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Energy Management Handbook 8th Edition Doty Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Doty, Steve; Turner, Wayne C
ISBN(s): 9788720123339, 1628701919
Edition: 8
File Details: PDF, 81.29 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
Energy Management
Handbook
Eighth Edition
 Co-Editors
Steve Doty Wayne C. Turner
Colorado Springs Utilities Oklahoma State University
Colorado Springs, Colorado Stillwater, Oklahoma

Contributors
This page recognizes the current contributing authors. It is revised each edition.

Eric Angevine Dale A. Gustavson Jerald D. Parker, Retired

Oklahoma State University Consultant Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK Orange, CA Stillwater, OK

Simon Baker Jeff Haberl S.A. Parker

California Public Utilities Commission Texas A&M University Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
San Francisco, CA College Station, TX Richland, WA

Gary Berngard Jack Halliwell David Pratt

Honeywell Building Solutions Halliwell Engineering Oklahoma State University
Denver CO Aventura, FL Stillwater, OK

Barney L. Capehart Michael R. Harrison Philip S. Schmidt

Professor Emeritus Johns-Mansfield Corporation University of Texas
University of Florida Denver, CO Austin, TX
Gainesville, FL
Russell L. Heiserman Mark B. Spiller
Clint Christenson Oklahoma State University Gainesville Regional Utilities
Consultant Stillwater, OK Gainesville, FL
Monument, CO
William J. Kennedy, Jr. Nick Stecky
David E. Claridge Clemson University NJS Associates
Texas A&M University Clemson, SC Denville, NJ
College Station, TX
John M. Kovacik, Retired Albert Thumann
Bob Cox GE Industrial & Power System Sales Association of Energy Engineers
Jacobs Carter & Burgess Schenectady, NY Atlanta, GA
Cary, NC
Roger Lawrence W.D. Turner
Charles Culp RGL Solutions Texas A&M University
Energy Systems Laboratory Raleigh, NC College Station, TX
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX Mingsheng Liu Stan Walerczyk
University of Nebraska Lighint Wizards
Michael Dipple Lincoln, NB Walnut Creek, CA
City of New York, NY
Konstantin Lobodovsky B.K. Walker
Steve Doty Motor Manager Quik Water
Colorado Springs Utilities Penn Valley, CA Sand Springs, OK
Colorado Springs, CO
William Mashburn Larry C. Witte
Keith Elder Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University of Houston
Coffman Engineers, Inc. State University Houston, TX
Seattle, WA Blacksburg, VA
Jorge B. Wong
John L. Fetters Paul Mehta Covidien
Effective Lighting Solutions, Inc. Bradley University Wallingford, CT
Columbus, OH Peoria, IL
Eric Woodroof
Scott Frazier Javier Mont Profitable Green Solutions
Oklahoma State University Abbott Vascular Somerset, KY
Stillwater, OK Santa Clara, CA

Carol Freedenthal George Owens

Jofree Corporation, Energy and Engineering Solutions
Houston, TX Columbia, MD
Energy Management
Handbook
Eighth Edition

by

Steve Doty
Colorado Springs Utilities
Colorado Springs, Colorado

and

Wayne C. Turner
Oklahoma State University
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Turner, Wayne C., 1942-

Energy management handbook / by Steve Doty, Colorado Springs Utilities, Colorado
Springs, Colorado and Wayne C. Turner, Oklahoma State University. -- Eighth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-88173-707-0 (alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-88173-708-9 (electronic) (print) -- ISBN 978-1-
4665-7828-9 (Taylor & Francis distribution : alk. paper) 1. Power resources--Handbooks,
manuals, etc. 2. Energy conservation--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Doty, Steve. II. Title.

TJ163.2.T87 2012
333.79--dc23

2012034554

Energy management handbook—eighth edition / by Steve Doty and Wayne C. Turner

©2013 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in-
cluding photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc.

