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Nanosatellites
Nanosatellites

Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics

Edited by

Rogerio Atem de Carvalho

Reference Center for Embedded and Aerospace Systems (CRSEA)
Polo de Inovação Campos dos Goytacazes (PICG)
Instituto Federal Fluminense (IFF)
Brazil

Jaime Estela
Spectrum Aerospace Group
Germering
Germany

Martin Langer
Institute of Astronautics
Technical University of Munich
Garching
Germany
and
Orbital Oracle Technologies GmbH
Munich
Germany
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available
at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, Jaime Estela, and Martin Langer to be identified as the authors of
the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Carvalho, Rogério Atem de, author. | Estela, Jaime, 1972- author. |
Langer, Martin, 1986- author.
Title: Nanosatellites : space and ground technologies, operations and
economics / Professor Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, University of Fluminese,
Rio, Brazil, Jaime Estela, Spectrum Aerospace Group, Germering, Germany,
Martin Langer, Technical University of Munich & Orbital Oracle
Technologies GmbH, Bavaria, Germany.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2020] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019049523 (print) | LCCN 2019049524 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119042037 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119042068 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119042051 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Microspacecraft.
Classification: LCC TL795.4 .C37 2020 (print) | LCC TL795.4 (ebook) | DDC
629.46–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019049523
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019049524

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © Stocktrek Images/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

List of Contributors xxiii

Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxix
Introduction by the Editors xxxv

1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1

Siegfried W. Janson
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 1
1.3 The First Nanosatellites 3
1.4 The Large Space Era 8
1.5 The New Space Era 12
1.5.1 Technology Development 18
1.5.2 Commercial Nanosatellites and Constellations 22
1.6 Summary 23
References 24

2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31

Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 History 31
2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 34
2.4 Hardware 35
2.4.1 Components 35
2.4.2 Brief History of On-board Computers 36
2.4.3 Processors 37
2.4.3.1 Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) 38
2.4.4 Mass Memory 39
2.4.5 Bus 40
2.5 Design 41
2.5.1 System Architecture 41
2.5.2 Central Versus Distributed Processing 43
2.5.3 Design Criteria 44
2.5.4 Definition of Requirements 45
vi Contents

2.5.5 Resource Estimation and Data Budget 45

2.5.5.1 Data Budget Analysis 47
2.5.6 Commanding 47
2.5.7 Telemetry 48
2.5.8 Time Generation 48
2.5.9 Handling of Errors 48
2.5.10 Radiation Effects 49
References 49

3 I-2b Operational Systems 51

Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 RTOS Overview 51
3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 52
3.3.1 Requirements 54
3.4 Example Projects 55
3.5 Conclusions 56
References 59

4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61

Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 ADCS Fundamentals 61
4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 62
4.4 ADCS Background Theory 65
4.4.1 Coordinate Frame Definitions 65
4.4.2 Attitude Kinematics 65
4.4.3 Attitude Dynamics 66
4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 66
4.5.1 TRIAD Quaternion Determination 67
4.5.2 Kalman Rate Estimator 67
4.5.2.1 System Model 68
4.5.2.2 Measurement Model 68
4.5.3 Full-State Extended Kalman Filter Estimator 70
4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 72
4.6.1 Detumbling Magnetic Controllers 72
4.6.2 Y-Momentum Wheel Controller 73
4.6.3 Three-axis Reaction Wheel Controller 74
4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75
4.7.1 Three-Axis Magnetometers 75
4.7.2 Sun Sensors 77
4.7.3 Star Trackers 77
4.7.4 MEMS Rate Sensors 78
4.7.5 Magnetorquers 79
4.7.6 Reaction/Momentum Wheels 80
 Contents vii

4.7.7 Orbit Control Sensors and Actuators 81

4.7.8 Integrated ADCS Modules 81
References 83

5 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85

Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Propulsion Elements 86
5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 87
5.4 Propulsion System Technologies 90
5.4.1 Chemical Propulsion Technologies 90
5.4.1.1 Cold Gas Thruster 90
5.4.1.2 Monopropellant Engines 90
5.4.1.3 Bipropellant Engines 92
5.4.1.4 Solid Propellant Engines 92
5.4.2 Electric Propulsion Technologies 93
5.4.2.1 Resistojet 93
5.4.2.2 Gridded Ion Engine (GIE) 93
5.4.2.3 Hall Effect Thruster 94
5.4.2.4 Pulsed Plasma Thruster (PPT) and Vacuum Arc Thruster (VAT) 95
5.4.2.5 Colloid/Electrospray and Field-emission Thruster 96
5.5 Mission Elements 98
5.5.1 Orbit Change 98
5.5.2 Drag Compensation 99
5.5.3 Deorbiting 100
5.5.4 Attitude Control 101
5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 101
5.7 Future Prospect 113
References 113

6 I-2e Communications 115

Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein
6.1 Introduction 115
6.2 Regulatory Considerations 116
6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 117
6.3.1 Digital Modulation 121
6.4 Channel Coding 123
6.4.1 Convolutional Codes 125
6.4.2 Block Codes 125
6.5 Data Link Layer 126
6.6 Hardware 128
6.6.1 Antennas 128
6.6.2 Oscillators 130
6.6.3 PLLs and Synthesizers 132
6.6.4 Mixers 135
viii Contents

6.6.5 Receiver 137

6.6.6 Transmitter 137
6.6.7 Transceivers 138
6.7 Testing 138
6.7.1 Modulation Quality 138
6.7.2 Power Measurement 139
6.7.3 Spectrum Analysis 140
References 140

7 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143

Kenan Y. Şanl𝚤türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan
7.1 Definition and Tasks 143
7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 145
7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 150
7.4 Design Parameters and Tools 152
7.4.1 Structural Design Parameters 153
7.4.2 Thermal Design Considerations 157
7.5 Design Challenges 162
7.6 Future Prospects 163
References 164

8 I-2g Power Systems 167

Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 170
8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 172
8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 175
8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 178
8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution
Switches 179
8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 183
8.8 DC/DC Converters 183
8.8.1 Buck Converter 184
8.8.2 Boost Converter 185
8.8.3 SEPIC Converter 186
8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 187
8.10 Conclusions 191
References 191

9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193

Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager
9.1 Introduction 193
9.1.1 Thermal Challenges 194
9.2 Typical Thermal Loads 194
9.2.1 Heat Exchange Calculation 195
 Contents ix

9.2.2 Thermal Environment in Earth Orbit 197

9.2.2.1 Direct Solar Radiation 197
9.2.2.2 Albedo Radiation 199
9.2.2.3 Earth Infrared Radiation 199
9.3 Active and Passive Designs 200
9.3.1 Surface Finishes 200
9.3.2 Insulation 201
9.3.3 Radiators 202
9.3.4 Interface Connections and Heat Pipes 203
9.3.5 Electrical Heaters 204
9.4 Design Approach and Tools 204
9.4.1 Numerical Methods 204
9.4.2 Modeling Approaches 205
9.4.2.1 Top-Down Approach 205
9.4.2.2 Bottom-Up Approach 206
9.4.3 Model Uncertainty and Margins 207
9.4.3.1 Modeling Uncertainty 207
9.4.3.2 Temperature Margins 208
9.4.4 Thermal Design Tools 208
9.5 Thermal Tests 208
9.5.1 Types of Thermal Test 209
9.5.1.1 Thermal Balance Test 209
9.5.1.2 Thermal-Vacuum Test 210
9.5.1.3 Thermal Cycle Test 210
9.5.2 Guidelines for Thermal-Vacuum Test Preparations 211
References 212

10 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment 215

Lucas Lopes Costa, Geilson Loureiro, Eduardo Escobar Bürger, and Franciele Carlesso
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process 216
10.2.1 Architecture Development Process 219
10.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers 222
10.4 ECSS and Other Standards 225
10.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources 228
10.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites 233
References 233

