in Vertriest et al. (2019), pp. 490– that might have Colombian-like features) and essen-
511 of this issue. tially everything else. The hydrothermal/
Trace element chemistry was collected at GIA metamorphic group contains emeralds from Colom-
over the course of several years using two different bia, Afghanistan, and China (Davdar), while the schist-
LA-ICP-MS systems. The ICP-MS was either a hosted/magmatic group includes emeralds from
Thermo Fisher X-Series II or iCAP Qc system, cou- Zambia (Kafubu), Russia, Ethiopia, and Brazil, among
pled to an Elemental Scientific Lasers NWR 213 laser others. In many cases, this separation can be made
ablation system with a frequency-quintupled based on gemological properties. Hydrothermal/meta-
Nd:YAG laser (213 nm wavelength with 4 ns pulse morphic emeralds often have jagged multiphase inclu-
width). Ablation was carried out with 55 μm spot sions, whereas schist-hosted emeralds generally have
sizes with fluence of 8–10 J/cm2 and repetition rates blocky or irregular multiphase inclusions. The differ-
of either 7, 10, or 20 Hz. 29Si was used as an internal ence in appearance is likely related to variations in the
standard at 313500 ppm using NIST 610 and 612 as way the fluids were originally entrapped as well as
external standards. Repeat analyses on samples from post-entrapment healing and evolution of the inclu-
single locations over time have verified the consis- sions while the emeralds were held at high tempera-
tency of the analyses with these various setups. Ac- ture and pressure before being exhumed to the earth’s
curacy is estimated to be within 10–20% for most surface (e.g., Giuliani et al., 2019).
elements analyzed, based on comparisons with elec- But advanced analytical techniques are often more
tron microprobe data on a small selection of samples. reliable than relying solely on inclusions. Schist-
Inclusions were identified, when possible, using hosted emeralds generally have much higher Fe con-
Raman spectroscopy with a Renishaw inVia Raman tent than hydrothermal/metamorphic emeralds. This
microscope system. The Raman spectra of the inclu- chemical distinction is most easily seen using UV-Vis-
sions were excited by a Stellar-REN Modu Ar-ion NIR spectroscopy. Representative UV-Vis-NIR o-ray
laser producing highly polarized light at 514 nm and spectra of hydrothermal/metamorphic emeralds are
collected at a nominal resolution of 3 cm–1 in the shown in figure 3 (top). The most prominent features
2000–200 cm–1 range. In many cases, the confocal ca- in this group are the Cr3+ broad absorption bands at
pabilities of the Raman system allowed inclusions about 430 and 600 nm and the sharp Cr3+ band at
beneath the surface to be analyzed. around 683 nm. A typical Colombian UV-Vis-NIR
UV-Vis spectra were recorded with a Hitachi U- spectrum is characterized by the absence of any ab-
2910 spectrometer or a PerkinElmer Lambda 950 in sorption bands in the near-IR region at wavelengths

616 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 UV-VIS -NIR SPECTRA

Cr3+, 430 nm

Cr3+, 600 nm Cr3+, 639, 683 nm

Fe2+/Fe3+, 810 nm

Afghanistan
(high-Fe) Figure 3. Top: Represen-
tative UV-Vis-NIR
ABSORBANCE

Afghanistan spectra of metamor-

(low-Fe)
phic/hydrothermal
emeralds. The low-Fe
and high-Fe Colombian
China emeralds have 200 and
1900 ppm Fe, respec-
tively, while the low-Fe
Colombia
(high-Fe)
and high-Fe Afghan
emeralds have 1100
Colombia (low-Fe) and 2400 ppm Fe, re-
spectively. Bottom:
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Representative UV-Vis-
WAVELENGTH (nm)
NIR spectra of schist-
hosted emeralds. All
spectra are o-ray spec-
Cr3+, 639, 683 nm
Fe3+, 372 nm tra and have been
Cr3+, 430 nm Cr3+, 600 nm
Fe2+/Fe3+, 810 nm renormalized in order
to compare the relative
intensities of absorp-
Br
a
tion features and,
zil
ABSORBANCE

hence, absolute intensi-

Et
hio

ties cannot be com-

pia

pared between spectra.

The spectra are also off-
Ru
ssi
a set by various amounts
in order to facilitate
M
ad

comparison.
ag
as
ca
r

Za
mb
ia

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

WAVELENGTH (nm)

greater than 700 nm (bottom spectrum in figure 3, members of the hydrothermal/metamorphic group.
top). Other members of the hydrothermal/ On average, Colombian emeralds have lower Fe con-
metamorphic emerald group (i.e., Davdar, China, and tent than stones from any other deposit. However, the
Afghanistan), which generally have higher concentra- few stones at the higher range of Fe content for
tions of Fe, usually show a noticeable to significant Colombian emeralds have a noticeable Fe2+ absorption
absorption band at 810 nm caused by Fe2+, possibly band at 810 nm. Similarly, while Afghan emeralds
enhanced by nearby Fe3+. This feature has traditionally tend to have higher Fe content than most Colombian
been used to separate Colombian emeralds from those stones, at their lower Fe concentration range some
from all other deposits (e.g., Saeseaw et al., 2014). stones may show only a slight Fe-related absorption
However, as shown in figure 3 (top), there is some at 810 nm, which could be mistaken for a classic
overlap between some Colombian emeralds and other Colombian emerald spectrum. Great care must be