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ISBN 978-1-4665-7828-9 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)

While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors
cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
 Contents

Chapter Page

1 Introduction . ..................................................................................................................................................1
Background............................................................................................................................................1
The Value of Energy Management.....................................................................................................4
The Energy Management Profession.................................................................................................7
Some Suggested Principles of Energy Management.......................................................................8

2 Effective Energy Management...................................................................................................................13

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................13
Energy Management Program..........................................................................................................13
Organizational Structure...................................................................................................................14
Energy Policy.......................................................................................................................................17
Planning...............................................................................................................................................17
Audit Planning....................................................................................................................................18
Educational Planning.........................................................................................................................19
Strategic Planning...............................................................................................................................20
Reporting.............................................................................................................................................20
Ownership...........................................................................................................................................21
Summary..............................................................................................................................................21

3 Energy Auditing...........................................................................................................................................27
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................27
Energy Auditing Services..................................................................................................................27
Basic Components of an Energy Audit............................................................................................27
Specialized Audit Tools......................................................................................................................38
Industrial Audits.................................................................................................................................39
Commercial Audits.............................................................................................................................43
Residential Audits..............................................................................................................................44
Indoor Air Quality..............................................................................................................................44

4 Economic Analysis.......................................................................................................................................47
Objective...............................................................................................................................................47
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................47
General Characteristics of Capital Investments.............................................................................47
Sources of Funds.................................................................................................................................49
Tax Considerations.............................................................................................................................50
Time Value of Money Concepts........................................................................................................52
Project Measures of Worth.................................................................................................................59
Special Topics......................................................................................................................................64
Summary and Additional Example Applications..........................................................................67

5 Boilers and Fired Systems..........................................................................................................................91

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................91
Analysis of Boilers and Fired Systems.............................................................................................91
Key Elements for Maximum Efficiency...........................................................................................93
v
 Condensing Boilers...........................................................................................................................119
Fuel Considerations..........................................................................................................................123

6 Steam and Condensate Systems..............................................................................................................131

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................131
Thermal Properties of Steam...........................................................................................................132
Estimating Steam Usage and its Value..........................................................................................139
Steam Traps and Their Application...............................................................................................145
Condensate Recovery.......................................................................................................................153

7 Cogeneration...............................................................................................................................................161
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................161
Cogeneration System Design and Analysis..................................................................................163
Computer Programs.........................................................................................................................181
U.S. Cogeneration Legislation: PURPA.........................................................................................181
Evaluating Cogeneration Opportunities: Case Examples..........................................................185

8 Waste-Heat Recovery.................................................................................................................................201
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................201
Waste-Heat Survey...........................................................................................................................202
Classifying Waste-heat Quality......................................................................................................203
Storage of Waste Heat......................................................................................................................204
Quantifying Waste Heat..................................................................................................................205
Matching Waste Heat Source and Sink..........................................................................................205
Waste-heat Exchangers....................................................................................................................208
Commercial Options in Waste-heat-recovery Equipment..........................................................211
Emerging Technologies for Waste Heat Recovery.......................................................................219
Summary............................................................................................................................................223

9 Building Envelope......................................................................................................................................225
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................225
Principles of Envelope Analysis.....................................................................................................227
Metal Elements in Envelope Components....................................................................................229
Roofs...................................................................................................................................................231
Floors..................................................................................................................................................231
Fenestration.......................................................................................................................................232
Infiltration..........................................................................................................................................236
Summarizing Envelope Performance with the Building Load Coefficient..............................237
Thermal “Weight”.............................................................................................................................238
Envelope Analysis for Existing Buildings.....................................................................................238
Envelope Analysis for New Buildings...........................................................................................243
Envelope Standards for New and Existing Construction...........................................................244
Summary............................................................................................................................................244
Additional Reading..........................................................................................................................244

10 HVAC Systems............................................................................................................................................253
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................253
Surveying Existing Conditions.......................................................................................................255
Human Thermal Comfort................................................................................................................256
Interactions with HVAC ECO Projects..........................................................................................257
HVAC System Types........................................................................................................................258
Central Cooling Equipment, Heat Rejection Equipment, and Distribution............................276
Impact of Part-load Operation and Occupancy of the Building................................................279
HVAC System Distribution Energy...............................................................................................279
Humidification Systems..................................................................................................................282
Example HVAC Energy Conservation Opportunities (ECOs)...................................................282
vi
 Building Automation System ECOs...............................................................................................286
Reducing System Loads...................................................................................................................286
Estimating HVAC Systems Energy Consumption.......................................................................287
Summary............................................................................................................................................288
Items for Further Investigation.......................................................................................................288