11 I-2j Integration and Testing 235

Eduardo Escobar Bürger, Geilson Loureiro, and Lucas Lopes Costa
11.1 Introduction 235
11.1.1 Integration 236
11.1.2 Testing 236
11.2 Overall Tasks 236
11.2.1 Integration Tasks 237
x Contents

11.2.2 Testing Tasks 239

11.2.2.1 Functional Tests 239
11.2.2.2 Mass Properties 240
11.2.2.3 Environmental Tests 240
11.3 Typical Flow 241
11.4 Test Philosophies 242
11.4.1 Test Stages 242
11.4.2 Test Models 242
11.4.3 Test Philosophies 243
11.5 Typical System Integration Process 244
11.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities 244
11.6.1 Typical Test Parameters 244
11.6.2 Typical Test Facilities 245
11.7 Burden of Integration and Testing 245
11.7.1 I&T Costs 245
11.7.2 I&T Schedule 248
11.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing 249
References 250

12 I-3a Scientific Payloads 251

Anna Gregorio
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Categorization 252
12.3 Imagers 254
12.3.1 MCubed-2/COVE 254
12.3.2 SwissCube 254
12.3.3 AAReST 255
12.4 X-ray Detectors 256
12.4.1 MinXSS 256
12.4.2 HaloSat 257
12.4.3 HERMES 257
12.4.4 CXBN 257
12.4.5 MiSolFA 258
12.5 Spectrometers 259
12.5.1 SOLSTICE 259
12.5.2 OPAL 259
12.5.3 Lunar IceCube/BIRCHES 261
12.5.4 GRIFEX 261
12.5.5 HyperCube 262
12.6 Photometers 262
12.6.1 XPS 262
12.6.2 BRITE – Photometer 263
12.6.3 ExoPlanet and ASTERIA 264
12.7 GNSS Receivers 265
12.7.1 CYGNSS 266
 Contents xi

12.7.2 CADRE 267

12.7.3 3 Cat 2 267

12.8 Microbolometers 267

12.8.1 CSIM 268
12.9 Radiometers 269
12.9.1 TEMPEST 269
12.10 Radar Systems 270
12.10.1 RAX 270
12.10.2 Radar Altimeters and SAR (EO) 272
12.10.3 SRI-Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) 274
12.11 Particle Detectors 274
12.11.1 REPTile 274
12.11.2 EPISEM 275
12.11.3 FIRE 276
12.12 Plasma Wave Analyzers 277
12.12.1 CADRE/WINCS 277
12.12.2 Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment (DICE) 278
12.12.3 INSPIRE/CVHM 279
12.13 Biological Detectors 280
12.13.1 OREOS 280
12.14 Solar Sails 283
12.15 Conclusions 283
References 283

13 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration 291

Jaime Estela
13.1 Introduction 291
13.2 Activities of Space Agencies 292
13.2.1 NASA 292
13.2.2 ESA 292
13.2.3 DLR 295
13.3 Nanosatellites 295
13.3.1 IOV/IOD Providers 296
13.3.2 SSTL 296
13.3.3 Alba Orbital 296
13.3.4 GAUSS Srl 297
13.3.5 Open Cosmos 297
13.3.6 Deep Space ESA Calls 297
13.4 Microsatellites 298
13.4.1 BIRD and TET 299
13.4.2 TDS 300
13.4.3 Euro IOD 301
13.5 ISS 301
13.5.1 NanoRacks 301
13.5.2 Bartolomeo 304
xii Contents

13.5.3 ICE Cubes 305

13.5.4 Starlab 305
References 306

14 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects 309

Merlin F. Barschke
14.1 Introduction 309
14.2 Satellites and Project-based Learning 309
14.2.1 A Brief History of Educational Satellite Projects 310
14.2.2 Project Classification 311
14.3 University Satellite Programs 312
14.3.1 Aalborg University 312
14.3.2 Technische Universität Berlin 313
14.3.3 University of Tokyo 315
14.4 Outcome and Success Criteria 316
14.5 Teams and Organizational Structure 318
14.6 Challenges and Practical Experiences 318
14.6.1 Staff Turnover 319
14.6.2 Development of Multidisciplinary Skills 319
14.6.3 External Experts 319
14.6.4 Project Documentation 319
14.6.5 Testing 320
14.6.6 Software 320
14.6.7 Ground Station 320
14.7 From Pure Education to Powerful Research Tools 321
References 321

15 I-3d Formations of Small Satellites 327

Klaus Schilling
15.1 Introduction 327
15.2 Constellations and Formations 327
15.2.1 Definitions for Multivehicle Systems 328
15.3 Orbit Dynamics 328
15.4 Satellite Configurations 331
15.4.1 Definition of Walker Delta Pattern Constellation 331
15.5 Relevant Specific Small Satellite Technologies to Enable Formations 332
15.5.1 Intersatellite Communication 332
15.5.2 Relative Navigation 333
15.5.3 Attitude and Orbit Control 333
15.6 Application Examples 334
15.7 Test Environment for Multisatellite Systems 336
15.8 Conclusions for Distributed Nanosatellite Systems 337
Acknowledgments 338
References 338
 Contents xiii

16 I-3e Precise, Autonomous Formation Flight at Low Cost 341

Niels Roth, Ben Risi, Robert E. Zee, Grant Bonin, Scott Armitage, and Josh Newman
16.1 Introduction 341
16.1.1 Formation Flight Background 341
16.2 Mission Overview 342
16.3 System Overview 343
16.3.1 Propulsion 346
16.3.2 Intersatellite Link 347
16.3.3 Algorithms 348
16.3.4 OASYS 348
16.3.5 RelNav 349
16.3.6 FIONA 349
16.4 Launch and Early Operations 350
16.4.1 Drift Recovery and Station Keeping 350
16.5 Formation Control Results 353
16.6 Conclusion 360
Acknowledgments 360
References 360

17 I-4a Launch Vehicles—Challenges and Solutions 363

Kaitlyn Kelley
17.1 Introduction 363
17.2 Past Nanosatellite Launches 365
17.3 Launch Vehicles Commonly Used by Nanosatellites 367
17.4 Overview of a Typical Launch Campaign 368
17.5 Launch Demand 371
17.6 Future Launch Concepts 372
References 374

18 I-4b Deployment Systems 375

A. Rüstem Aslan, Cesar Bernal, and Jordi Puig-Suari
18.1 Introduction 375
18.2 Definition and Tasks 375
18.3 Basics of Deployment Systems 376
18.3.1 POD Technical Requirements 376
18.3.2 POD Testing Requirements 377
18.4 State of the Art 377
18.4.1 P-POD 377
18.4.2 T-POD 379
18.4.3 XPOD Separation System 380
18.4.4 ISIPOD CubeSat Deployers 382
18.4.5 QuadPack ISIS Deployer 384
18.4.6 SPL/DPL/TPL/6U/12U of Astro- Und Feinwerktechnik Adlershof GmbH
(Astrofein) 386
18.4.7 Canisterized Satellite Dispenser (CSD) 389
xiv Contents

18.4.8 JEM-Small Satellite Orbital Deployer (J-SSOD) 392

18.4.9 Tokyo Tech Separation System and AxelShooter 394
18.5 Future Prospects 395
Acknowledgments 396
References 396

19 I-4c Mission Operations 399

Chantal Cappelletti
19.1 Introduction 399
19.2 Organization of Mission Operations 400
19.3 Goals and Functions of Mission Operations 401
19.3.1 Mission Database Operations Functions 403
19.3.2 Mission Operations Support Functions 403
19.4 Input and Output of Mission Operations 404
19.4.1 MAR 404
19.4.2 MOCD 405
19.4.3 SSUM 405
19.5 MOP 406
19.5.1 Suggestions to Write a MOP 407
19.6 Costs and Operations 409
References 414
Further Reading 415

