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Chapter Two

Organization of Computer System

Chapter Objectives

At the end of this chapter you will be able to:-

 List the components of Computer System

 Define hardware and identify its components with the corresponding roles and functions
of the devices effectively
 List some input and output devices
 Distinguish the difference between primary and secondary storage units
 State the general functions of CPU and list its classifications
 Define software and identify the classifications of software with their areas of practical
application
 Identify the data representation.
How a Computer is organized:
A computer is an electronic device that can receive and store data, process the data according to
a set of instructions and report the results of the processing on output device. Even though the size,
shape, performance, reliability and cost of computers have been changing over the years the basic
logical structure as proposed by Von Neumann has not changed. No matter what shape and size of
computers, all the computers perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input
data into information useful to their users:

1. Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
2. Storing. Saving data and instructions so that they are available for initial or for additional
processing as and when required.

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3. Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc) or

logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc) on data in order
to convert them into useful information.
4. Outputting. The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
printed report or visual display.
5. Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
performed.

The Computer Physical Setup

When you look at a computer externally, it simply consists of the system unit and the most
common peripheral devices, namely the monitor, keyboard, mouse and (optionally) printer.

Monitor
Printer
System Unit

Keyboard
Mouse

1) The Computer Case

The computer case houses all the major components of the computer. On the front end of the case
may be found on/off switch, reset button (optional), status indicators (power and HDD indicators)
and openings to floppy disk drives, CD–ROM drives and tape cassettes. On the rear end of the
case are found ports for connecting peripheral devices with the PC and a power socket for
connecting the PC to the electrical power source.

2) Expansion Slots and Cards

Expansion cards are small circuit boards that are used to upgrade a computer. These include:
enhanced graphics cards, modems, networking cards, sound cards, etc. Expansion cards are

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inserted into expansion slots in the motherboard (a board into which most of the basic components
of the computer are built).

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a local bus system that allows devices to be inserted
quickly and easily (plug–and–play compatible). Most of the computers today come with PCI slots
and cards.

AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a new platform bus specification that enables high
performance graphics capabilities, especially 3D graphical display applications.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) defines a class of hardware that makes it easy to add serial devices to
your computer. It provides an instant, no-hassle way to connect a new digital joystick, a scanner,
a set of digital speakers, a digital camera or a PC telephone to their computer. To install a USB
device, plug the cord from the device into any USB Port on your computer.

3) Power Supplies

Power supply converts normal household electricity, alternating current (AC), into electricity that
can be used by the computer, direct current (DC). It also lowers the voltage level. In Ethiopia,
the normal household voltage is 220V/50Hz AC. The capacity of a power supply is measured in
watts (W). A power supply of 150–200 W is large enough for most computers.

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4) Operational Setup

Operationally, the computer looks as follows.

Storage Unit

Secondary Storage

Program Input Output Information

and Data Unit Unit (Results)

Primary Storage

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Indicates flow of
Control Unit instructions and
data
Arithmetic Logic Unit Indicates the
control exercised
by the control unit
Basic Organization of a Computer System

The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another. However
the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. A block diagram of the basic
computer organization is shown in figure below.

INPUT UNIT
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit that links the external
environment with the computer system. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that depend
upon the particular device used. For example, data are entered from a keyboard in a manner similar
to typing and this differs from the way in which data are entered through a scanner, which is
another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which they receive their inputs,
all input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed into the binary codes that

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the primary memory of a computer is designed to accept. This transformation is accomplished by

units called input interfaces. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical
characteristics of input devices to the requirements of the computer system.

In short, the following functions are performed by an input unit:

1. It accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.

Input: Any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the course of which it will be
transformed into one or more outputs.

Some of the recently developed input devices:

Keyboard

Keyboard is the standard input device. It has about 100 keys. The keys are arranged as
follows:

1. Alphanumeric keys – used for typing, similar to that of a typewriter.

2. Numeric keypad – found at the right side of the keyboard, it is used for entering numbers
and moving the pointer.

3. Function keys – these are the twelve function keys, F1 – F12, at the first row of the
keyboard.

4. Modifier keys – include keys like Alt, Ctrl and Shift.

5. Cursor movement keys – found between the alphanumeric keys and numeric keypad, they
are used to move the cursor.

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Track Ball: This is a ball that is like an inverted mouse, which is rotated with the fingers
or palm of the hand.

Pointing Stick: A pointing stick is a pointing device that looks like a pencil eraser
protruding from the keyboard between the G, H and B keys.

Touchpad: The touchpad is a small, flat surface. With this device the fingers can be used
to move the mouse pointer to various locations.

Light Pen: The light pen is a light-sensitive stylus, or pen-like device, connected by a wire
to the computer terminal. The users brings the pen to a desired pint on the display screen and
presses the pen button, which identifies that screen location of the computer.