11 Motors, Drives, and Electric Energy Management..............................................................................291

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................291
Power Supply....................................................................................................................................291
Effects of Unbalanced Voltages on the Performance of Motors.................................................292
Effect of Performance—General.....................................................................................................292
Motor..................................................................................................................................................293
Glossary of Frequently Occurring Motor Terms..........................................................................294
Power Quality...................................................................................................................................301
Special High Efficiency Motor Designs.........................................................................................302
Electrical Motor Performance at Part Load...................................................................................302
Determining Electric Motor Operating Loads..............................................................................304
Power Meter......................................................................................................................................304
Assessing Motor Load from Slip Measurement...........................................................................304
Assessing Motor Load from Line Measurement Readings........................................................305
Electric Motor Efficiency..................................................................................................................305
Comparing Motors...........................................................................................................................306
Motor Load and Speed.....................................................................................................................306
Efficiency of Drive Loads................................................................................................................307
Adjustable Speed Drives and Variable Frequency Drives..........................................................308
Motor Power Consumption When Throttling..............................................................................309
Theoretical Power Consumption....................................................................................................312
Motormaster......................................................................................................................................315
Summary and Suggestions for Further Study..............................................................................315

12 Energy Management Control Systems...................................................................................................317

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................317
Energy Management Control Systems..........................................................................................317
Networks............................................................................................................................................318
Hardware...........................................................................................................................................321
Software.............................................................................................................................................323
EMCS Design Considerations.........................................................................................................323
Equpiment Connected to EMCS.....................................................................................................326
Control Strategies.............................................................................................................................328
Specifications for EMCS...................................................................................................................332
Procurement......................................................................................................................................333
Comissioning EMCS.........................................................................................................................334
Summary............................................................................................................................................335
Glossary of Terms.............................................................................................................................335

13 Lighting........................................................................................................................................................339
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................339
Lighting Fundamentals....................................................................................................................339
Process to Improve Lighting Efficiency.........................................................................................353
Maintenance......................................................................................................................................354
Emerging Technology......................................................................................................................356
Special Considerations.....................................................................................................................358
Daylighting........................................................................................................................................360
Common Retrofits.............................................................................................................................362
Summary............................................................................................................................................368
Glossary..............................................................................................................................................373
vii
14 Energy Systems Maintenance..................................................................................................................377
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................377
Why Perform Energy, Facility & Process Systems Maintenance?.............................................378
Developing & Implementing a Preventive Maintenance Plan..................................................378
Summary............................................................................................................................................388

15 Insulation Systems.....................................................................................................................................389
Fundamentals of Thermal Insulation Design Theory.................................................................389
Insulation Materials..........................................................................................................................391
Insulation Selection..........................................................................................................................395
Insulation Thickness Determination..............................................................................................400
Insulation Economics.......................................................................................................................413

16 Use of Alternative Energy.........................................................................................................................423

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................423
Solar Energy......................................................................................................................................430
Wind Energy......................................................................................................................................448
Biomass Energy.................................................................................................................................456
Emerging Technologies....................................................................................................................459
Topics for Further Reading..............................................................................................................461

17 Indoor Air Quality.....................................................................................................................................467

Introduction: Why IAQ is Important to CEMs.............................................................................467
IAQ Fundamentals: Mechanics of the Problem, Causes,
Investigations, and Solutions..................................................................................................470
The Energy Management/IAQ Balance: How to Avoid Problems...........................................475
Summary and Conclusions.............................................................................................................477
Topics for Additional Study............................................................................................................477

18 Electric and Gas Utility Rates for Commercial and Industrial Consumers....................................479
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................479
Utility Costs.......................................................................................................................................479
Rate Structures..................................................................................................................................481
Innovative Rate Type........................................................................................................................486
Calculation of a Monthly Bill..........................................................................................................487
Conducting a Load Study................................................................................................................490
Effects of Deregulation on Customer Rates..................................................................................491
Glossary..............................................................................................................................................492