20 I-5 Mission Examples 417

Kelly Antonini, Nicolò Carletti, Kevin Cuevas, Matteo Emanuelli,
Per Koch, Laura León Pérez, and Daniel Smith
20.1 Introduction 417
20.2 Mission Types 418
20.2.1 Educational Missions 418
20.2.2 Technology Demonstration Missions 418
20.2.3 Science Missions 419
20.2.4 Commercial Missions 419
20.3 Mission Examples 420
20.3.1 Educational Missions 420
20.3.1.1 Delphini-1 420
20.3.1.2 FACSAT 420
20.3.2 Technology Demonstration 422
20.3.2.1 GOMX-3 422
20.3.2.2 GOMX-4 424
20.3.2.3 CubeL 426
20.3.3 Science Missions 429
20.3.3.1 DISCOVERER 429
20.3.3.2 TESER 429
20.3.4 Commercial Missions 431
20.3.4.1 STARLING 431
 Contents xv

20.3.4.2 Three Diamonds and Pearls 432

20.4 Constellations 433
20.4.1 STARLING 433
20.4.1.1 Constellation’s Operational System 433
20.4.1.2 Orbit Determination and Propagators 435
20.4.1.3 Constellation Control System 435
20.4.2 Sky and Space Global 436
20.5 Perspective 437
References 438

21 II-1 Ground Segment 441

Fernando Aguado Agelet and Alberto González Muíño
21.1 Introduction 441
21.2 Ground Segment Functionalities 441
21.3 Ground Segment Architecture 442
21.4 Ground Station Elements 444
21.4.1 Radio Frequency Equipment 444
21.4.2 Structural Elements and Rotor 447
21.5 Ground Segment Software 449
21.5.1 Orbit Propagation Software 449
21.5.2 Tracking Software 450
21.5.3 Communications Software 450
21.5.4 Mission Planning Tools 450
21.5.5 Mission Operations Console 450
21.5.6 Telemetry Analysis Tools 451
21.6 Ground Segment Operation 451
21.6.1 Usage Planning 451
21.6.2 Communication Access Execution 451
21.7 Future Prospects 452
21.7.1 SDR 452
21.7.2 Ground Station Automation 453
References 455

22 II-2 Ground Station Networks 457

Lucas Rodrigues Amaduro and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho
22.1 Introduction 457
22.2 Technological Challenges 457
22.3 Visibility Clash Problems of Stations and Satellites 458
22.4 The Distributed Ground Station Network 459
22.5 Infrastructure 459
22.6 Planning and Scheduling 460
22.7 Generic Software Architecture 460
22.8 Example Networks 462
22.9 Traditional Ground Station Approach 462
22.10 Heterogeneous Ground Station Approach 464
xvi Contents

22.11 Homogeneous Ground Station Approach 466

22.11.1 Automation and Optimization 466
22.12 Conclusions 469
References 469

23 II-3 Ground-based Satellite Tracking 471

Enrico Stoll, Jürgen Letschnik, and Christopher Kebschull
23.1 Introduction 471
23.2 Orbital Element Sets 472
23.2.1 State Vectors 472
23.2.2 Two-line Elements 473
23.2.3 Keplerian Elements 474
23.3 Tracklet Generation from Ground Measurements 475
23.3.1 Perturbations 475
23.3.2 Sensor Types 476
23.3.3 Orbit Determination 478
23.4 Tracking CubeSats with Ground Stations 481
23.4.1 Vector Rotations 481
23.4.2 TLE to Keplerian Elements 482
23.4.3 Keplerian Elements to Perifocal Coordinates 482
23.4.4 Perifocal to ECI Coordinates 483
23.4.5 ECI to ECF coordinates 483
23.4.6 ECF to Ground Station AzEl Coordinates 484
23.5 Orbit Propagation 485
23.5.1 Numerical Orbit Propagation 485
23.5.2 Analytical Orbit Propagation 486
23.6 Principle of Operations of Ground Stations 487
23.6.1 Fundamentals of Antenna Technology 487
23.6.2 Tracking Software Examples and Features 489
23.6.3 Challenges in CubeSat Tracking 491
23.7 Summary 492
References 493

24 II-4a AMSAT 495

Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)
24.1 Introduction 495
24.2 Project OSCAR 496
24.2.1 OSCAR 1 Satellite (1961) 496
24.2.2 OSCAR 2 Satellite (1962) 497
24.2.3 OSCAR 3 Satellite (1965) 497
24.2.4 OSCAR 4 Satellite (1965) 498
24.3 AMSAT Satellite Designations 499
24.4 Other Notable AMSAT and OSCAR Satellites 500
24.4.1 OSCAR 7 Satellite, AO-7 (1974) 500
24.4.2 UoSAT-1 Satellite (UO-9) (1981) 500
 Contents xvii

24.4.3 ISS (ARISS) (1998–Present) 501

24.4.4 OSCAR 40 (AO-40) (2000) 502
24.4.5 SuitSat (AO-54) (2006) 502
24.5 The Development of CubeSats 503
24.6 FUNcube Satellites 504
24.7 Fox Satellites 505
24.8 GOLF Satellites 505
24.9 The IARU and ITU Resolution 659 506
References 507

24 II-4b New Radio Technologies 508

Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)
24.10 Introduction 508
24.11 SDR Space Segment 509
24.12 SDR Ground Segment 510
24.13 Modern Transmitter Design 511
Reference 513

25 III-1a Cost Breakdown for the Development of Nanosatellites 515

Katharine Brumbaugh Gamble
25.1 Introduction 515
25.2 Recurring Costs 517
25.2.1 Spacecraft Hardware 517
25.2.1.1 Attitude Determination and Control System (ADACS) 517
25.2.1.2 Avionics 519
25.2.1.3 Structure and Payload 520
25.2.2 Integration and Testing 520
25.2.3 Launch, Operations, and Personnel 521
25.3 Nonrecurring Costs 521
25.3.1 Spacecraft Testing 522
25.3.2 Integration and Testing Facilities 522
25.3.3 Ground Station 523
25.3.4 Personnel 523
25.4 Satellite Cost-estimating Models 523
25.4.1 Nonparametric Cost-estimating Methods 524
25.4.2 Small Satellite Cost Model 525
25.4.3 NASA Air Force Cost Model (NAFCOM) 526
25.4.4 Other Models 527
25.5 Risk Estimation and Reduction 528
25.6 Conclusions 530
References 530

26 III-1b Launch Costs 533

Merlin F. Barschke
26.1 Introduction 533
xviii Contents

26.2 Launching Nanosatellites 533

26.2.1 Dedicated Launch 534
26.2.2 Piggyback Launch 534
26.2.3 Rideshare or Cluster Launch 535
26.2.4 ISS Deployment 535
26.2.4.1 Present Launches 535
26.2.4.2 Future Developments 537
26.3 Launch Sites 539
26.4 Launch Milestones 539
26.4.1 Launch Contract 539
26.4.2 Payload ICD 540
26.4.3 Hardware Delivery and Launch Campaign 540
26.5 Launch Cost 540
References 541