Bar-Code Reader: Bar codes are the vertical zebra-striped marks you see on most
manufactured retail products. Bar-code reader are photoelectric scanners that translate the bar-
code symbols into digital code.

Character recognizing devices: These devices are used in the bank to read to the numbers
at the bottom of the check, to read to the number plates of the cars, and generally printed characters
when scanning.

MIDI board: This is pronounced as “middie” stands for Musical Instrument Digital
Interface – provides a standard for the interchange of musical information between musical
instruments, synthesizers and computers. MIDI keyboards can be plugged into the computers so
that the music can be input into the computers and processed.

Video-Input Cards: The signals that come from a VCR or Camcorder can be input into a
computer through this cards.

Digital Cameras: A digital camera uses a light-sensitive processor chip to capture

photographic images in digital form on a small diskette in the camera.

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Sensors: Sensor is a input device that collects specific kinds of data directly from the
environment and transmit it to a computer. These used in earthquake detection, tracking the depth
of the sea, etc.

Biometric systems: Biometrics is the science of measuring individual body characteristics

like finger prints.

Scanners: are input devices that can read text or illustrations printed on paper & translate
the information into a form that a computer can use.

Digital Camera

It is an electronic device used to capture(take pictures) and store photographs electronically in a

digital format that can be read by a computer, instead of using photographic film like conventional
cameras, or recording images in an analog format to magnetic tape like many video cameras.You
can then transfer the images directly from your camera on to your computer.

Microphone

A microphone is a device to input sound information and can be used with a voice recognition
system which processes the information i.e. used to record sound. The sound is then saved as a
sound file on the computer.

OUTPUT UNIT
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies the
information obtained as a result of data processing to the outside world. Thus it links the computer
with the external environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also
in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted
to human acceptable form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces. Output
interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices
to the requirements of the external environment

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In short the following functions are performed by an output unit:

1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and hence cannot
be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Output: The product of the transformation of inputs by a process.

4. It display in human readable form in soft copy or hard copy.

 Soft copy output:-it is electronic copy &Temporary in nature.
 Hard copy output:-paper based & permanent in nature.

Some of the recently developed output devices:

Monitors: The monitor displays the output of the computer. Monitors are categorized by
the colors they produce and by the technology they use.

By the colors they produce, monitors are classified as follows:

 Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e.

white on blue, or green on black.
 Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.
 Color – can display different colors, from 16 to 16 million colors.

By the technology they use, monitors are classified as follows:

 Cathode ray tubes (CRT) – in these monitors, electrons are fired at

phosphor dots on the screen. The dots are grouped into picture elements
called pixels, which glow when struck by electrons. In color CRT

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monitors, each pixel contains a red, green and blue dot. These glow at
varying intensities to produce color images.

 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) – these screens use an entirely different

technique. The screen is still made of dots but is quite flat. LCD displays
are made of two layers of a polarizing material with a liquid crystal
solution in between. An electrical signal makes the crystals line up in a
way that keeps light from going through entirely or just partly. A black
screen has all the crystals lined up so that no light gets through. A color
LCD screen uses groups of 3 color cells instead of 3 phosphor dots. The
signal for a picture cleverly let just the right spots show their colors. Your
eye does the rest.
Electroluminescent: (EL) Flat Panel This contains a substance that glows when it is
charged by an electric current.

XGA: Extended Graphics Array, supports up to 16.7 million colors at a resolution of 1024
X 768 pixels. The older models are VGA, and SVGA. Video Graphics Array 16- 256 colors, Super
Video Graphics Array – 256 colors at higher resolution.

Speech Synthesizer: This device converts digital data into speech-like sounds.

Video Conferencing system: Videoconferencing is a method whereby people in different

geographical locations can have a meeting and see and hear one another – using computer and
communications.

Virtual Reality Devices: Virtual Reality (VR) is a kind of computer-generated artificial

reality that projects a person into a sensation of three-dimensional space. Head gear is a small
video screen mounted one for each eye which creates three dimensional sense. This has also head
phones that has 3D effects. Glove is a hand device that collects data from the movement of hands
and fingers.

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Robots: Robot is an automatic device that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human
beings or that operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence.

Printers: Printers are used to produce “hard copy” of documents, programs and data.
Some printers use serial communication (RS232 standard) while others use parallel
communication to transfer information from the PC to the printer. In serial communication, data
is transferred one bit at a time while in the case of parallel communication; one byte (8 bits) is
transferred at one time.

The printing method (the actual forming of characters) also varies. Based on the printing method
used, printers are categorized as impact printers and non-impact printers.