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 617

taken in interpreting UV-Vis-NIR spectra to identify reveals hidden solid crystals in these fluid inclusions.
possible Colombian emeralds, and multiple lines of Additional information about the internal features
evidence, including trace element chemistry, must be of emeralds from major world deposits can be found
used to accurately ascertain a Colombian origin. in the following references: Giuliani et al. (1993,
Due to their much higher Fe content, schist-hosted 2019), Vapnik et al. (2006), Groat et al. (2008), Mar-
emeralds are easy to separate from Colombian and shall et al. (2012), Zwaan et al. (2012), Saeseaw et al.
other hydrothermal/metamorphic stones based on (2014), and Vertriest and Wongrawang (2018).
their o-ray UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra (figure 3,
bottom). The most obvious distinction is the signifi- Geographic Origin Determination of Hydrother-
cantly increased intensity of the Fe-related 810 nm ab- mal/Metamorphic Emeralds. Colombian emeralds
sorption band in schist-hosted emeralds. Additionally, are the most economically important from the hy-
these higher-iron emeralds also tend to have a more drothermal/metamorphic type of deposit, and jagged
prominent Fe3+ absorption band at 372 nm than the hy- fluid inclusions are their hallmark features. Such
drothermal/metamorphic emeralds. As with the hy- fluid inclusions are typically elongate, with jagged
drothermal/metamorphic group, making geographic sawtooth edges. Unfortunately, emeralds from other
origin determinations for schist-hosted emeralds re- hydrothermal/metamorphic deposits such as
quires the use of multiple lines of evidence including Afghanistan and China may have similar jagged fluid
UV-Vis-NIR analysis, trace element chemistry, and mi- inclusions. Among the mineral inclusions found in
croscopic observation of a stone’s inclusions. these emeralds are calcite, pyrite with various mor-
phologies, albite, and carbonate minerals. This sec-
Microscopic Internal Inclusions. Emeralds, even top- tion will document the internal features of emeralds
quality material, tend to be fairly heavily included. from Colombia, Afghanistan, and China. Emeralds
Fluid inclusions, partially healed fissures, needles, from a minor deposit at Musakashi in Zambia will
and/or solid mineral crystals are frequently encoun- also be mentioned briefly at the end of this section.
tered. Inclusions are an extremely important tool for Further information on the inclusion scenes in emer-
geographic origin determination as well as separating alds from these deposits can be found in Bowersox et
natural and synthetic emeralds. However, there are al. (1991), Bosshart (1991), and Saeseaw et al. (2014).
several areas of overlap. Emeralds from some de-
posits may have inclusion scenes that resemble those The Internal World of Colombian Emeralds. Colom-
seen in other important deposits. Some stones may bian emeralds (figure 4) have long been held in high
lack any diagnostic inclusions, making it impossible esteem for their rich green color and for the history
to provide an origin opinion if there is no definitive
trace element data. Gemologists often classify emer-
ald into two broad groups based on fluid inclusions: Figure 4. Matched pair of Colombian emeralds with
jagged or blocky. This also corresponds roughly to the no oil, approximately 10 carats total. Photo by Robert
hydrothermal/metamorphic and schist-hosted clas- Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Amba Gem Corporation.
sification presented above. Most fluid inclusions in
emerald are multiphase, but it is often difficult to ob-
serve all the distinct phases in an inclusion using a
gemological microscope. Jagged fluid inclusions usu-
ally appear to be composed of a liquid, a gas, and one
or more solid phases. Sometimes there is even more
than one liquid phase present as well. Regardless,
when there are clearly observed solid, liquid, and gas
phases present, these are typically referred to as
three-phase inclusions. Blocky fluid inclusions often
appear to be composed of only two phases, a liquid
and a gas. However, there is often a solid phase pres-
ent in these inclusions, which is hard to observe due
to similarity in refractive index between the solid
and fluid. Sometimes the use of cross-polarized light

618 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 5. Small jagged inclusions in Colombian emer- Figure 6. This large jagged multiphase inclusion is
alds. Photomicrograph by Sudarat Saeseaw; field of characteristic of Colombian emerald. Photomicro-
view 0.9 mm. graph by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 1 mm.

and legends associated with these stones. The most taken to ascertain a stone’s origin and additional sup-
readily identifiable feature of Colombian emeralds porting evidence should be sought out. Gota de
are classic three-phase jagged fluid inclusions. These aceite is a growth feature sometimes seen in Colom-
contain a gas bubble and a cubic crystal (typically bian emeralds that can be used as a strong indication
halite and/or sylvite) and generally range in size from of origin (figure 7). Similar growth features are some-
100 μm to 1 mm (figures 5 and 6). However, as men- times observed in emeralds from other sources such
tioned above, jagged fluid inclusions can be seen in as Zambia, but it is by far most common in emeralds
emeralds from other deposits such as Afghanistan from Colombia. This growth feature’s name is Span-
and China (see also Saeseaw et al., 2014). Large jagged ish for “drop of oil,” in reference to the roiled and tur-
fluid inclusions (greater than about 500 μm) are bid appearance it lends. Gota de aceite grows parallel
unique to Colombia and can be taken as diagnostic to the basal faces, often in planes that do not extend
evidence of origin. However, when only smaller throughout the stone. Common solid inclusions in
jagged fluid inclusions are observed, care must be Colombian emeralds are carbonates, pyrite (figure 8),

Figure 7. Unique gota de aceite growth features in Figure 8. Group of pyrite crystals and rhombohedral
Colombian emerald. Photomicrograph by Patcharee carbonate crystal in Colombian emerald. Photomicro-
Wongrawang; field of view 0.9 mm. graph by Patcharee Wongrawang; field of view 1.6 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 619

 Figure 9. Emeralds from
Afghanistan: a 23.43 ct
emerald-cut stone from
Zarajet and an emerald
crystal measuring ap-
proximately 31.7 mm
long. Photo by Robert
Weldon/GIA; courtesy
of Himalayan Gems &
Jewelry.

quartz, feldspar, and small black particles from the The Internal World of Afghan Emeralds. While
surrounding black shales (Giuliani et al., 2019; Giu- Afghan emeralds have never held the market share
liani and Groat, 2019, pp. 464–489 of this issue). of their Colombian brethren, many fine stones have
However, most of these minerals are also found in been produced from the mines in the Panjshir Valley
other emerald deposits. Similar to Kashmir sap- (figure 9). As for their internal characteristics, multi-
phires, Colombian emeralds also have one very rare phase fluid inclusions are the most common inclu-
mineral inclusion that has never been seen in emer- sion in Afghan emeralds. They often have an
alds from other deposits: parisite (Gübelin and elongate, needle-like shape and host several daughter
Koivula, 2008). When observed, it can be considered minerals (figures 10 and 11), which can distinguish
a diagnostic indicator of Colombian origin; unfortu- them from Colombian and Chinese emeralds.
nately, this inclusion is not frequently encountered. Daughter minerals in fluid inclusions in emeralds are