27 III-2a Policies and Regulations in Europe 545

Neta Palkovitz
27.1 Introduction 545
27.2 International Space Law 545
27.2.1 General – What Is International Space Law? 545
27.2.2 Key Treaty Provisions 546
27.2.2.1 Freedom of Exploration and Use of Outer Space and Possible Restrictions 546
27.2.2.2 State Responsibility 547
27.2.2.3 International Liability 548
27.2.2.4 Registration of Space Objects 549
27.3 National Laws and Practices in EU Member States 550
27.3.1 General – What are National Space Laws? 550
27.3.2 Regulations, Official Forms, and Interpreting Guidelines 551
27.3.3 Additional International Legal Instruments and Their Relevance to National
Space Laws 551
27.3.4 Applicability 552
27.3.5 Examples of European States that Made Specific Consideration for Small
Satellite Missions in Their National Space Laws and Policies, with Respect to
Third-party Liability Insurance 552
27.3.5.1 Third-party Liability Insurance and Other Insurance Policies 552
27.3.5.2 Examples for National Space Laws and Policies in Europe, Focusing on Small
Satellites and Insurance Requirements 553
27.4 Future Regulation and Prospects 554
References 555

28 III-2b Policies and Regulations in North America 557

Mike Miller and Kirk Woellert
28.1 Introduction 557
28.2 Governing Treaties and Laws 558
28.2.1 The Space Treaties and International Conventions 558
 Contents xix

28.2.2 International Telecommunications Union/International Organization 560

28.2.3 Domestic Policy Within the USA 561
28.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation 561
28.4 Space Traffic Management 563
28.5 Licensing of Radio Transmission from Space 566
28.5.1 Licensing Authorities 566
28.5.2 NTIA Origins and Range of Authority 566
28.5.3 FCC Origins and License Types 566
28.5.4 Choosing a Frequency 567
28.5.5 FCC License Fee Exemption – Government Entities 568
28.5.6 Coordination of Use of Amateur Frequencies 568
28.5.7 Amateur Licensing for Satellite Transmitters 568
28.5.8 Experimental Licensing for Satellite Transmitters 569
28.5.9 Part 25 Licensing for Satellite Transmitters 569
28.6 Licensing for Remote Sensing Activities from Space 570
28.6.1 Licensing Requirements 571
28.6.2 Fees, Timeline, and Post Issuance Obligations 571
28.7 Export Control Laws 571
28.7.1 General Principles, Requirements, and Common Misconceptions 572
28.7.2 Export Control Reform 573
28.8 Conclusion 575
28.8.1 International Efforts 575
28.8.2 US Efforts 576
28.8.3 New Space 576
References 577

29 III-2c International Organizations and International Cooperation 583

Jean-Francois Mayence
29.1 Introduction 583
29.2 The United Nations and Affiliated Organizations 584
29.2.1 General Considerations 584
29.2.2 UNCOPUOS and Space Law 585
29.3 International Telecommunications Union 589
29.4 Other United Nations Agencies and Bodies 590
29.4.1 UNITAR/UNOSAT 591
29.4.2 UNESCO 591
29.4.3 UNDP 592
29.4.4 UNEP 592
29.4.5 Other UN Agencies and Bodies 592
29.5 Non-UN Organizations 593
29.5.1 UNIDROIT 593
29.5.2 NATO and Military Nanosatellites 594
29.5.3 Intergovernmental Agreement on the International Space Station 595
29.6 Main Non-European Spacefaring Nations 597
29.6.1 USA 598
xx Contents

29.6.2 Russia 598

29.6.3 India 598
29.6.4 Canada 599
29.6.5 Japan 599
29.6.6 China 599
29.6.7 Developing Countries 599
29.7 Conclusions 600
References 601

30 III-3a Economy of Small Satellites 603

Richard Joye
30.1 Introduction 603
30.2 Rethinking the Value Chain 603
30.3 A Hybrid Small Satellite Value Chain 604
30.3.1 Irreplaceability of Key Players 605
30.3.2 Interdependencies Between Small Satellite Industry Players 606
30.3.2.1 Startups Doing Business with Startups 607
30.3.3 Some Segments are Passive or Only Planting Seeds 608
30.4 Evolution, Not Revolution? 611
30.5 The Economics at Play 612
30.6 Satellite Manufacturers 612
30.7 Launch Service Providers 614
30.8 Satellite Operators 615
30.9 Satellite Servicing Providers 616
30.10 Data and Solution Providers 616
30.11 A Shift Toward New Models 617
References 618
Further Reading 618

31 III-3b Economics and the Future 621

Richard Joye
31.1 Introduction 621
31.2 Themes Shaping the Space Industry 622
31.2.1 Privatization of Space Activities 622
31.2.2 Making Space Accessible and Affordable 623
31.3 Megatrends 624
31.3.1 Launchers 624
31.3.2 Constellations 627
31.3.3 On-orbit and In-space Operations 628
31.3.4 Data 631
31.4 Conclusion: The Space Industry Is in Mutation 632
Further Reading 632
 Contents xxi

32 III-3c Networks of Nanosatellites 635

Richard Joye
32.1 Introduction 635
32.2 Why Networks? 635
32.2.1 Background: Networks are Not New 636
32.2.2 LEO and MEO Networks 637
32.2.3 Constellations: One Type of Network 637
32.2.4 The Raison d’être of Networks of Small Satellites 639
32.2.5 Existing Networks 640
32.3 Opportunities for Networks of Nanosatellites 641
32.3.1 Network Trends 641
32.3.1.1 Telecommunication 641
32.3.1.2 Earth Observation/Monitoring (EO) 643
32.3.2 Nanosatellites in This Framework 644
32.4 Challenges and Issues 646
32.4.1 Overcapacity 646
32.4.2 Lack of Launch Opportunities 646
32.4.3 Space Debris 647
32.4.4 Regulatory 647
32.4.4.1 Conclusion: Networks of Nanosatellites are a Game-changing Technology 648
Reference 648
Further Reading 648
List of Existing and Upcoming Networks of Satellites – January 2018, Updated
March 2019 649

Index 663
 xxiii

List of Contributors

Fernando Aguado-Agelet Alim Rüstem Aslan

Department of Signal Theory and Space Systems Design and Test Lab
Communications Department of Astronautical Engineering
University of Vigo Istanbul Technical University
EE Telecomunicación Turkey
Spain
Andrew Barron
Lucas Rodrigues Amaduro Broadspectrum (New Zealand) Limited
Reference Center for Embedded and Christchurch
Aerospace Systems (CRSEA) New Zealand
Polo de Inovação Campos dos Goytacazes
(PICG) Merlin F. Barschke
Instituto Federal Fluminense (IFF) Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Brazil Technische Universität Berlin
Germany
Kelly Antonini
GomSpace A/S Cesar Bernal
Aalborg ISIS – Innovative Solutions In Space B.V.
Denmark Delft
The Netherlands
Nicolas Appel
Institute of Astronautics Grant Bonin
Technical University of Munich Space Flight Laboratory (SFL)
Garching UTIAS
Germany Toronto
Canada
Scott Armitage
Space Flight Laboratory (SFL) Eduardo Escobar Bürger
UTIAS, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM)
Toronto Brazil
Canada
xxiv List of Contributors

Franciele Carlesso Matteo Emanuelli

National Institute for Space Research GomSpace A/S
São José dos Campos Aalborg
Brazil Denmark

Nicolò Carletti Jaime Estela

GomSpace A/S Spectrum Aerospace Group
Aalborg Germering
Denmark Germany

Rogerio Atem de Carvalho Katharine Brumbaugh Gamble

Reference Center for Embedded and Washington D.C.
Aerospace Systems (CRSEA) United States of America
Polo de Inovação Campos dos Goytacazes
(PICG) Ausias Garrigós
Instituto Federal Fluminense (IFF) Miguel Hernández University of Elche
Brazil Spain