Impact printers strike an inked ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper while. There
is a physical contact between the paper and the pins (keys) holding the characters

Example: type writer, dot matrix printer

Non-Impact printers use electrically charged particles or laser beams to create an image on the
paper. There is no a physical contact between the paper and the letters

Example: inkjet and laser jet printers

Factors to be considered while selecting printers include: speed (measured in PPM or CPS), quality
(measured in dots per inch – dpi), initial cost, cost of operation and special features like support
for color and large page formats.

STORAGE UNIT
The data and instruction that are entered into the computer system through input units have
to be stored inside that computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced
by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system before
being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer

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must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed
to cater to all these needs. It provides space for storage data and instructions, space for intermediate
results and also for the final results.

In short, the specific functions of storage unit are to hold

1. All the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing (received from
input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
The storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two types of storage:

1. Primary storage. The primary storage, also known as main memory, is used to hold pieces
of program instructions and data, intermediate results of processing, and recently produced
results of processing of the jobs that the computer system is currently working on. These
pieces of information are represented electronically in the main memory chip’s circuitry,
and while it remains in the main memory, the central processing unit can access it directly
at a very fast speed. However, the primary storage can hold information only while the
computer system is on. As soon as the computer system is switched off or reset, the
information held in the primary storage disappears. Additionally, the primary storage
normally has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. The primary storage of
modern computer systems is made up of semiconductor devices.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Nonvolatile chips always hold the same data; the data in them cannot be changed except
through a special process that overwrites the data. It is usually done at the factory. During
normal use, the data in these chips is only read and used -not changed- so the memory is
called read-only memory (ROM). One important reason a computer needs ROM is that it
must know what to do when the power is first turned on. Among other things, ROM

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contains a set of start-up instructions, which ensures that the rest of memory is functioning
properly, checks for hardware devices, and checks for an operating system on the
computer's disk drives.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

A Memory that can be instantly changed is called read-write memory or random-access

memory (RAM). When people talk about computer memory in connection with
microcomputers, they usually mean the volatile RAM. It is best simply to remember that
the data in ROM does not change while the data in RAM changes constantly. RAM can
hold information only while the computer system is on. As soon as the computer system is
switched off or reset, the information held in the RAM disappears. This nature of RAM is
known as volatile.

2. Secondary storage. The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take
care of the limitations of the primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited
storage capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary storage. This is because
secondary storage is much cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information even
when the computer system is switched off or reset. The secondary storage is normally used
to hold the program instructions, data and information of those jobs on which the computer
system is not working on currently but needs to hold them for processing at a later time.
The most commonly used secondary storage medium is the magnetic disc.
There exist two technologies for secondary storage: magnetic and optical. Floppy disk,
hard disk, magnetic tapes are examples of magnetic storage. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD-
R, CD-RW are examples of optical storage.

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Some of developed Storage Devices:

 Magnetic storage devices – the medium contains iron particles, which can be polarized, i.e.
given magnetic charge in one of two directions. Each particle’s direction represents a 1 or a 0,
representing each bit of data that the CPU can recognize. A disk drive uses read/write heads
containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the medium.

o Formatting maps the disk’s surface and determines how data will be stored. During
formatting, the drive creates circular tracks around the disk’s surface, and then divides each
into sections called sectors. The OS organizes sectors into groups, called clusters, then
tracks each file’s location according to the cluster it occupies. Formatting also deletes any
information that exists on the disk.

o During formatting, the OS creates four areas on its surface.

 Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small program that runs when you first
start the computer.
 File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each file’s location and each sector’s
status.
 Root folder – enables the user to store data on disk in a logical way.
 Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds the data.

 Hard disk drive

 Inside the case of the hard disk drive are a set of rigid rotating disks, called platters,
stacked on a spindle. As the platters rotate at high speed, Read/Write heads move
back and forth recording or reading magnetic information on both sides of the
platters. The speed with which the heads can find data is called “average access
time”.
 Hard disk drives are normally installed inside the computer case although external
hard disk drives, which connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.

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 Hard disk drive is selected based on its storage capacity (measured in “Gigabytes”
(GB) or greater) and its access time (measured in milliseconds (ms)). The larger
the capacity and the smaller the access time, the better. Operating system and
application software normally reside in hard disk drives. Documents created using
application software may also be placed on hard disk drives.

Optical Storage Devices – offer high-capacity storage medium. Optical drives use
reflected light to read data. The disk’s metal surface is covered with dents (pits) and flat spots
(lands), which cause light to be reflected differently. Light cannot be reflected back from pits (data
= 0) and lands reflect light back to its source (data = 1).

 CD–R is a standard and technology allowing you to write to and read from a Compact
Disc, but not erase or change what you record. This technology is compatible with existing
CDs, i.e. you are able to read these discs in existing CD–players. Today, we have speeds
as much as 52X .A single CD–R can hold up to 650MB information.