620 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 10. Elongate needle-like multiphase inclusions Figure 11. Needle-like multiphase inclusions lie paral-
containing several daughter crystals and a gas bubble lel to each other in Afghan emerald. Photomicrograph
are typically seen in Afghan emeralds. Photomicro- by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 0.9 mm.
graph by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 0.7 mm.

often assumed to be halite when they have a cubic The Internal World of Chinese Emeralds. The deposit
habit; however, when there are several daughter min- at Davdar, China, was discovered late in the twenti-
erals, as in the inclusions in Afghan emeralds, their eth century. The geology of Davdar is not well under-
exact identity is often hard to determine, even with stood, but it is reported that this deposit shares some
the use of confocal Raman spectroscopy. The typical similarities with other metamorphic deposits (Giu-
inclusion scene in these emeralds from the Panjshir liani et al., 2019). Fluid inclusions in these emeralds
Valley consists of small jagged fluid inclusions (fig- have a jagged shape and are composed of a rounded
ures 12 and 13), similar to those seen in Colombian gas bubble and a cubic crystal (figures 14–17). They
emeralds, and scarce crystalline inclusions. Solid in- are often small and can resemble those seen in emer-
clusions, when present, include pyrite, limonite, alds from Colombia and Afghanistan. While there is
beryl, carbonate minerals, and feldspar. likely very little production from the Chinese mines

Figure 12. Small jagged inclusions in Afghan emerald. Figure 13. Irregular jagged inclusions in Afghan emer-
Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of ald. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien;
view 0.7 mm. field of view 0.9 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 621

Figure 14. Jagged fluid inclusions with a transparent Figure 15. Jagged fluid inclusions in Chinese emerald.
cubic crystal and a gas bubble in emerald from Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong; field of
China. Photomicrograph by Sudarat Saeseaw; field of view 1.05 mm.
view 0.7 mm.

reaching the market, their potential for overlap with microscopist. For example, the inclusion scenes of
Colombian emeralds makes it important to be aware two Afghan emeralds in figures 18 and 19 showed
of their identifying characteristics to avoid potential jagged edges with a rounded gas bubble and cubic
problems in origin determination. crystal(s). These inclusions could easily be misinter-
preted as Colombian. Similarly, emeralds from a
Inclusion Scenes Gone Wrong. Many Colombian minor deposit in Zambia at Musakashi can also have
emeralds are easily identified by large jagged inclu- jagged three-phase inclusions similar to those seen
sions (figure 6) or gota de aceite growth features (fig- in Colombian emeralds, making it necessary to
ure 7). Multiphase inclusions containing numerous search for further evidence (figures 20 and 21). As
daughter crystals (figure 10) are considered conclu- with the Chinese emerald deposit at Davdar, few
sive evidence of an Afghan origin. However, it can be stones have emerged from Musakashi. Nonetheless,
complicated in smaller or less-included stones where it is important to be aware of this potential overlap
there may not be much information available to the in properties. UV-Vis-NIR analysis can be helpful to

Figure 16. Elongate jagged inclusions in emerald from Figure 17. Irregular multiphase inclusions in Chinese
China. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; emerald. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien;
field of view 0.7 mm. field of view 0.7 mm.

622 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 18. Jagged multiphase inclusions in an Afghan Figure 19. Irregularly shaped multiphase inclusion
emerald appear similar to features seen in some hosting a small gas bubble and several crystals in an
Colombian emeralds. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng- Afghan emerald. Photomicrograph by GIA; field of
Pooresatien; field of view 0.8 mm. view 0.3 mm.

separate between Colombian and Afghan, Chinese, sult of magmatic processes, including pegmatitic
or Musakashi emerald. Many Afghan, Chinese, and events. Emeralds formed in these deposits through
Musakashi emeralds have obvious Fe-related absorp- interaction of pegmatites or other magmatic bodies
tion bands distinguishing them from Colombian with mafic, ultramafic, and/or metamorphic country
stones. However, there will be some overlap in the rocks. This type of emerald includes important
high-Fe Colombian emeralds and the low-Fe Afghan sources such as Zambia (Kafubu), Brazil, Russia, and
and Chinese emeralds, both of which may show Ethiopia. These emeralds tend to have a darker green
minor Fe-related absorption bands. For these border- color than Colombian, Afghan, and Chinese emer-
line cases, chemical analysis is needed for a conclu- alds owing to their generally higher iron content.
sive result. However, some lower-iron schist-hosted emeralds,
especially those from Russia, may have lighter-toned
Geographic Origin Determination for Schist-Hosted colors. Schist-hosted emeralds often have blocky fluid
Emeralds. Schist-hosted emerald deposits are the re- inclusions that can be either two-phase, three-phase,

Figure 20. Jagged three-phase fluid inclusions in an Figure 21. Jagged three-phase fluid inclusions in an
emerald from Musakashi, Zambia. Photomicrograph emerald from Musakashi, Zambia. Photomicrograph
by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 0.7 mm. by Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 0.7 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 623

Figure 22. Zambian emeralds at 8.14 ct (left) and 1.76 Figure 23. Blocky fluid inclusions are common in
ct (right). Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Zambian emeralds, seen perpendicular to the optic
Mark Kaufman, Kaufman Enterprises. axis of the host. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-
Pooresatien; field of view 1.1 mm.

or multiphase. The most common solid crystal inclu- clusions composed of oxide minerals such as mag-
sion is mica, which occurs in a variety of forms and netite, hematite, or ilmenite (figure 27), can be seen
colors. Mica can be formed before the emerald (i.e., in Zambian and other schist-hosted emeralds. Elon-
protogenetic) or at the same time as the host crystal gate amphibole crystals are also observed occasion-
(syngenetic). Other mineral inclusions can also be ally in Zambian emeralds (figure 28). Other minerals
found: dendritic black inclusions and quartz, carbon- such as apatite, pyrite, talc, barite, albite, and calcite
ate minerals, talc, pyrite, emerald, chlorite, and spinel. have also been reported (Saeseaw et al., 2014).
The following sections will describe typical inclusion
scenes for each origin. Note that emeralds from Mada- The Internal World of Brazilian Emeralds. Emeralds
gascar would be included in the schist-hosted group. have been discovered in several Brazilian localities
However, these emeralds are much less frequently en- including Carnaíba and Socotó (Bahia), Santa Terez-
countered in the lab and so they are not included in inha (Goiás), and Itabira (Minas Gerais). This article
the discussion of inclusion scenes. Nonetheless, origin will focus on production from Itabira, or the Belmont
determination of Madagascar emeralds will be consid-
ered later in the trace element chemistry section. Fur-
ther information on the inclusion scenes in Figure 24. Irregularly shaped multiphase inclusions
schist-hosted emeralds can be found in Cassedanne in emeralds from Kafubu, Zambia, as seen parallel to
and Sauer (1984), Hänni et al. (1987), Zwaan et al. the optic axis. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-
(2005), Saeseaw et al. (2014), Vertriest and Won- Pooresatien; field of view 2 mm.
grawang (2018), and Palke et al. (2019a).