Chantal Cappelletti Anna Gregorio

University of Nottingham Department of Physics
United Kingdom University of Trieste
Italy
Michele Coletti
Mars Space Ltd. Philipp Hager
Southampton European Space Agency
United Kingdom Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Marcos Compadre
Clyde Space Limited Lucas Ramos Hissa
Glasgow Reference Center for Embedded and
United Kingdom Aerospace Systems (CRSEA)
Innovation Hub
Lucas Lopes Costa Instituto Federal Fluminense (IFF)
National Institute for Space Research Campos dos Goytacazes
São José dos Campos Brazil
Brazil
Siegfried W. Janson
Kevin Cuevas xLab
GomSpace A/S The Aerospace Corporation
Aalborg El Segundo
Denmark United States of America
 List of Contributors xxv

Richard Joye Martin Langer

KCHK – Key Capital Hong Kong Limited Orbital Oracle Technologies GmbH
Hong Kong Munich
Germany
Christopher Kebschull and
Institute of Space Systems
Institute of Astronautics
Technical University of Braunschweig
Technical University of Munich
Germany
Garching
Kaitlyn Kelley Germany
Spaceflight Industries
Vaios J. Lappas
Seattle
Department of Mechanical Engineering
United States of America
and Aeronautics
Matthias Killian University of Patras
Institute of Astronautics Greece
Technical University of Munich
Jürgen Letschnik
Garching
Institute of Astronautics
Germany
Technical University of Munich
Rolf-Dieter Klein Garching
Multimedia Studio Rolf-Dieter Klein Germany
München and
Germany Airbus
Taufkirchen/Ottobrunn
Per Koch Germany
GomSpace A/S
Aalborg Geilson Loureiro
Denmark Laboratory of Integration and Testing (LIT)
National Institute for Space Research
David Krejci (INPE)
ENPULSION São José dos Campos
Wiener Neustadt Brazil
Austria
and Jean-Francois Mayence
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Belgian Federal Science Policy Office
Cambridge (BELSPO)
United States of America Brussels
Belgium
xxvi List of Contributors

Mike Miller Jordi Puig-Suari

Sterk Solutions Corporation Cal Poly
Philipsburg Aerospace Engineering Department
United States of America San Luis Obispo
United States of America
Sergio Montenegro
University Würzburg Philipp Reiss
Germany Institute of Astronautics
Technical University of Munich
Alberto González Muíño Garching
University of Vigo Germany
EE Telecomunicación
Spain Alexander Reissner
ENPULSION
Flavia Tata Nardini Wiener Neustadt
Fleet Space Technologies Austria
Beverley
Australia Ben Risi
Space Flight Laboratory (SFL)
Josh Newman UTIAS
Space Flight Laboratory (SFL) Toronto
UTIAS Canada
Toronto
Canada Niels Roth
Space Flight Laboratory (SFL)
Neta Palkovitz UTIAS
ISIS – Innovative Solutions In Space B.V. Toronto
Delft Canada
The Netherlands
and Sebastian Rückerl
Institute of Astronautics
International Institute of Air and Space
Technical University of Munich
Law (IIASL)
Garching
Leiden University
Germany
The Netherlands
Kenan Y. Şanl𝒊türk
Laura León Pérez
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GomSpace A/S
Istanbul Technical University
Aalborg
Turkey
Denmark
 List of Contributors xxvii

Klaus Schilling Murat Süer

University Würzburg Gumush AeroSpace & Defense
and Maslak
Istanbul
Zentrum für Telematik
Turkey
Germany
Bob Twiggs
Daniel Smith
Morehead State University
GomSpace A/S
United States of America
Aalborg
Denmark
Kirk Woellert
ManTech International supporting DARPA
Willem Herman Steyn
Arlington
University of Stellenbosch
United States of America
South Africa
Robert E. Zee
Enrico Stoll
Space Flight Laboratory (SFL)
Institute of Space Systems
UTIAS
Technical University of Braunschweig
Toronto
Germany
Canada

Andrew Strain
Clyde Space Limited
Glasgow
United Kingdom
 xxix

Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment

Bob Twiggs
Morehead State University, Morehead, USA

The use of small satellites in general initiated the space program in 1957 with the launching
of Russian Sputnik 1, and then by the United States with Vanguard 1 satellite, which was
the fourth artificial Earth orbital satellite to be successfully launched (following Sputnik 1,
Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1).
The concept of the CubeSat was developed by Professor Bob Twiggs at the Department of
Aeronautics and Astronautics at Stanford University in Palo Alto, CA, in collaboration with
Professor Jordi Puig-Suari at the Aerospace Department at the California State Polytechnic
University in San Luis Obispo, CA, in late 1999. The CubeSat concept originated with the
spacecraft OPAL (Orbiting Picosat Automated Launcher), a 23 kg microsatellite developed
by students at Stanford University and the Aerospace Corporation in El Segundo, CA, to
demonstrate the validity and functionality of picosatellites and the concept of launching
picosatellites and other small satellites on-orbit from a larger satellite system. Picosatellites
are defined having a weight between 0.1 and 1 kg. OPAL is shown in Figure 1, with four
launcher tubes containing picosatellites. One of the picosatellites is shown being inserted
into the launcher tube in Figure 2.
The satellites developed by students within university programs in 1980s and 1990s were
all nanosatellites (1–10 kg size) and microsatellites (10–50 kg size). The feasibility of inde-
pendently funding launch opportunities for these nanosatellites and microsatellites was
limited, as the costs typically were up to $250 000—a price point well beyond the resources
available to most university programs. At that time, the only available option was to collabo-
rate with government organizations that would provide the launch. The OPAL satellite was
launched in early 2000 by the US Air Force Space Test Program (STP) with sponsorship from
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) for the Aerospace Corporation
picosatellites.
The OPAL mission represented a significant milestone in the evolution of small satellites
by proving the viability of the concept of the picosatellite and an innovative orbital deploy-
ment system. The picosatellite launcher concept used for the OPAL mission represented a
major advancement that would enable the technological evolution of small satellites, set-
ting the stage for the development of the CubeSat form factor and the Poly Picosatellite
Orbital Deployer (P-POD) orbital deployer system. OPAL demonstrated a new capability
xxx Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment

Figure 1 Picosatellite loaded into OPAL.

Figure 2 OPAL and SAPPHIRE microsatellites.

with the design of an orbital deployer that could launch numerous very small satellites
contained within the launcher tube that simplified the mechanical interface to the upper
stage of the launch vehicle and greatly simplified the satellite ejection system. While the
OPAL mission was extremely successful and established the validity of a picosatellite orbital
 Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxxi

deployer, Professor Twiggs and Professor Puig-Suari wanted to find a lower-cost means of
launching the satellites built by university students. The stage was set for the development
of the CubeSat form factor and its evolution toward an engineering standard.

CubeSat Engineering Design Standard

The primary intent of the development of the CubeSat standard was to provide a standard
set of dimensions for the external physical structure of picosatellites that would be compat-
ible with a standardized launcher. Unlike the development of most modern engineering
standards, there was no consulting with other universities or with the commercial satellite
industry to establish this standard because most other university satellite programs and
commercial ventures were concentrating on larger satellites rather than smaller satellites.
There were discussions in the late 1990s within the Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation
(AMSAT) community in the United Kingdom centering on building a small amateur
satellite, but there were never any attempts to develop a standardized design.
The concept of a design standard for a picosatellite and associated launcher that could be
used by many universities, the developers believed, would lead to many picosatellites being
launched at a time. They envisioned launch vehicles accommodating several launcher
tubes, each containing a few picosatellites. The final concept of the CubeSat structural
standard was developed by Professor Twiggs and Professor Puig-Suari, and currently
adopted by the small satellite community. The developers believed that if one organization
could provide the integration of the launcher with the launch vehicle through a carefully
orchestrated interface process with the launch services provider, then it seemed possible to
acquire launch opportunities for university programs that would be affordable (less than
$50 000 per 1 kg satellite).