19 Thermal Energy Storage............................................................................................................................495

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................495
Storage Systems................................................................................................................................497
Storage Mediums..............................................................................................................................499
System Capacity................................................................................................................................503
Economic Summary.........................................................................................................................508

20 Codes Standards & Legislation...............................................................................................................511

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................511
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.............................................................511
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (H.R.6).....................................................511
The Energy Policy Act of 2005........................................................................................................513
The Energy Policy Act of 1992........................................................................................................515
National Energy Conservation Policy Act 1978...........................................................................515
ISO 50001 Energy Management Standard....................................................................................516
Codes and Standards.......................................................................................................................516
viii
 Measurement and Verification........................................................................................................518
Summary............................................................................................................................................518

21 Natural Gas Purchasing............................................................................................................................519

Preface................................................................................................................................................519
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................520
Natural Gas as a Fuel.......................................................................................................................524
Buying Natural Gas..........................................................................................................................542
New Frontiers for the Gas Industry...............................................................................................552
Summary............................................................................................................................................553

22 Control Systems..........................................................................................................................................555
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................555
Why Automatic Control?.................................................................................................................555
Why Optimization?..........................................................................................................................556
Technology Classifications..............................................................................................................556
Control Modes...................................................................................................................................557
Input/Output Devices.....................................................................................................................561
Valves and Dampers.........................................................................................................................563
Instrument Accuracy, Repeatability, and Drift.............................................................................565
Basic Control Block Diagrams........................................................................................................566
Key Fundamentals of Successfully Applied Automatic Controls.............................................566
Expected Life of Control Equipment.............................................................................................568
Control Applications for Saving Energy.......................................................................................568
Basic Energy-saving Control Applications...................................................................................568
Advanced Energy-saving Control Applications..........................................................................571
Facilities Operations Control Applications...................................................................................571
Control System Application Pitfalls to Avoid...............................................................................571
Costs and Benefits of Automatic Control......................................................................................571
Estimating Savings from Applied Automatic Control Systems.................................................571
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................585
Further Study Topics........................................................................................................................585
Glossary of Terms.............................................................................................................................587

23 Sustainability and High Performance Green Buildings....................................................................595

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................595
Sustainability Concepts...................................................................................................................595
Historical Review..............................................................................................................................598
LEED™...............................................................................................................................................584
Energy Star® Portfolio Manager....................................................................................................606
ASHRAE Green Guide.....................................................................................................................606
ASHRAE Advanced Energy Design Guides, AEDG...................................................................608
ASHRAE Standard 189.1-2009 for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings..........609
The Green Building Initiative and Green Globes.........................................................................611
Greenhouse Gases (GHG)...............................................................................................................613

24 Electric Deregulation.................................................................................................................................615
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................615
An Historical Perspective of the Electric Power Industry..........................................................615
The Transmission System and The Federal Regulatory Commission's
(FERC) Role in Promoting Competition in Wholesale Power.........................................617
Stranded Costs..................................................................................................................................617
Status of State Electric Industry Restructuring Activity.............................................................617
Trading Energy—Marketers and Brokers.....................................................................................618
The Impact of Retail Wheeling.......................................................................................................618
The Ten-Step Program to Successful Utility Deregulation.........................................................620
ix
 Pricing Options for Electric Supply...............................................................................................621
Aggregation.......................................................................................................................................622
In-house vs. Outsourcing Energy Services...................................................................................622
Summary............................................................................................................................................623

25 Financing and Performance Contracting...............................................................................................625

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................625
Financial Arrangements: A Simple Example................................................................................625
Financial Arrangements: Details and Terminology.....................................................................628
Applying Financial Arrangements: A Case Study.......................................................................629
"Pros" & "Cons" of Each Financial Arrangement.........................................................................639
Other Considerations for Performance Contracting...................................................................639
Host and ESCO Strategies… Both Sides of the Story..................................................................641
Chapter Summary............................................................................................................................644
Glossary..............................................................................................................................................644