The Internal World of Zambian Emeralds from Ka-

fubu. Zambian emeralds (figure 22) are found in the
Kafubu area in the southern part of the historically
important copper mining area known as the Copper-
belt. Emerald mineralization occurs at the phlogo-
pite-biotite contact zone between pegmatites and a
talc-magnetite schist. Zambian emerald fluid inclu-
sions are typically blocky (figure 23) or irregularly
shaped (figure 24) multiphase inclusions. Mica is a
common inclusion in Zambian emeralds from Ka-
fubu, occurring with a brownish color and rounded
shape (figure 25) or in pseudo-hexagonal green
platelets (figure 26). Black platelets, or dendritic in-

624 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 25. Brownish micas are common in Zambian Figure 26. Pseudo-hexagonal fluid inclusions and
emerald but can also be found in emerald from other greenish mica are common in Zambian emerald. Pho-
deposits. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; tomicrograph by Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of
field of view 1.3 mm. view 0.9 mm.

Figure 27. Opaque thin platelets showing dendritic Figure 28. Greenish rod-like inclusions identified as
inclusions are seen in Zambian and other schist- amphibole in Zambian emerald. Photomicrograph by
hosted emeralds. Photomicrograph by Nattida Ng- Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of view 1.6 mm.
Pooresatien; field of view 1.0 mm.

mine, as it is the main producer of Brazilian emerald

today. Characteristic inclusions for emeralds from
Belmont include blocky fluid inclusions and parallel
tiny tubes described as “rain-like” (figure 29) that, if
dense enough, can occasionally produce chatoyancy.
The fluid inclusions typically show a blocky shape
(figure 30) and may have multiple liquid/gas/solid
phases apparent within (figure 31). Some irregular

Figure 29. Cloud of fine elongate tubes with various

fillings form a rain-like inclusion in a Brazilian emer-
ald. Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong; field
of view 1.30 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 625

Figure 30. This Brazilian emerald contains blocky Figure 31. Irregular three-phase inclusion (liquid/liq-
and rectangular fluid inclusions and a tube filled uid/gas) with immiscible liquids and a gas bubble in
with aggregate calcite. Photomicrograph by a Brazilian emerald. Photomicrograph by Charuwan
Charuwan Khowpong; field of view 0.80 mm. Khowpong; field of view 1.00 mm.

Figure 32. Elongate three-phase inclusion with con- Figure 33. Brownish mica flakes (syngenetic) showing
centric equatorial fractures in a Brazilian emerald. a nearly ideally formed pseudo-hexagonal shape in a
Photomicrograph by Patcharee Wongrawang; field of Brazilian emerald. Photomicrograph by Charuwan
view 1.30 mm. Khowpong; field of view 0.70 mm.

fluid inclusions in Brazilian emeralds may have con-

centric equatorial fractures (figure 32). Mica can be
found as both syngenetic pseudo-hexagonal (figure
33) and protogenetic rounded brown crystals (figure
34). Other solid mineral inclusions such as quartz,
magnetite, chromite spinel, calcite, or pyrite can also
be observed, similar to other deposits of schist-hosted
emerald.

Figure 34. Crystals of rounded dark brownish bi-

otite-phlogopite mica flakes in a Brazilian emerald.
Photomicrograph by P. Wongrawang; field of view
2.70 mm.

626 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 35. Left to right: Ethiopian emeralds weighing Figure 36. Ethiopian emerald weighing 4.12 ct. Photo
2.00, 9.72, and 4.13 ct. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Mayer & Watt.
courtesy of Mayer & Watt.

Figure 37. Blocky and irregular fluid inclusions in an Figure 38. Fluid inclusion with two separate liquids
Ethiopian emerald. Photomicrograph by Jonathan and a gas bubble in an Ethiopian emerald. Photomi-
Muyal; field of view 1.44 mm. crograph by Jonathan Muyal; field of view 0.72 mm.

The Internal World of Ethiopian Emeralds. In late

2016, emerald was discovered in Ethiopia near the vil-
lage of Shakiso (figures 35 and 36). Their fluid inclu-
sions often reveal blocky, elongate, or irregular
multiphase inclusions (figures 37–39) and nail-like
growth blockage inclusions (figure 40). The blocky in-
clusions are very similar to those seen in emeralds
from Zambia (Kafubu), Brazil, and Russia. Some fluid
inclusions in Ethiopian stones contain two separate
liquid phases, one gas bubble, and often solid crystals

Figure 39. Irregular fluid inclusion with large gas bub-

ble in an Ethiopian emerald. Photomicrograph by
Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; field of view 2.0 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 627

Figure 40. Elongate fluid inclusion originating around Figure 41. Scattered thin films in an Ethiopian emer-
a mineral inclusion, resembling “nail head spicules” ald. Photomicrograph by Ungkhana Atikarnsakul;
in an Ethiopian emerald. Photomicrograph by field of view 2.0 mm.
Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; field of view 0.8 mm.