Evolution History of the CubeSat Program

The first CubeSats were launched on a Russian Dnepr in 2003 through the efforts of
Professor Jordi Puig-Suari at Cal Poly. Professor Puig-Suari and his students through the
CubeSat integration program at Cal Poly took the initial concept design, established the
standards for the 1U CubeSat, designed the P-POD deployer, and planned for the Russian
launch.
Initial reaction from the aerospace industry was quite critical of the CubeSat concept.
The comments were—“stupidest idea for a satellite,” “would have no practical value,”
“academic faculty did not have the capability to design and launch a satellite.” This came
mostly from the amateur satellite community that had established building and launching
satellites many years prior to this academic program.
Fortunately, these comments did not deter the academic community from pursuing the
CubeSat program. In 2008, the National Science Foundation had a conference to explore the
use of the CubeSat to do space experiments for space weather. Their initiation and funding
of using CubeSats for real scientific space experiments seemed to validate that the CubeSat
concept had merit in space experiments.
Another Random Scribd Document
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 "Have you the courage?"

He could scarcely falter out,—

"I have!"

Her point was gained. She no more meant her horrible suggestion to be
realized, than he meant to realize it. They were both trying each other. She,
to see the extent of her power; he, to ascertain the truth of his suspicions.

Imagining her power great enough to lead him into any crime, she burst
out laughing.

"And do you mean to say you thought me serious, Marmaduke?"

"I did."

"Then what a villain you must be!"

"I am only your slave."

She shook her head at him, and said,—

"Slaves should not listen to such thoughts. If I thought you were serious,
I should loathe you."

"And I should loathe myself," he said, coldly.

It so happened that both believed the other guilty of the serious

intention, and attributed the disavowal to fear of having been understood.
Marmaduke had noticed the affected tone of her laughter; it was affected,
but not from the cause he imagined: it arose from a sense of uneasiness at
having pushed the experiment too far, and from a dread of his really
believing her to be serious.

On the other hand, she noticed the faltering hesitation and coldness of
his tone, which she interpreted into the uneasiness of guilt, but which really
arose from the intense loathing he felt for her. It only seemed a
confirmation of her power.
 Nothing could ever have persuaded Marmaduke that Mrs. Vyner was
innocent of the thoughts he attributed to her; and his loathing was so great,
that it not only completely crushed the sort of love he had felt for her, but
revived his desire for vengeance, which he thought could not be made
terrible enough to fitly punish such a wretch.

He dissembled his disgust, and only more urgently pleaded her to elope
with him. At the conclusion of one of his speeches to that effect, he noticed
that she seemed not to attend to him, but to be eagerly listening. Presently
she put her finger upon her lips by way of caution, and then, in a voice she
strove to make calm and distinct, said,—

"Marmaduke, I do not doubt your love, but I must not, will not listen to
it. I am married. I never can forget that; do not you! If a sisterly regard will
suffice you, that will I give; but you must here engage to think of me as a
brother, and, above all, never again to let me hear from your lips the
language I have heard to-day. Will you promise me?"

She nodded significantly to him to reply in the affirmative, and he said,

—

"Will you, then, give me no hope?"

"None. You have heard my conditions. Do you accept them?"

"If I must."

"You must."

"Then I do."

"That's right. Now go home."

She put her finger again upon her lips, and motioned him to listen.

The gentle creak of retiring footsteps stealing away was then distinctly
heard. As they ceased, she said,—
 "That was my husband. He has overheard us. But fortunately he heard
nothing which I cannot explain. Leave him to me."

Marmaduke went home in a state of fever, torn by the most vehement

emotions, and seeing all darkly before him.

CHAPTER VII.

FATHER AND CHILD.

Meredith Vyner stole back to his study, after having overheard a portion
of the foregoing scene, like one who has just received a sentence of death.
He loved his wife with the unreasoning idolatry of one who has centred all
his affections on a single object. His children had been gradually estranged
from him, his wife had taken their place in his heart, and now she was
listening to the vows of another!

What he had heard was enough to make him fear the worst. Her refusal
to listen to Marmaduke, and her offer of a purely sisterly regard, although it
assured him that at present she was resolved not to forget her duty, gave
him no assurance that such prudence would long continue. Could she
restrict herself to that sisterly love? Could she know that one so young, so
handsome, so imposing, loved her, and not at last yield to his love?

He would snatch her from the danger by taking her at once from
London. Away from her lover, she might forget him, or he might seek
another. It was necessary to take a decided step.

When Mrs. Vyner came into his study, he at once assumed an unusual
tone of command, and informed her that it was his pleasure they should at
once return to the country.
 "My dear Meredith, what are you thinking of? The country! We cannot
leave town in the height of the season."

"I have my reasons," he said, with as much dignity as he could assume.

"And I have mine for not going."

"But I insist upon it."

She seated herself in one of the easy chairs, and said, quietly,—

"You will not insist when you have heard me. This very morning, Mr.
Ashley has made a foolish declaration of love to me."

He was thunderstruck. The quiet matter-of-fact style in which she

communicated this intelligence, was indeed a masterpiece of adroitness.
There are moments in our lives when audacity is prudence; and this was
one, when nothing but an audacious avowal could, by anticipating, defeat
the accusation she knew he would bring forward. She lost nothing by
avowing it, as she was certain he already knew it; but, on the other hand, by
anticipating him, she was enabled to give her own colouring to the
appearances which condemned her.

"I see your surprise," she added; "you little expected it, nor did I. You
thought he was attached to Violet; I thought so too; and as I am sure Violet
is attached to him, I have set my mind upon the match. But now, look here:
I received his declaration without anger and without encouragement. I told
him I would love him as a sister, and made him promise, on pain of
instantly refusing to see him, to cease all such language, and to crush all
such hopes. Did I act rightly?"

"Yes—very—very."

"But, suppose I run away into the country, what will he imagine? That I
am afraid of him, afraid of myself; that I love him, and avoid him. Do you
wish him to think that? You do not. Then we remain."

"But ... and you ... will you continue to see him?"
 "Why not? If I am to avoid him let it be done at once. If not, let us treat
him as if he had never made that silly declaration. He will soon get over
this. It is only a passing fancy. He saw me a mere girl, wedded to one old
enough to be my father, and imagined, as all men would imagine, that I
should be easily persuaded to forget what was due to my husband, and to
myself. I have undeceived him. My coldness and firmness will soon cure
him. He will then think of Violet."

She ceased. He took vast pinches of snuff in an agitated absent manner,

but made no remark. She perceived that she had gained the day, and left
him to his reflections.

Bitter enough those reflections were. The explicit avowal had staggered
him—had taken from him the very weapon he was to use; but it had in no
way alleviated his jealous anguish. He could not answer her—yet could not
satisfy himself. The reference she had made to his age still rung in his ears,
and told him plainly that his rival would one day be happy.

That afternoon Violet and Rose returned. He received them with

unwonted tenderness, for his heart ever yearned to those whom he had
excluded from it, and he felt bitter remorse for having sacrificed them to his
wife. Violet was peculiarly dear to him at this moment. He felt for her
misplaced attachment, and remembered how ill she had been treated at
home. He folded her to his breast, with a lovingness which brought the tears
into her eyes, and as she sat down on his knee, one arm around his neck,
delighted with this change in his manner, she divined at once the real cause
of the change. As it was Mrs. Vyner who had estranged him from her, so
must it be Mrs. Vyner who had brought back his love.

It was a touching sight to see this parent and child united by a common
sorrow, mutually pitying and mutually comforting each other, having in one
embrace forgotten all that had once been distrust and coldness, and now
possessed by that overflowing love which, in its exaggeration, desires to
atone for past coldness.