 CD–RW is rewritable CD–ROM technology. CD–R/W drives can also be used to write
CD–R discs, and they can read CD–ROMs. But, CD–R/W disks have a lower reflectivity
than CD–ROMs, and CD–ROM drives must be of the newer multi-read variety in order to
read them. CD–R/W was initially known as CD–E (or CD–Erasable).

 Digital Video Disc (DVD), also called Digital Versatile Disc, is similar to CD–ROMs but
able to store far more music, video or data. DVDs are of the same physical size as today's
CDs but are able to store as much as 17GB, compared to the 650MB on today's CD–ROMs.
Some of the recently developed Storage Devices:

DVD: The DVD represents a new generation of high density CD-ROM disks, which are read by
laser and which have both write-once and re-writable capabilities. It stands for Digital Video Disk.

Flash Memory Cards: Flash-memory cards consist of circuitry on PC cards that can be inserted
into slots connecting to motherboards.

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CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) the CPU is the brain of the computer system. The CPU
performs the following activities:-

 It is part of computer hardware that executes program instructions.

 The CPU is like the human brain and it oversee and control all of the activities of the
computer.
 The CPU manages and coordinates the entire computer including the input and output
units.
 The CPU is the collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of transistors placed
into integrated circuits.
 Integrated circuits are also called chips or microchips
 Each transistor is an electrical switch that can be in one of the two states: “on” or “off”.
 Small transistors allow more transistors to be packed in one single chip, thus eliminate
the need for separate chips.
The CPU has two major components:-

 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

 The Control Unit

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operation. Calculations are
performed and all comparisons are made in the ALU. The data and instructions stored in the
primary storage prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where
processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results
generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a later

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time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back again to storage many times
before the processing is over. After the completion of processing the final results, which are stored
in the storage unit are released to an output device.

The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can perform is determined
by the engineering design of the ALU, However, almost all ALUs are designed to perform the four
basic arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, and divide) and logic operations or
comparisons such as less than, equal to , and greater than, etc.

CONTROL UNIT:

How does the input device know that it is time for it to feed data into the storage unit? How
does the ALU know what should be done with the data once they are received? And how is it that
only the final results are sent to the output device and not the intermediate results? All this is
possible because of the control unit of the computer system. By selecting, interpreting and seeing
to the execution of the program instructions the control unit is able to maintain order and direct
the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not perform any actual processing on the data,
the control unit acts as a central nervous system for the other components of the computer system.
It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program
stored in main memory, interprets the instructions and issues signals that cause other units of the
system to execute them.

Chip: A small piece of semi-conducting material (such as silicon) about 1 centimetre (¼ inch)
square on which an integrated circuit is embedded. An integrated circuit is a number of electronic
components joined together to form a path for electricity. Central processing unit chips contain the
circuits representing the CPU.

Different Components of Computer:

Computer is a device made up of electronic and electromechanical components. The computer
system is a combination of different elements such as

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 Hardware
 Software
 People
 Data/Information

HARDWARE:

Computer Hardware is the mechanical devices that is in the computer. The physical cover
of the computer is a hardware, the wires, the main mother board, speakers, etc can be called as
hardware. Without the hardware there is nothing we can do. There are companies that produce
these hardware. For example, Intel who is a major developer of computer processors – Pentium
Series – Pentium 4, Pentium 3, etc. Generally the hardware can be categorized according to which
of the following computer operations it performs.

Input Hardware: Input hardware consist of devices that allow people to put data into the
computer in a form that the computer can use. Keyboard, mouse, etc.

Output Hardware: Output hardware consists of devices that translate information processed
by the computer into a form that humans can understand. Screen, printers, speakers, etc.

Secondary Storage Hardware: Secondary storage consists of devices that store data and
programs permanently on disks or tapes. Floppy diskettes, hard disks, CD-ROM, etc.

Processing Memory Hardware: The CPU the Central Processing Unit and the main
memory are the brains of the computer. The main memory RAM (Random Access Memory) is the
computer’s work space. The processor is mounted on a board inside the computer called mother
board.

Communication hardware: Computer can be a stand-alone computer or computers can be

connected together by network cables. When the computers are connected together, they share
information from one to another. To communicate from one computer to another we need hardware

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called network card and cables, etc. When the computers from far away have to be connected, they
are connected through the phone lines. To make computers connect through the phone line we
need another hardware called modem.

Hardware is the physical thing of the computer. So there is wear and tear happens. That is
why after sometimes some hardware failure happens to the computer.

SOFTWARE:

Software refers to the detailed set of instructions that direct the computer to perform a certain task.
You cannot actually see or touch the software, although you can see the packages it comes in.
Software can be divided into three kinds depending upon the nature of work these software do.