(liquid/liquid/gas) (figures 37–39). When these stones The Internal World of Russian Emeralds. Fine
are examined in a microscope using an intense incan- emeralds have been produced from the Ural Moun-
descent light, one of the fluids can evaporate and tains since the mid-nineteenth century, placing
merge with the gas, which has been identified by Russia as one of the classic sources. Russian emer-
Raman spectroscopy as a CO2 gas. Some inclusions alds can harbor unique inclusion scenes. Iridescent
may also have granular fringes (figure 39). Minute par- thin films that lie parallel to the basal pinacoid are
ticles and iridescent thin films (figure 41) are seen oc- especially indicative of origin (figure 43). Fluid in-
casionally and can be confused with inclusion scenes clusions take on different forms including elongate
more typical of Russian emerald. Internal growth fea- (figure 44), irregularly edged multiphase (figures 45
tures are typically straight with angular color zoning and 46), to blocky (figure 47), although blocky fluid
following crystal prism faces. Some stones exhibit inclusions are uncommon in Russian emeralds.
roiled growth (figure 42) that is distinct from the gota Some fluid inclusions also have patchy, granular
de aceite growth seen in Colombian emeralds. Other fringes (figure 48). Long needles or growth tube in-
mineral inclusions such as brown mica platelets, clusions can also be found (figure 49). Brown mica
clinochlore, magnetite spinel, calcite, quartz, and talc (figure 50) and rod-shaped or needle-like amphibole
can be observed in Ethiopian emerald. crystals have been observed. Russian emerald typi-

Figure 42. Roiled internal growth in an Ethiopian Figure 43. Plane of numerous interference thin films
emerald. Photomicrograph by Ungkhana Atikarn- aligned parallel to the basal pinacoid in a Russian
sakul; field of view 2.7 mm. emerald. Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong;
field of view 1.40 mm.

628 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 44. Elongate fluid inclusion with a small solid Figure 45. Irregularly shaped two- and three-phase in-
inclusion at the end in a Russian emerald. Photomicro- clusions in a Russian emerald. Photomicrograph by
graph by Suwasan Wongchacree; field of view 1.20 mm. Suwasan Wongchacree; field of view 1.05 mm.

Figure 46. Irregularly shaped fluid inclusions in a Figure 47. Blocky and irregular fluid inclusions in a
Russian emerald. Photomicrograph by Charuwan Russian emerald. Photomicrograph by Aaron Palke;
Khowpong; field of view 1.75 mm. field of view 1.26 mm.

Figure 48. Irregular fluid inclusions with granular Figure 49. Long growth tubes in a Russian emerald.
fringes in a Russian emerald. Photomicrograph by Fiber-optic illumination. Photomicrograph by
Aaron Palke; field of view 1.26 mm. Suwasan Wongchacree; field of view 1.05 mm.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 629

Figure 50. Lath-shaped brown inclusions identified as Figure 51. Rectangular blocky fluid inclusions typi-
phlogopite mica in a Russian emerald. Photomicro- cally seen in Zambian emeralds. Photomicrograph by
graph by Suwasan Wongchacree; field of view 1.40 mm. Nattida Ng-Pooresatien; field of view 1.1 mm.

cally has few inclusions, and origin determination parate deposits can have similar inclusion scenes. For
can be challenging. example, how would you determine origin on these
blocky inclusions shown in figures 51 and 52? One
Inclusion Scenes Gone Wrong. Owing to their simi- is from Zambia and the other from Ethiopia. Irregular
lar geological genesis, emeralds from Zambia (Ka- fluid inclusions that might have once given an im-
fubu), Brazil, Russia, and Ethiopia may be difficult to pression of Zambian origin (again, see figure 24) are
distinguish. Making an accurate origin determina- now also occasionally found in Ethiopian emerald
tion requires an experienced gemologist with a ro- (figure 53). Elongate or thin rod-like fluid inclusions
bust reference database to compare against unknown were first seen in Brazilian stones, but similar inclu-
stones. Reaching an origin conclusion is easier when sions have been found in emeralds from Ethiopia and
the stone has abundant inclusions as opposed to a Russia (figure 54). Similarly, rain-like inclusions were
clean stone. However, every emerald must be ob- once considered diagnostic for Brazilian emerald but
served carefully, as stones from geographically dis- can now be observed in Ethiopian and Russian emer-

Figure 52. Blocky fluid inclusions in Ethiopian emer- Figure 53. Irregular fluid inclusions in this Ethiopian
ald might lead to misinterpretation as Zambian ori- emerald were initially interpreted as an indicator of
gin. Photomicrograph by Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; Zambian origin. Photomicrograph by Ungkhana
field of view 1.1 mm. Atikarnsakul; field of view 1.3 mm.

630 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

Figure 54. Elongate fluid inclusions in emerald from Figure 55. Parallel fine needles in Russian emerald re-
Ethiopia. These can be also seen in Brazilian and semble inclusions seen in Brazilian stones. Photomicro-
Russian emerald. Photomicrograph by Ungkhana graph by Suwasan Wongchacree; field of view 1.05 mm.
Atikarnsakul; field of view 1.1 mm.

alds as well (figure 55). Clusters of brownish mica are tion of emeralds than it is for gem corundum. This
common inclusions in all of these schist-hosted likely has its roots in the respective crystalline
emeralds (figure 56). In this class there are no mineral structures. Beryl has several unique crystal sites of
inclusions that can be used to indicate origin. In varying sizes and geometry into which trace ele-
many cases it is impossible to give an origin opinion ments can substitute. This allows easier incorpora-
based on microscopy. For emeralds from schist-host tion and greater variety of substitutional trace
rock, UV-Vis-NIR analysis is not useful in separation elements than for corundum, which has only one
as they all display similar spectra. In this case, chem- crystallographic site that can accept foreign elements.
ical analysis by LA-ICP-MS is required to make an Therefore, emeralds appear to be more sensitive to
accurate origin determination. slight changes in their geological environment, which
can impart unique trace element signatures for
Trace Element Chemistry. Trace element analysis stones from different geographic localities. Given
is a much more powerful tool for origin determina- the overlapping inclusion scenes for emeralds from
the deposits discussed here, trace element chem-
istry analysis is crucial for making accurate origin
Figure 56. Cluster of brownish phlogopite mica crys- calls. Several examples of trace element plots used
tals in Ethiopian emerald. These can also be seen in in the GIA laboratory for emerald origin determina-
other schist-hosted emeralds. Photomicrograph by tion are shown in figure 57, and table 1 gives the
Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; field of view 4.0 mm. general ranges and averages of the trace elements
used in origin determination at GIA. Commonly
used trace elements include Li, K, V, Cr, Fe, Rb, and
Cs. Colombian emeralds tend to be the purest
chemically, possessing generally lower concentra-
tions of the alkalis Li, K, Rb, and Cs as well as Fe.
The other hydrothermal/metamorphic emeralds
from Afghanistan and China are more enriched in
these trace elements, allowing them to be clearly
separated from Colombian stones. The most charac-
teristic feature of the schist-hosted emeralds is their
enrichment in Fe relative to the hydrothermal/meta-
morphic group. However, most schist-hosted emer-
alds also have much higher concentrations of the
alkali metals, and members of this group can be gen-
erally differentiated from each other by their dis-

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 631

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION

200

3000

Rb (ppmw)
Fe (ppmw)

20

300

30 0.2
0.2 2 20 200 1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)
Figure 57. Typical trace
element plots used for
origin determination of
emeralds.