26 Commissioning...........................................................................................................................................647
Introduction to Commissioning for Energy Management.........................................................647
Commissioning Definitions.............................................................................................................647
Commissioning Measures...............................................................................................................648
Commissioning New Buildings for Energy Management.........................................................648
Commissioning Process in Existing Buildings.............................................................................649
Ensuring Optimum Building Performance...................................................................................657
Summary............................................................................................................................................663
For Additional Information.............................................................................................................664

27 Measurement and Verification of Energy Savings...............................................................................685

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................685
History of M&V................................................................................................................................685
Performance Contracts.....................................................................................................................688
Overview of Measurement and Verification Methods................................................................689
M&V Methods: Existing Buildings................................................................................................691
Cost/Benefit of M&V.......................................................................................................................726
System Considerations in Applying M&V...................................................................................730
Summary............................................................................................................................................732

Appendix I—Thermal Sciences Review...........................................................................................................749

Appendix II—Conversion Factors.....................................................................................................................771

Appendix III—Property Tables..........................................................................................................................779

Appendix IV— Review of Electrical Science..................................................................................................815

Index . ......................................................................................................................................................................829

x
 Foreword to the Eighth Edition

The publishing of the eighth edition of the Energy Management Handbook coincides with
the 35th Anniversary celebration of the Association of Energy Engineers (AEE), a nonprofit
professional energy engineering society. The energy management journey began with the
founding of the Association of Energy Engineers in 1977. During the 35 year history, AEE has
grown to over 14,000 members in 81 countries. AEE is proud to sponsor this excellent work,
which serves as an indispensable reference for preparing for the Certified Energy Manager
(CEM®) examination.
No other publication has been as influential in defining the energy management pro-
fession. Like the Association of Energy Engineers, the Energy Management Handbook was
originally launched in the late 1970s. In 1981, the Association of Energy Engineers started its
most successful program, the Certified Energy manager (CEM®). To date, over 10,000 profes-
sionals have been recognized as CEMs. The Energy Management Handbook has served as the
official reference book for the CEM® program.
Today the energy efficiency industry is poised for new growth, and the Energy Manage-
ment Handbook is more important than ever before. The partial meltdown of nuclear reactors
in Japan, the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and the spiraling gasoline prices have created
the perfect storm for heightened awareness of the need for energy management. The “Green
Revolution” is here.
The eighth edition of the Energy Management Handbook will continue to be the indispens-
able reference required to assist energy managers meet the challenges ahead.

Albert Thumann, P.E., CEM

Executive Director
Association of Energy Engineers
Atlanta, Georgia
www.aeecenter.org

xi
 Preface to the Eighth Edition

Keeping this amazing book current is a job I enjoy and also take very seriously.
That said: here for you is the latest generation of the Energy Management Handbook,
with updates in all the right places. It’s a large book—much larger and it would need
wheels —but worth every pound. Since each subject could be a book on its own, selecting
the core material for each chapter is a challenge, but one I always learn from.
One of my roles as editor is being a reader advocate, anticipating what will be valu-
able when opening the book and paying close attention to reader feedback. With this
edition we have added a website to make it easy for you to send comments; it is also the
place we will post any errata between editions. Your comments count.

Steve Doty
EMHandbook.com
[email protected]

Gosh, the Energy Management Handbook is maturing to the 8th edition having been
in print since 1982 or thirty plus years. It is my child who has grown up and moved on to
Steve Doty’s home who is now the primary editor. We sincerely appreciate your support
over the years and hope that you continue to be pleased with the book.
Once again, Steve has made some great changes and updates to the book and he is
already working on the 9th edition. If you have ideas for changes, or find errors we can
correct, let us know.
I sit here at my desk nostalgic about you, the readers, the book itself, and how our
profession has and is changing. We live in a marvelous era. It is time for me to go fishing.