 Application Software.
 System Software.
 Language Software.

A software or programs consists of the instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task.

Application software is software that has been developed to solve a particular problem, to perform
useful work on specific tasks, or to provide entertainment. As the user you interact with the
application software. In turn, system software enables the applications software to interact with
the computer and helps the computer manage its internal resources.

Versions, Release and Compatibility:

The software developers find ways to enhance their software product now and then. So they put
forth new versions or new release. Although not all software developers use the terms consistently,
their accepted definitions are as follows.

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Version: A version is a major upgrade in a software product. Traditionally, versions have been
indicated by numbers such as 1.0. 2.0, 3.0, etc. The higher the number preceding the decimal point
the more recent the version. In recent years software developers has departed from this system.
Microsoft for instance decided to call the new operating systems by the year. “Windows 95”,
Windows 98, Windows 2000.

Release: A release is a minor upgrade. Release are usually indicated by a change in number after
the decimal point. – 3.0 then 3.1, 3.2, etc.

The five categories of Application software: Application software can be classified in many
ways. Here five categories are mentioned.

1. Entertainment Software
2. Home/personal software
3. Education/reference software
4. Productivity software
5. Specialty software

1. Entertainment software: Atomic Bomber man, Challenger, or any other video game is
enjoyed by many youngsters. Even though it seems like not important, in reality, these
games software gain lot of profit in the market than some of the software. For example,
they generated 3.5 billion dollars is sales in US in 1996. It has become so popular that there
are colleges that offers four year degree program in video game and computer animation
programming. These software involve lot of animation programming required which
means the software developer should know how to make an object move and fly and run
to make the software.
2. Home/Personal Software: Application software that are needed for personal needs like
travel planner, greetings designing, recipes guide, etc are called Home or Personal

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Software. These software mainly focus on Home and Personal needs. Some of them are
home repair, home decoration, floor planning, etc.
3. Educational/Reference Software: Computer software has become so effective in such a
way that it can teach various subjects. Some educational software can be used by a person
who don’t even know more about computers. These kind of software come in CDs. The
learner just need to insert the CD and the lesson begins. These educational software uses
the multimedia technology a lot so that the user (learner) can feel easy to learn. From
Children’s learning software to encyclopedia software there are a lot of software available.
There are software that will enable distant learning very easy. One such software is WebCT
developed by British Columbia University is widely used nowadays.
4. Productivity Software: Productivity software consists of programs found in most offices,
homes, almost all the computers. The purpose of this software is simply to make users more
productive at performing particular tasks. These software are used by most of the people
on a day to day basis. Some of them are:
Word processing software

Spreadsheet software

Database software – includes personal information management.

Financial software – includes personal financial programs

Web based software – email, Web browsers

5. Specialty Software: For every profession there can be a related software found. Whether
it is medical, mechanical engineering, forming, architecture, space research or games there
are software developed for these professions so that with the help of the software the
efficiency, quality and fastness can be achieved. So a software developed to achieve a
particular task specially, is called specialty software.

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System Software: System software is next level closer to the hardware of the computer. It helps
to make the instructions given by the application software understandable to the computer. System
software is a software that enables the application software to run on the computer. System
Software controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources and enables the applications
software to run.

System software can further be classified as operating system, programming language and
utilities: The operating system acts as the master control program that runs the computer. It
handles such activities as running and storing programs and storing and processing data. The
purpose of the operating system is to allow applications to operate by standardizing access to
shared resources such as disks and memory. Examples of operating systems are MS-DOS,
Windows-2000, XP, Unix and Macintosh operating system.
The operating system (OS) consists of the master system of programs that manage the basic
operations of the computer. These programs provide resource management services of many kinds,
handling such matters as the control and use of hardware resources, including disk space, memory,
CPU, time allocation and peripheral devices.
If we can list some of the general things that the operating system does in the computer, we can
come up with the following:
 Booting,
 Managing storage media
 User Interface
 Managing computer resources
 Managing files
 Managing tasks.

Booting: When the computer is switched on, the startup process is carried out which is
called booting. This includes checking the system, devices, etc. and enabling them so that the
computer can be ready to work with.

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Managing storage media: OS manages storage devices so that they can be efficiently
utilized. Recognizing the storage hardware, enabling them so that they can be used include this
process.

User Interface: Once the system is started the user should be able to interact with the
computer. OS provides a user friendly capabilities so that the user can interact with the computer.
This is called User Interface. With this, the user can setup a software, printer, scanner, or do any
OS related work. This is also called Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Managing computer resources: Providing resources can be different from managing

them. Resources such as Random Access Memory should be managed properly to run the
computer efficiently. There can be more than one process or one work requiring the same resource.
For example MS Word and Calculator running in the computer at the same time. The user may
require the Calculator to do some calculations so that he can enter those numbers in the Word file.
So two applications should share the same RAM. These kind of things are managed by the OS.