500 500
Li (ppmw)

Li (ppmw)

50 50

5 5
30 300 3000 1 10 100 1000 10000
Fe (ppmw) K (ppmw)
Colombia China Afghanistan Madagascar Zambia
Ethiopia Brazil Russia

tinctive trace element profiles. For instance, Russ- an easier comparison between an unknown stone
ian emeralds tend to have lower Fe and higher Li; and the vast accumulation of reference data available
Zambian emeralds from Kafubu tend to have high by filtering out data with dissimilar trace element
Cs, Fe, and Li; Madagascar emeralds tend to have profiles and comparing only against reference stones
high K and Fe; Ethiopian emeralds tend to be mod- that match the full trace element signature of the un-
erately enriched in most trace elements; and Brazil- known stone. Elements used in the selective plotting
ian stones tend to occupy the lower range of many method include Li, K, Fe, Rb, and Cs. The use of se-
of the trace elements. lective plotting often allows trace element data to be
Despite these general trace element profiles, there interpreted more easily and provides greater confi-
is still significant overlap when considering only one dence in origin determination based on these data
or two trace elements at a time. However, the selec- (figure 58). In most cases trace element chemistry
tive plotting method employed by GIA for blue sap- provides solid evidence about a stone’s origin, but
phires and rubies is also routinely used to provide sometimes there is still too much overlap in the trace
greater confidence in emerald origin determination element data (figure 59). When trace element data
based on trace element chemistry; see Palke et al. and inclusion information are ambiguous or contra-
(2019b), pp. 536–579 of this issue, for a discussion of dictory, an “inconclusive” origin determination is al-
this method. Essentially, selective plotting makes for ways warranted.

632 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

TABLE 1. Generalized trace element profiles of major world emerald deposits in ppmw.

Hydrothermal/Metamorphic Emeralds
Colombia
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 24.2-139 bdl-359 117-2030 bdl-4.92 3.17-19.0
Average 62.9 17.7 553 2.03 10.9
Median 61.0 14.3 414 1.96 10.7
Afghanistan
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 78.2-268 51.7–1590 849–9820 3.87–110 11.3–97.0
Average 115 639 3780 46.9 46.2
Median 99.7 625 3120 44.1 43.6
China (Davdar)
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 68.6–332 91.8–1320 1170–6430 3.47–31.5 5.96–41.2
Average 114 314 2711 15.1 16.3
Median 110 303 2470 14.6 13.8
Schist-Hosted Emeralds
Brazil
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 31.3–359 33.2–1150 2460–9120 7.42–91.8 16.8–1130
Average 80.8 231 5120 31.4 148
Median 59.4 205 5035 30.0 79.7
Ethiopia
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 183–446 98.6–889 1970–5320 14.7–166 151–544
Average 310 307 3841 56.9 345
Median 306 306 3870 58.0 351
Madagascar
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 50.3–320 107–2660 6720–15800 12.7–395 110–1670
Average 144 1200 9400 157 555
Median 127 1220 8990 174 541
Russia
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 300–1640 bdl–8830 864–8800 9.10–361 107–2180
Average 751 319 2613 39.9 714
Median 723 108 2330 28.5 521
Zambia (Kafubu)
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 360–1140 305–890 4620–11600 17.4–116 375–2430
Average 604 500 8139 65.9 1344
Median 600 513 8410 72.6 1480
Detection Limits (ppmw)
Li K Fe Rb Cs
Range 0.016–0.71 0.27–3.15 0.71–5.57 0.003–0.040 0.005–0.99
*bdl = below the detection limit of the LA-ICP-MS analysis

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 633

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION
10000 All data All data Colombia

China

1000 Afghanistan
500

Li (ppmw)
K (ppmw)

Madagascar

100 Zambia

Ethiopia
50

10 Brazil

Russia

1 5
Unknown
1 10 100 1000 10000 0.2 2 20 200
Cs (ppmw) Rb (ppmw)

10000 Coarse Coarse

1000
500 Figure 58. Example of a
Li (ppmw)
K (ppmw)

Russian emerald’s ori-

100 gin determined using
the selective plotting
50
method (the unknown
10 stone shown as a red
circle). The trace ele-
ment profile of an un-
1 5
1 10 100 1000 10000 0.2 2 20 200 known emerald can be
Cs (ppmw) Rb (ppmw) easier to interpret
through the selective
10000
Medium Medium plotting method used
by GIA. Selective plot-
1000
ting uses coarse,
500
medium, and fine win-
Li (ppmw)
K (ppmw)

dows to filter out dis-

100 similar reference data,
making the plots easier
50
to interpret.
10

1 5
1 10 100 1000 10000 0.2 2 20 200
Cs (ppmw) Rb (ppmw)

10000 Fine Fine

1000
500
K (ppmw)

Li (ppm)

100

50

10

1 5
1 10 100 1000 10000 0.2 2 20 200
Cs (ppmw) Rb (ppmw)

634 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION
All data All data Colombia

China

3000 Afghanistan
3000
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)
Madagascar

Zambia

300 300 Ethiopia

Brazil

Russia

30 30 Unknown
0.2 2 20 200 1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Coarse Coarse

3000 3000
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)

300 300
Figure 59. An example
of an emerald with an
“inconclusive” origin
30 30
(analyses shown as red
0.2 2 20 200 1 10 100 1000 10000 circles). Even with the
Rb (ppmw) Cs (ppmw) selective plotting
method, there may still
Medium Medium be too much overlap in
the data and an “incon-
clusive” origin would
3000
3000 be warranted.
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)

300 300

30 30
0.2 2 20 200 1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Fine Fine

3000 3000
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)

300 300

30 30
0.2 2 20 200 1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 635

 Figure 60. This ring contains a 12.09 ct sugarloaf cabochon emerald. Photo by Robert Wel-
don/GIA; courtesy of Pioneer Gems.