It was not what they said; for few words passed between them; it was
their eloquent looks, significant pressure of hands, convulsive embraces,
and tones pregnant with meaning. The father mutely demanded forgiveness,
and the child demanded a continuance of love.

After an hour of this intense emotion they grew calmer, and began to
talk of indifferent things. From time to time they hovered about the name of
Marmaduke, and betrayed, in their very recurrence to the subject, and
hesitation in speaking openly of it, how predominant it was in their minds.
At last they ventured on the name. It is impossible to convey an idea of the
conversation which ensued, because it was conducted in phrases of the most
guarded vagueness, but made full of meaning by the looks which
accompanied them. Slowly, but irresistibly, the conviction came upon her,
that her father had discovered his wife's guilty passion; or, at least,
suspected it. Her object, therefore, was, if possible, to persuade him that
Marmaduke came there for herself; and she even went so far as to laugh
faintly at his efforts to make himself agreeable to Mrs. Vyner, by way of
using a stepmother's influence in his favour.

Her voice shook, as she uttered this heroic falsehood.

He gazed at her with mournfulness; a tear rolled down his cheek; his
heart swelled as he sobbed out,—

"My poor child! my poor child!"

He dared not undeceive her, dared not tell her what he knew.

She saw that she was not believed, but little did she know the mournful
pity with which her supposed credulity filled him.

It was a relief to her when the dinner-bell rang, and put an end to their
interview.

He saw her depart, and sat sighing deeply, wholly bewildered at the
inextricable difficulties of his position; and when Mrs. Vyner came in, and
chatted away about the opera, to which they were going that night, as if
nothing whatever had occurred, he almost felt as if he had just awakened
from a dream-troubled sleep.
 CHAPTER VIII.

THE CRISIS.
Quelle nouvelle a frappé mon oreille!
Quel feu mal étouffé dans mon cœur se réveille!
Quel coup de foudre ô ciel! et quel funeste avis!
RACINE.—Phèdre.

False! I defy you both:

I have endured you with an ear of fire;
Your tongues have struck hot irons on my face.
CYRIL TOURNEUR.—The Revenger's Tragedy.

There was an appalling struggle in Marmaduke's breast that day as he

reached home. The terrible scene which had passed between him and Mrs.
Vyner, with its plainly expressed hint at assassination, made him shudder as
he again and again went over it in memory. False and heartless he had
known her; but for this he had not been prepared. And he felt a sort of
sickness come over him as he reflected on the peril which he had escaped,
in Vyner's not coming to listen at the very moment when she had proposed,
and he had affected to accept the proposition! He would then have been
accused of having really meant to perpetrate the crime; for who would have
credited his disavowal? who would have credited his assurance that he was
but feigning what his soul abhorred?

By a retrospective glance at his own conduct, and at the peril he had

escaped, he was led to meditate on the nature of this woman; and by a
reflection on her criminal thoughts, he was shown the criminality of his
own.
 This revenge which he had planned so remorselessly, what was it but a
crime? If he had been wronged by a heartless woman, was it for him thus to
measure out the punishment? and did her jilting him deserve so terrible a
retribution?

After all, was not vengeance a "wild justice," but only the justice of
savages? Was it worthy of civilized, christianized man? And for a man to
wreak it on a woman, was not that petty, ignoble, more like spite than
retribution?

Such were the thoughts which possessed him. That they never suggested
themselves before, arises from the fact of his never having before been cool
enough to question the legitimacy of his feelings. But now they staggered
him; now they came upon him like a remorse; and he relinquished his
scheme of vengeance!

The next day, impelled by some strange impulse which he could not
explain, he went to the Vyners. Violet observed the agitation of his manner,
and attributed it to meeting her again, after what had evidently transpired
during her absence. She was, therefore, considerably surprised when he
begged for a few moments' private conversation with her, at the same time
entreating Rose to leave them alone. She had intended to refuse the request,
but Rose had departed before she could open her lips. Rose too well
understood the purport of that interview, not to be anxious to forward it by
her absence.

"Mr. Ashley," said Violet, coldly, "there is no subject upon which I can
hear you alone; you will oblige me, therefore, by suffering me to follow my
sister."

"Violet!"

"Mr. Ashley, by whose authority do you address me in that manner?"

"The authority of my love. Violet, I love you ... you know it ... but I
must tell you so ... I must..."
 She moved towards the door; he intercepted her, and put his back
against it. Drawing herself up to her full height, with a haughty gesture she
motioned him to let her pass.

"I did not expect this," he said, without moving; "I thought I should, at
least, be heard. Miss Vyner had given me reason to hope that she would at
least suffer me to tell her.... Violet, I cannot control myself. You must know,
you must long have known I loved you, you must have seen it in every...."

"Mr. Ashley I request to be allowed to leave the room."

"Do you refuse to listen to me?"

"I do."

He stared at her bewildered; there was something so calm and collected

in her manner, yet the manner was so incomprehensible, that he was
speechless for a few moments.

"You cannot ... cannot have mistaken ... for so many months ... do you
mean that you mistook my looks ... my words ... my actions? ... Did you?"

"I did not."

"Good God! have you then been playing with me?"

"Playing!" she repeated scornfully, yet sadly. "I play!"

"Then what can all this mean? There is some delusion ... a word may set
it right.... You knew I loved you—did you not? You hear it now. Violet, I
love you—love you as man never loved before. Will you accept that love?"

"Dare you ask me?" she said, fixing her large eyes on his with searching
keenness.

"Violet ... what is it that you doubt?"

"Your purpose."
 "My purpose is, to tell you that my heart is yours.... That I live but in the
hope of calling you mine."

Her bosom heaved—her nostrils dilated, and with flashing eyes she
proudly, almost fiercely, exclaimed,—

"Let me pass!"

"What is the meaning of this?"

"Let me pass, sir!"

"Violet! are you mad, or do you think me so? Is my love an insult,

that...."

"It is an insult—a deep insult. Now, sir, will you let me pass?"

"I will know what is at the bottom of all this. You may reject me, but
you shall explain. It is so utterly inconceivable that, after the
encouragement you have given me, you should pretend to regard my
avowal as an insult, that I demand an explanation."

In spite of the rising passion in his breast, he uttered this so collectedly

and so earnestly, that Violet was somewhat perplexed, and began almost to
doubt her own conclusions.

"Mr. Ashley," she said, "a short while ago, such an avowal could only
have been felt by me as an honour; but since that, your own conscience will
tell you why I reject, and reject with deep scorn, the offer of your hand.
Pray let me say no more."

His conscience did tell him, at least it suggested what the cause most
probably was; but wishing to come to an explanation, he said,—

"My conscience tells me that I love you—only you; will you tell me
wherein lies the insult?"

A long struggle ensued in her mind; she could not give him the
explanation he demanded, because unable to bring herself to mention her
stepmother.

"If you persist," she said at last, "I must persist also. I tell you again, the
offer of your love to me—here, in this house, is an outrage, and scorn is my
only answer. Does that suffice? Would you have me add more bitterness to
my refusal?"

"Violet, I cannot quit you without..... Tell me, is there not that in your
mind which you shrink from uttering, and which has reference to some one
in this house?"

"You understand me, then?"

"I do."

"Then let me pass at once."

"Not until you have heard me. Will you hear me.... Will you, in this
solemn moment, let me lay before you the whole history of my heart? You
think me a villain, will you listen before you condemn?"

"I know not what plausible excuses..."

"Truth—the simplest truth shall be my defence. If that condemns me, I

will submit in patience. Will you hear me?"

There was something so solemn and so touching in his tone, that Violet
was deeply affected by it; the sad earnestness of his voice pleaded
eloquently in his favour.