Managing Files: Files are stored in the hard disks or floppy disks and other secondary
storage devices. The operating system helps to find them and manage them. With the help of this
we can manage the files. We can rename a file, delete, copy, move, etc.

Managing Tasks: Computer is required to perform various tasks at the same time. For
example, the computer can print a document, scan a picture and search for a file. Operating system
manages these tasks so that the computer can do all these tasks efficiently.

Types of operating systems

Operating systems can be classified depending on the number of programs they can handle and
the number of users that can be working on the system at a time:-
1. Single user operating system:
A single user operation system normally only allows one user to access the system at a time.
Operating systems of this type is used by many microprocessor systems, Example of single user
operation system include MS_DOS Microsoft Disk Operating System.

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2. Bach-mode Operating systems

Bach processing refers in general to a computer system in which jobs (programs +data) are entered
and then run one or more a time under the control of the operation system. In this system, the
operating system schedules the submitted jobs according to required resources and priority of the
jobs and produces the result at some time later. It is the oldest operating system.
3. Time –sharing Operating system

A time-sharing system is an interactive system in which a number of users at terminals all have
access to the computer at the same time. An operation system for such a system is called time-
sharing. UNIX is the most popular time-sharing operating system.

4. Real-time operating system

A real-time system is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results are
available to influence the activity currently taking place. Examples include air plane seat
reservations and a computer controlled plant.

5. Multitasking: Executing more than one program concurrently.(one user) How does a computer
handles more than one program? The answer is that the operating system directs the processor
(CPU) to spend a predetermined amount of time executing the instruction for each program, one
at a time. A small amount of each program is processed and then the processor moves to the
remaining programs, one at a time, processing small parts of each. This cycle is repeated until
processing is complete. The processor speed is usually so fast that it may seem as if all the
programs are being executing at the same time. However the processor is still executing only one
instruction at a time, no matter how it may appear to the user.

6. Multiprogramming: Executing different users programs concurrently. (Multiple users) As with

multitasking, the CPU spends a certain amount of time executing each user’s program, but it works
so quickly that it seems as though all the programs are being run at the same time.

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7. Multiprocessing: Simultaneous processing of two or more programs by multiple computers.

(Single or multiple users) With multiprocessing, two or more computers or processors linked
together perform work simultaneously, meaning at precisely the same time. This can entail
processing instructions from different programs or different instructions from the same program.
One type of multiprocessing is parallel processing, whereby several CPUs work together on the
same tasks, sharing memory. This is used in large computer systems designed to keep running if
one of the CPUs fails. This kind of systems is at work in important places like space stations,
online reservation systems, etc.

Language Software: Software are written in a programming language. A programming is a set of

instructions that tells the computer what to do and how to do certain tasks. To write these
instructions there are set of rules and conditions. The instructions that are written have abide by
these rules and conditions. If not when these instructions are executed, the computer will give
error. This is called a programming language. For example English language has a set of rules and
conditions that we call as Grammar. In the same way, the language that is used to write Programs
is called programming language.

When these instructions/programs are written in a programming language, it has to be translated

to a known instructions to the Operating System. Again a software is needed to do this job. This
software is called a Language software. So a software that helps to translate the written programs
or instructions into a operating system level instructions is called a language software.

For example, C is a programming language and ‘C compiler’ is the language software.

Sometimes to write the instructions or programs in this languages it is tedious. So there are another
set of software which makes the writing of instructions / programs easy. For example, to make a
box or a window in C++, you have to write instructions. Sometimes it may be tedious. The same
can be done by drawing the same box or window with the software. These software are called IDE.
Integrated Development Environment.

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Programming languages can generally be classified as low-level languages and high-level

languages. Under low-level language, we have machine languages and assembly languages.
 Machine language is the natural language of the computer. A program written in
machine language is ready for immediate execution. Machine language is very difficult
to understand. A program written in machine language takes the form of strings of
zeros and ones. Even the simplest program is complex and lengthy. Moreover, each
computer type has its own machine language and thus a program written in machine
language for one computer may not run in another computer, i.e. machine language
programs are not portable.
Advantage

 Machine Languages make efficient use of memory

 Instructions of a machine language program are immediately executable.
 Machine language instructions can be used to manipulate the individual
bits in a byte of computer storage.
Disadvantage

 Difficult to learn
 Prone to errors
 Difficult to correct or modify errors
 Not portable
 Machine Languages are machine dependent
 Machine languages require a high level of programming skill.