636 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 Figure 61. The emer-
alds in this bracelet,
48.91 carats total, are
from the Chivor mine
in Colombia. Photo by
Robert Weldon/GIA;
courtesy of Pioneer
Gems.

CONCLUSIONS inclusion scenes, which can overlap with Brazilian,

With the proliferation of sources across the world Russian, and Zambian emeralds. The lab has also
in the twenty-first century, emerald origin determi- had to understand the increased likelihood of seeing
nation has become an increasingly important serv- Russian emeralds from the Mariinsky (Malysheva)
ice offered by gemological laboratories. At GIA, mine near Ekaterinburg in the Russian Urals. For
origin determinations are supported by years of any non-Colombian emeralds, trace element chem-
meticulous efforts by the field gemology depart- istry is always needed to support an origin determi-
ment in assembling a robust reference collection nation, given the potential for overlap in their
and collecting data on these samples (Vertriest et al., internal features. And yet, despite the years of ex-
2019, pp. 490–511 of this issue). This continual ac- perience collecting and analyzing data and docu-
cumulation of information has forced the laboratory menting changes to the emerald mining scene, there
to adapt its methods and criteria for origin determi- are still some stones for which the lab is obligated
nation to keep up with the evolution of the world to issue “inconclusive” origin opinions. Most of the
emerald market (figures 60 and 61). Given the find- time this is due to a trace element profile that does
ing of jagged three-phase fluid inclusions in low-Fe not match any of the reference data or because of
emeralds from Afghanistan and China, any stone ambiguous or contradictory inclusion scenes. Ef-
that gives an initial impression of a Colombian ori- forts by the laboratory and the field gemology de-
gin must be carefully scrutinized to avoid inaccu- partment will be crucial to closing gaps in our
rate origin conclusion. The rise of Ethiopian knowledge and keeping on top of further develop-
emerald in the last few years has also forced the lab ments in the world of emeralds—whatever the fu-
to come to terms with these new stones and their ture may hold.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 637

 CASE STUDY 1: ZAMBIAN EMERALD

In the first emerald case study, we will analyze

the 0.57 ct step-cut emerald shown in figure CS Figure CS 1-1. This
0.57 ct step-cut
1-1. The first step in determining this stone’s ge- emerald is at the
ographic origin is to collect a UV-Vis-NIR ab- center of this origin
sorption spectrum. The absorption spectrum determination case
study. Photo by
(figure CS 1-2) shows a pronounced 850 nm Diego Sanchez.
absorption band in the near-infrared region.
This identifies the stone as a schist-hosted emer-
ald, essentially narrowing the options for its ge-
UV-VIS -NIR SPECTRUM
ographic origin to Zambia, Brazil, Russia, 20
Ethiopia, and Madagascar. Microscopic obser- 18

ABS. COEFF. (cm–1)

16
vation shows a field of blocky fluid inclusions 14

(figure CS 1-3), typical for schist-hosted emer- 12

10
alds. At this point, trace element chemistry is 8

required to ensure an accurate origin determi- 6

4
nation. Representative trace element plots using 2
0
data from LA-ICP-MS measurements are shown 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

in figure CS 1-4. Use of the selective plotting WAVELENGTH (nm)

method (see Palke et al., 2019b, pp. 536–579
Figure CS 1-2. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy
of this issue) clearly shows that this stone is con- indicates a schist-hosted deposit such as Zambia,
sistent with a Zambian origin. Taken together, Ethiopia, or Brazil.
the analytical data collected allows a conclu-
sive origin determination of Zambia.

Figure CS 1-3. Blocky fluid inclusions also indicate a

schist-hosted deposit such as Zambia, Ethiopia, or
Brazil. Photomicrograph by Aaron Palke; field of view
1.72 mm.

638 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION

All data Coarse

200 200
Rb (ppmw)

Rb (ppmw)
20 20

2 2

0.02 0.2
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000

Cs (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Medium Fine

200 200
Rb (ppmw)

Rb (ppmw)

20 20

2 2

0.2 0.2
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000

Cs (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Colombia China Afghanistan Madagascar Zambia

Ethiopia Brazil Russia Unknown

Figure CS 1-4. Trace element analysis supports a Zambian origin. The selective plotting
method was used with coarse, medium, and fine filters.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 639

 CASE STUDY 2: COLOMBIAN EMERALD

The 2.04 ct step-cut emerald shown in figure CS

2-1 is the focus of this case study. The origin de- Figure CS 2-1. This
case study involves
termination procedure starts with the stone’s the origin determi-
UV-Vis-NIR spectrum (figure CS 2-2). There is nation process for a
only a very slight rise in the absorption spectrum 2.04 ct step-cut
emerald. Photo by
beyond 700 nm and into the near-infrared re- Diego Sanchez.
gion. This indicates a very likely Colombian ori-
gin, though an Afghan or Chinese origin cannot
be completely ruled out, as some emeralds from
UV-VIS -NIR SPECTRUM
those locales show similar UV-Vis-NIR spectra. 25
The most noteworthy inclusions are jagged fluid

ABS. COEFF. (cm–1)

20
inclusions, which also give a distinct impression
of Colombian pedigree (figure CS 2-3). Once 15

again, this information must be considered care- 10

fully as some emeralds from China, Afghanistan, 5

and Zambia (Musakashi) can show somewhat
0
similar inclusions. Therefore, trace element 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

analysis is needed. Representative trace element WAVELENGTH (nm)

plots (figure CS 2-4) clearly indicate a Colom-
Figure CS 2-2. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy
bian origin. Note that the selective plotting suggests an origin in a metamorphic-related deposit
method was not employed here and is generally such as Colombia, Afghanistan, or China.
not needed for Colombian emeralds.

Figure CS 2-3. Jagged fluid inclusions strongly indi-

cate a Colombian origin. Photomicrograph by Nathan
Renfro; field of view 1.31 mm.