Tight Lines

Wayne Turner
[email protected]

xiii
 Chapter 1
Introduction

STEVE DOTY • Energy Tax Act (Pub.L. 95-618)

Colorado Springs Utilities • National Energy Conservation Policy Act (NECPA)
Colorado Springs, CO (Pub.L. 95-619)
• Power Plant and Industrial Fuel Use Act (Pub.L.
DR. BARNEY L. CAPEHART, Professor Emeritus 95-620)
University of Florida • Natural Gas Policy Act (Pub.L. 95-621).
Gainesville, FL
In 1978, amidst natural gas supply shortages, Con-
STEVEN A. PARKER gress enacted the Natural Gas Policy Act (NGPA), as
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory part of the National Energy Act (NEA). It had become
Richland, WA apparent that price controls put in place to protect con-
sumers from monopoly pricing had begun to hurt con-
DR. WAYNE C. TURNER, Regents Professor Emeritus sumers by creating natural gas shortages. The NGPA
Oklahoma State University had three central goals:
Stillwater, OK • Create a single U.S. market for natural gas
• Match natural gas supply and demand
• Allow market pressure to establish the wellhead
1.1 BACKGROUND price of natural gas.(15)

Mr. Al Thumann, executive director of the Associa- The NGPA granted the Federal Energy Regula-
tion of Energy Engineers, said it well in an earlier edi- tory Commission (FERC) authority over intrastate, as
tion foreword of this book: “The energy ‘roller coaster’ well as interstate, natural gas production. FERC, as the
never ceases with new turns and spirals which make for successor to the Federal Power Commission (FPC), was
a challenging ride.” Those professionals who boarded granted jurisdictional authority over virtually all natural
the ride in the late 70s and stayed on board have expe- gas production, both interstate and intrastate.(16) An in-
rienced several ups and downs. First, being an energy formative history of natural gas regulation has been pre-
manager was like being a mother, John Wayne, and a pared by the Natural Gas Supply Association.(15)
slice of apple pie all in one. Everyone supported the All the legislation we think of since then (EPAct
concept, and success was around every bend. Then the 1992, EPAct 2005, and EISA 2007) is really addenda/mod-
mid-80s plunge in energy prices caused some to wonder, ifications to this original legislation, and each had a focus
“Do we really need to continue energy management?” related to the needs of the period. Energy-related man-
Sometime in the 80s, the decision was made that energy dates for federal facilities are found in many of the energy
management is good business, but it needs to be run by policy acts. In terms of the number of pages, the federal
professionals. The Certified Energy Manager (CEM) pro- facility mandates are a small portion of the total, but the
gram of the Association of Energy Engineers was created concept of leading by example has been consistent; the
in 1981 and began a very steep growth curve. AEE con- Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), charted in
tinues to grow in membership and stature. 1973, is still alive and well. Another common theme is the
Throughout the years, federal regulation has endorsement of the energy savings performance contract-
played an important role in the energy industry. Chapter ing delivery method, where a third party provides imple-
20 is devoted to this subject, and a few of the significant mentation services in exchange for payment via energy
regulatory actions are shown in Table 1-1. While energy savings (See Chapter 25). In addition to these regulations,
policy legislation dates back to the industrial revolution, many presidents have signed executive orders that fur-
things as we know them probably started with the Na- thered energy management as good government business
tional Energy Act (NEA) of 1978, which was a legislative practices; however, in reality, only the current ones are rel-
response by the U.S. Congress to the 1973 energy crisis. evant. Other federal government activities provide valu-
It includes the following statutes: able support to the private sector for energy conservation.
• Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) A few of examples show how these efforts are enablers to
(Pub.L. 95-617) the energy management industry:

1
2 Energy Management Handbook

• The Department of Energy (DOE) is the mother ship provides a wall plaque with the Energy Star logo to
for the energy interests of the country. As such, it is building owners who demonstrate a commitment to
concerned with all aspects of energy, from sources raising the bar of energy conservation.
to consumption habits, forecasts, and politics. The
scope is vast, and so various departments within it • The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable En-
have been created with their respective focus. ergy (EERE) is under DOE and has two main focuses,
which the title suggests. The energy efficiency (EE)
• The Energy Information Administration (EIA), part of section issues case studies to illustrate that energy
DOE, provides a wealth of statistical data, including savings can be a sound investment. This section also
typical energy use intensity (kBtu/SF-yr) figures for produces an array of technology tip sheets to serve
business segments—an easy litmus test for determin- as tools and counsel to industry practitioners. The
ing where energy saving potential exists (your use renewable energy (RE) section evaluates emerging
compared to national average). technologies and funds projects involving promising
• Energy Star® is operated under EPA and DOE with ones to accelerate their adoption.
private partners. Their appliance branding program
has helped make energy usage part of the consumer • None of these efforts comes without a price tag, but
buying decision process, a market transformation. have been identified collectively as a national interest.
Also, their Portfolio Manager building rating system Energy goes way beyond the monthly utility bill.