 Assembly language consists of English-like abbreviations. It is easier to understand

than machine language. Programs written in assembly language need to be translated
into machine language before they can be executed. The program that translates
assembly language programs to machine language is called an assembler.

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High-level languages are English-like instructions. They are easier to learn than low-level
languages. Programs written in high-level language are called source codes and they must be
translated into machine language before they can run on a computer. After the translation, the
program in machine language is called object code.

Two types of translators exist - interpreters and compilers.

Interpreters translate each line of program for immediate execution.

Compilers translate the entire source code into object code and then save the object code.

Examples of high-level language include C, C++, Basic, Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL, JAVA, etc.

Advantage

 Writing in Assembly Language saves time and reduces the need for detail.
 Fewer errors are made and those made are easier to find. These programs are easier
to modify.
 Easier to learn
 Easier to locate correct errors
Disadvantage

 Coding is time consuming

 It is also machine-oriented program. The programmers must know the machine
characteristics and requirements
 The program size is big like machine codes
 It is usually unique to a particular computer series
 It is not directly executable by the computer. It needs assembler to translate it into
machine codes

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Utility – perform tasks related to the maintaining of your computer's health - hardware or data.
Some are included with the operating system. Examples of utility programs include file
defragmentation, data configuration, backup, antivirus and screen saver programs.

PEOPLE:

People are the most important part. Without the people the computers cannot do anything. Only
people have to say what the computer has to do. Giving instructions, operating the computer,
rectifying the errors when the computer goes wrong, etc are done by the people. There are two
main set of people we can define from the type of work they do with the computer.

o Computer Professional
o End-User.

Computer Professional: A computer professional, or an information technology professional is

a person who has had extensive education or considerable experience in the technical aspects of
using a computer-and-communications system. These computer professionals are the ones needed
to develop software or to maintain the software that is run in a company or in a business. A
computer professional can be an computer Administrator who takes care of the computers and
their networks.

End-User: An end-user or simply a user is someone with moderate technical knowledge of

information technology who uses computers for entertainment, education or work-related tasks.
He does not understand all the technical details of the software work internally, how the computer
works internally, but instead usually reacts to the programs and procedures instituted by an
information professionals. He is the one who make things happen at the end. He is the one who
sits at the computer to use the software that is developed and installed in the computer. For
example, a Bank employee uses the banking software. She does not know how this Banking
software was developed. But this software is developed by the computer professional.

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Data: Data are raw facts which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is
useful to people. Computer data is digital, or in the form of digits or numbers. The computer
reads and stores all data as numbers.

Data representation

Data Representation refers to the methods used internally to represent information stored in a
computer. Computers store lots of different types of information:

 numbers
 text
 graphics of many varieties (stills, video, animation)
 sound

The number system we use in our day-to-day life is called the decimal number system. In this
system, the base is equal to 10 because there are ten symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
Computers use the binary number system. We have two symbols or digits (0, 1) that we can use
in this system. The smallest unit of data is called it (Binary digit) and is represented by an on (1)
or off (0) state of a switch.

When referring to computerized data, the value represented by each switch's state-whether the
switch is turned on or off-is called a bit. A bit is the smallest possible unit of data a computer can
recognize or use.

To represent anything meaningful (in other words, to convey information), the computer uses bits
in groups. A group of 8 bits is called a byte.

With 1 byte, the computer can represent one of 256 different symbols or characters because the
eight 1s and 0s in a byte can be combined in 256(=28) different ways. The byte is an extremely
important unit because there are enough different 8-bit combinations to represent all the characters
on the keyboard, including all the letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and other symbols.

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Binary digits can be grouped to form letters, numbers, or special symbols. Binary coding schemes
are used in computers to represent data internally. And most of the modern computers use 8 bits,
called byte, to represent a symbol. With 8 bits, 256 (=28) different symbols or characters can be
represented.

A Review of the Decimal System

You’ve been using the decimal (base 10) numbering system for so long that you probably take it
for granted. When you see a number like “123”, you don’t think about the value 123; rather, you
generate a mental image of how many items this value represents. In reality, however, the number
123 represents:

1*102 + 2 * 101 + 3*10

or
100+20+3

Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point represents a value between zero and nine times
an increasing power of ten. Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point represent a value
between zero and nine times an increasing negative power of ten. For example, the value 123.456
means:

1*102 + 2*101 + 3*100 + 4*10-1 + 5*10-2 + 6*10-3

Or

100 + 20 + 3 + 0.4 + 0.05 + 0.006

The Binary Numbering System

The binary numbering system works just like the decimal numbering system, with
two exceptions: binary only allows the digits 0 and 1 (rather than 0-9), and binary uses
powers of two rather than powers of ten. Therefore, it is very easy to convert a binary

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number to decimal. For each “1” in the binary string, add in 2n where “n” is the
zero-based position of the binary digit. For example, the binary value 110010102 represents:

1*27+1*26+0*25+0*24+1*23+0*22+1*21+0*20
= 128+64+8+2
= 20210

Examples (binary to decimal)

10 = (1*21 )+ (0*20 )
= 2+0

=2
111 =(1*22 ) + (1*21 ) + (1*20 )
= 4+2+1

=7

11110 =(1*24)+(1*23)+(1*22)+(1*21)+(0*20)
= 16+8+4+2+0
= 30

Why Binary?