640 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION

3000
Fe (ppmw)

300
Colombia

China

Afghanistan

Madagascar

Zambia

Ethiopia

Brazil

Russia
Unknown
30
0.2 2 20 200

Rb (ppmw)

Figure CS 2-4. Trace element analysis corroborates a Colombian origin for this emerald,
shown as the red circle.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 641

 CASE STUDY 3: INCONCLUSIVE EMERALD

Figure CS 3-1 shows a 1.05 ct step-cut emerald

under consideration for a geographic origin de- Figure CS 3-1. This
1.05 ct step-cut
termination. GIA’s standard procedure for emer- emerald is the
ald origin determination is to start by collecting focus of this origin
a UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum (figure CS 3- determination case
study. Photo by
2). The rise in absorption beyond 700 nm and Diego Sanchez.
into the near-infrared clearly indicates that this
stone belongs to the schist-hosted emerald
group. Therefore, the origins we will consider
UV-VIS -NIR SPECTRUM
are Zambia, Brazil, Russia, Ethiopia, and Mada- 25

gascar. Microscopic observations of the inclu-

ABS. COEFF. (cm–1)

20
sion characteristics reveal irregularly shaped
fluid inclusions, which are typical of many 15

schist-hosted emeralds but do not clearly indi- 10

cate any specific origin (figure CS 3-3). Finaliz- 5

ing the geographic origin determination on this

0
stone requires trace element chemistry measure- 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

ments. Figure CS 3-4 shows representative trace WAVELENGTH (nm)

element plots in comparison with reference Figure CS 3-2. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy
stones of known provenance from GIA’s colored indicates a schist-hosted deposit such as Zambia,
stone reference collection. Unfortunately, this Russia, Ethiopia, Brazil, or Madagascar.
stone does not seem to uniquely match any spe-
cific geographic location. Without the use of se-
lective plotting, the Fe-Li plot seems to suggest
a Madagascar origin. However, other plots show
that this stone lies outside the field of the Mada-
gascar reference data. Therefore, with the refer-
ence collection data we have so far and with the
application of selective plotting, Madagascar
does not appear to be a viable option. With
more reference data, hopefully stones such as
this one will be able to match to data. Until
then, given the ambiguity in the data, the only Figure CS 3-3. Irregular fluid inclusions also suggest a
possible option today for this emerald is an “in- schist-hosted emerald deposit such as Zambia, Rus-
sia, Ethiopia, Brazil, or Madagascar. Photomicrograph
conclusive” origin call. by Aaron Palke; field of view 2.37 mm.

642 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION

All data Coarse

500 500
Li (ppmw)

50
Li (ppmw) 50

5 5
30 300 3000 30 300 3000

Fe (ppmw) Fe (ppmw)

Medium Fine

500 500
Li (ppmw)

Li (ppmw)

50 50

5 5
30 300 3000 30 300 3000

Fe (ppmw) Fe (ppmw)

Colombia China Afghanistan Madagascar Zambia

Ethiopia Brazil Russia Unknown

Figure CS 3-4. Trace element analysis of this unknown emerald (shown as the red circle)
failed to conclusively match it with reference data of stones with known provenance. The
ultimate origin call would be “inconclusive.” The selective plotting method was used with
coarse, medium, and fine filters.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 643

 CASE STUDY 4: ZAMBIAN EMERALD

In this case study we examine the 1.04 ct step-

cut emerald shown in figure CS 4-1. The UV- Figure CS 4-1. The
origin determina-
Vis-NIR absorption spectrum shows a tion process for a
significant rise beyond 700 nm, leading to a 1.04 ct emerald is
large peak in the near-infrared region (figure CS the subject of this
case study. Photo
4-2). This allows clear assignment of this stone by Diego Sanchez.
to the schist-related emerald group. Hence, the
main geographic origins to consider are Zam-
bia, Brazil, Russia, Ethiopia, and Madagascar.
UV-VIS -NIR SPECTRUM
Microscopic examination shows abundant rec- 25

tangular, blocky fluid inclusions (figure CS 4-3),

ABS. COEFF. (cm–1)

20
an inclusion scene consistent with most schist-
hosted emeralds. However, the observation of 15

such inclusions alone cannot lead to an accu- 10

rate origin call. To finalize the origin determi- 5

nation, we need accurate trace element
0
analysis. Figure CS 4-4 shows representative 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

trace element plots from LA-ICP-MS measure- WAVELENGTH (nm)

ments. Use of the selective plotting method Figure CS 4-2. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy
demonstrates a clear correlation with Zambian provides evidence of a schist-hosted emerald that did
emeralds from GIA’s colored stone reference not originate in Colombia.
collection. Along with the spectroscopic and
inclusion data, this allows a confident conclu-
sion of Zambian origin.

Figure CS 4-3. Blocky fluid inclusions point to a

schist-related emerald deposit, indicating an origin of
Zambia, Ethiopia, or Brazil. Photomicrograph by
Nathan Renfro; field of view 1.89 mm.

644 GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019

 TRACE ELEMENT DISCRIMINATION

All data Coarse

3000 3000
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)
300 300

30 30
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000

Cs (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Medium Fine

3000 3000
Fe (ppmw)

Fe (ppmw)

300 300

30 30
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000

Cs (ppmw) Cs (ppmw)

Colombia China Afghanistan Madagascar Zambia

Ethiopia Brazil Russia Unknown

Figure CS 4-4. Trace element analysis provides conclusive evidence of Zambian origin. The
selective plotting method was used with the coarse, medium, and fine filters.

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EMERALD GEMS & GEMOLOGY WINTER 2019 645

 ABOUT THE AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ms. Saeseaw is senior manager of identification at GIA in The authors would like to thank GIA colleagues in Bangkok and
Bangkok. Dr. Palke is a senior research scientist, Mr. Renfro is Carlsbad for their valuable assistance. We also thank James Day
manager of colored stone identification, Mr. Sun is a research as- and Raquel Alonso-Perez and an anonymous reviewer for their
sociate, and Mr. McClure is global director of colored stone serv- thorough and helpful peer reviews which greatly strengthened this
ices, at GIA’s laboratory in Carlsbad, California. manuscript.

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