He approached, and took her hand; she withdrew it hastily, and moved
towards the mantelpiece, against which she leaned in an attitude of
exquisite dignity, turning her face towards him, prepared to listen. After
gazing stedfastly at her for a few seconds, while he collected his thoughts,
he thus spoke,—

"Violet, I am about to make a most painful avowal; one that will startle
you; one that will seem wholly inexplicable. When but a boy, I loved—
loved as boys love, unreasoningly and ardently. I have tropical blood in my
veins, Violet, and all passions become intense with me. The girl I loved
returned my affection. We were to have been married. I was called away
from England. I returned to my father in Brazil. My father gave his consent
to our marriage. I wrote to inform her of it: she was overjoyed. Her letters
were as ardent as even I could wish. Suddenly they ceased. My father died.
I was settling his affairs, and preparing to quit Brazil for England, when I
learned from a newspaper that my affianced wife had married another."

He paused: a choking sensation in his throat impeded utterance. Violet

had listened eagerly, and still kept her eyes fixed upon him.

"I cannot tell you," he resumed, "what I suffered on awakening from the
sort of stupor in which this intelligence threw me. You have never known—
may God preserve you from ever knowing it!—what that desolation is,
when those we love are found unworthy of our love! The anguish and
despair which then tore my soul to pieces, I shudder to look back upon. It
was not that my love had been destroyed—it was not that which made the
pang; it was the horrible, heartless cruelty with which I had been deceived. I
had been sacrificed to wealth. That I might have forgiven; but it was done
so cruelly! Until she had accepted her husband, her letters were as
affectionate and hopeful as ever. The blow was unbroken in its fall—no
wonder that it nearly crushed me!"

He paused again; and saw tears glisten in the earnest eyes of his listener.
She, too, had known what it was to suffer from hopeless love!

"Violet, I am fierce and brutal in my instincts, and my education had

been but indifferent—on one point especially it had been deficient;—in the
Christian spirit of forgiveness. Vengeance—the justice of the savage—was
what I had never learned to disown. Writhing under the torture which had
been inflicted, I took comfort solely in the hope of vengeance. I came to
England with that one absorbing object. Now comes the painful part of iny
disclosure—if indeed you have not already guessed it—the girl who had ...
in a word, it was Mrs. Vyner!"

He expected to see her vehemently startled, but she only whispered, in a

hoarse and broken voice,—
 "I knew it."

"You knew it! Then have you understood me?"

"Not quite."

"I must explain, then, my conduct further. I was here in England,

resolved on reparation of the wrong I had suffered. I knew not what shape
my vengeance would take, but I was resolved to have it in some shape or
other. I saw you. To know you, was to love you—and I loved. In my love, I
forgot my misery, and ceased to think of revenge. You were sometimes cold
and haughty to me, Violet; sometimes kind and encouraging. Do you
remember when we rode to the sands that afternoon, and sat upon the rock
together listening to the sea? I could have told you then how much I loved
you, had not your coldness chilled me. Well, on that very day, while I was
suffering from your indifference; she, jealous of you, chose to recall me
back again to my schemes, by pretending that her marriage had been an act
of jealous despair; she roused the demon in me by her infernal arts, and
once more I resolved to wreak upon her the vengeance you had made me
forget. From that moment I have pursued a scheme which involved her ruin.
Many times have I been vacillating, many times has a kind word or look
from you brought me back again to a purer atmosphere; but the devil would
have it! and a haughty gesture from you has thrown me back again. Hurried
onwards by the irresistible course of events, I was nearly losing myself for
ever, when last night I had my eyes opened. I saw that the only vengeance
worthy of a man was contempt. At once, I resolved to cease feigning love
for the miserable being whom I had marked as my victim; resolved to break
away from the net in which I was entangled, by quitting England.

"Before I left England, I had only to learn my fate: if you refused me, I
should carry my despair into distant lands; if you accepted the offer of a
heart, I thought you would not refuse to quit England with me. You have
now heard all. I have told you of my crime: if repentance will not clear me
from the stain...."

The door was thrown violently open before he could conclude the
sentence, and Mrs. Vyner stood before them.
 They started as at an apparition.

Fearful indeed was the aspect of the little fury, as with bloodshot eyes,
quivering lips, and spasm-contracted face, she trembled before them. All
that was diabolical in her nature seemed roused, and looking from her eyes:
passion made her hideous.

"Your little history is incomplete," she said in a hissing tone; her voice
lowered by the intensity of her feeling; "there is a chapter to be added,
which you will allow me to add. Miss Vyner is so excellent a listener that
she will not refuse to hear it."

Violet looked haughtily down upon her, and said,—

"I desire to hear no more."

"But you must hear this; it concerns you. You cannot be indifferent to
anything which relates to your honourable lover; you cannot be unwilling to
know that he who offers you his hand is vain fool enough to be the dupe of
any woman, as he has been mine. He has told you, and how prettily he told
it! what pathos! what romance! he told you how I played with him. That is
true. He was such a vain silly creature that no one could resist the
temptation. Not only did I make a fool of him as a girl. I have done so as a
married woman. I persuaded him that even respect for my husband, respect
for the world could not withstand the all-conquering beauty of his lumpish
person, and he believed it! believed that his face was a charm no woman
could resist. This besotted vanity brought him to my feet; yes, even at the
time you were sighing for him, he was at my feet, ardent, submissive, a
plaything for my caprice!"

She saw Violet writhing, and her savage heart exulted in the pain she
was inflicting; she saw Marmaduke's calm contempt, and her exasperation
deepened at the unavailingness of her sarcasms to wound him.

Turning from her, as from one unworthy of notice, he said to Violet,—

"I repeat, my fate is in your hands. I love you, love you as I never loved
before—with my whole soul: love you with deep reverence for all that is so
great and noble in you, and to that generous and exalted mind I leave my
errors to be judged."

The sarcasm implied in this avowal almost maddened Mrs. Vyner.

"Accept him, Miss Vyner," she said with a short, hollow, and hysterical
laugh; "pray put him out of his misery; accept the offering of his deep
reverence, for that offering is my leavings!"

Marmaduke and Violet both started as this poisoned sarcasm, issued

from her lips, and their faces told her plainly she had struck deep.

"A reformed rake, you know, makes the best husband," she pursued; "so
that one so inflammable as he is, will be sure to make a constant and
adoring husband. You will be so happy with him! Whenever conversation
grows dull, he can amuse you with narrating little episodes of his love for
me, and my cruelty that will be so pleasant! you will never tire of that!
Accept him: you will be sure never to repent it!"

Marmaduke could have strangled her.

Violet, seeing clearly the purpose of these horrible phrases, cut them
short by saying,—

"Mr. Ashley, on some better occasion we will speak again of this; do not
let the present ignoble scene continue."

She held out her hand to him. He pressed it to his lips. Mrs. Vyner
nearly shrieked with mad jealousy; but suppressed the explosion of her
agony; while Violet swept out of the room, disdaining to give even a
passing glance at her.

Mrs. Vyner sank exhausted into a chair. Her brain was as if on fire, and
her whole frame shook violently with the unutterable rage, jealousy, and
hate which stormed within her heart.

Marmaduke could not in his fiercest moments have desired a more

terrible retribution than that which now had fallen on the miserable woman;
and he gazed upon her with a pity which astonished himself. To this he had
brought her; unwittingly it is true, but he felt it was he who had moved the
stone which had fallen and crushed her; and now that she lay there suffering
before him, his anger had gone, and pity filled its place.

She expected him to speak; she saw his fixed gaze and endeavoured to
interpret it; but he spoke not. Before she was aware of his intention, he had
left the room.

Five minutes afterwards, Meredith Vyner found her apparently lifeless

on the floor: she had swooned.

END OF VOL. II.

London: Printed by STEWART and MURRAY, Old Bailey.

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