Now why all these program and data need to be converted into binary format? The computer is
hardware. You see electronic devices, magnetic devices and mechanical devices in the computer.
Inside the computer, there are integrated circuits with thousands of transistors. These transistors
are made to operate on a two-state. For instance, the two state designs are the cutoff-saturation
states; each transistor is forced to operate at either cutoff or saturation. At the cutoff point the base
voltage may be 0. At the saturation point the base voltage may be 5. This two state operation is
universal in digital electronics. By this design, all the input and output voltages are either HIGH
or LOW. Here is how binary numbers come in. low voltage represents binary 0 and high voltage
represents binary 1.

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VOLTAGE BINARY

Low 0

High 1

Different number systems are used in the computer organization and calculations.

1. Binary – is a base-2 system and makes use of binary digits or bits 0 and 1. The significance
of bits is determined by their positions in that number.

For example

1) 110 can be expanded as 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 0 X 20 and thus this has a decimal value 4 + 2 + 0 =

6

2) 11 .110 can be written as 1 X 21 + 1 X 20 + 1 X 2-1 + 1 X 2-2 + 0 X 2-3 and the decimal value
is 2 + 1 + 1 / 2 +1 / 4 + 0 = 3.75

2. Octal - is a base-8 system and makes use of the eight digits 0 …. 7. In this number system the
digits represent co-efficient of powers of 8.

For example

703 can be expanded as 7 X 82 + 0 X 81 + 3 X 80 and the decimal value is 448 + 0 + 3 = 451.

3. Hexadecimal – is abase-16 system and makes use of 15 digits 0…. 9, A(10), B(11), C(12),
D(13), E(14), F(15). Here the digits represent co-efficient of powers of 16.

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For example

1AB can be represented as

1 X 162 + A X 161 + B X 160 = 1 X 162 + 10 X 161 + 11 X 160 = 256 + 160 + 11 = 427

Coding Method
Letters, numbers and special characters are represented within the computer system by means of
binary coding schemes. That is, the off/on 0s and 1s are arranged in such a way that they can be
made to represent characters, digits or other values. When you type a word on the key board, the
letters are converted into bytes – 8 0s and 1s for each letter. The bytes are represented in the
computer by a combination of 8 transistors, some of which are closed (representing the 0s) and
some of which are open ( representing the 1s).

There are many coding schemes. Two common ones are EBCDIC and ASCII-8. Both use 8 bits
to form each byte. One newer coding scheme uses 16 bits.

 EBCDIC: Pronounced ‘eb-see-dick’, EBCDIC an acronym for Extended Binary Coded

Decimal Interchange Code is used in Mainframe and supper computers.
 ASCII – 8: Pronounced ‘askey’. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for International
Interchange and is the binary code most widely used with microcomputers. ASCII originally
used 7 bits but 0 was added in the left position to provide and eight-bit code, which offers more
possible combinations with which to form characters, such as math symbols and Greek letters.
(However although ASCII can handle the English language well, it cannot handle all the
characters of some other languages such as Chinese and Japanese)
 UNICODE: A subset of ASCII, Unicode uses two bytes (16 bits) for each character, rather
than one byte (8 bits). Instead of the 256 character combinations of ASCII – 8, Unicode can
handle 65,536 character combinations. Thus UNICODE allows almost all the written
languages of the world to be represented using a single character set. (By contrast, 8 – bit
ASCII is not capable of representing even all the combinations of letters and other symbols

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that are used just with our alphabet, the Roman alphabet – used in English, Spanish, French,
German, Portuguese, and Hindi and so on). Although each Unicode character takes up twice
as much memory space and hard disk space as each ASCII character, conversion to the
Unicode standard seems likely. However, because most existing software applications and
databases use the 8-bit standard, the conversion will take time.
Chapter Questions

1. List the basic components of a complete computer system.

2. Explain the three types of System Software’s with example?
3. What is Application Software? List four examples for application software and three
for operating system?
4. What are the basic functions of CPU?
5. Discuss the difference between RAM and ROM.
6. Discuss the functions of the main hardware components.
7. Discuss on the technology used in the classification of secondary storage Medias.

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