Table 1-1. Some Key Federal Regulations Related to the Energy Industry
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Time
Regulation Period Action Taken
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Natural Gas 1978 — Granted the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) authority over intrastate, as well as interstate,
Policy Act natural gas production.
NGPA — Set wellhead price ceilings by category.
— Established rules for allocating the costs of certain high-cost gas to industrial customers served by interstate
pipeline companies.
— Provided authority to allocate gas to high priority users in times of gas supply emergency.
— Put limits on curtailments of sales to high priority agricultural and industrial feedstock sectors.
(A key date in the NGPA was January 1, 1985, when price ceilings on most new gas were removed.)
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
National Energy 1978 — Provided for the regulation of interstate commerce, to reduce the growth in demand for energy in the
Conservation United States, and to conserve nonrenewable energy resources produced in this nation and elsewhere, without
Policy Act inhibiting beneficial economic growth.
NECPA — Prompted residential energy conservation.
— Promoted energy conservation programs for schools, hospitals, buildings owned by units of local governments,
and public care institutions.
— Improved energy efficiency of certain products and processes.
— Provided federal energy initiatives and additional energy-related measures.
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Energy Policy Act 1992 — Allowed states to choose de-regulation of electricity purchasing and wheeling through the grid.
EPAct-1992 — Created aggressive efficiency goals for federal facilities.
— Created higher motor and appliance efficiency standards.
— Allowed federal facilities to utilize the energy services performance contracting (ESPC) project delivery meth-
od.
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Energy Policy Act 2005 — Provided tax incentives for efficiency and renewable measures, as well we for investments in electric transmis-
EPAct-2005 sion grid systems.
— Created clean coal technology funding.
— Required new federal facilities to achieve 30% better efficiency than required by ASHRAE 90.1 (better than energy
code levels).
— Established renewable energy use amounts.
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Energy 2007 — Provided loans for battery development.
Independence — Increased emphasis on bio fuels.
and Security Act — Created measures intended to phase out the use of incandescent lighting.
EISA-2007 — Extended life cycle cost periods to 40 years for federal facility projects.
— Provided grants to determine viable options for carbon capture and sequestering.
— Increased efficiency goals for federal buildings, with milestones to transition energy use away from fossil fuels.
———————————————————————————————————————————————————
Introduction 3

Several of the federal regulation actions were put Energy efficiency is good business and growing
in place to allow de-regulation, a fundamental change worldwide. Just a few ways this can be seen:
in how energy is bought and sold. Several states moved • The growing number of international AEE chapters
toward electrical deregulation, with some successes. • Energy efficiency codes, standards, and legislation
But there were side effects. The prospect of electric de- in Europe and Asia.
regulation and sharing grid infrastructure caused utili- • ISO standards for energy efficiency
ties to change their business view of their portion of the • ESCO markets growing internationally
grid. Investment in expanding or upgrading this infra-
structure became risky business for individual utilities, Professional Associations That Have Reacted to Energy
and so many chose a wait-and-see approach. One (now EDITOR’S NOTE: The following lists are intended to
famous) energy trading company manipulated pricing show the numerous organizations that are involved in the field
in the new deregulated electric business environment, of energy. Try as we may, the list will never be complete, and
and this event gave many states and consumers pause. so our apologies go out to any organizations not mentioned.
To regain the confidence of the consumers, a greater de- Some of these are industry trade groups, while others are pro-
gree of oversight of business practices and the sharing fessional societies that offer energy professionals membership
of vital U.S. grid infrastructure may be necessary. Other and participation opportunities.
concerns that exist with the U.S. electrical grid infra-
structure system include susceptibility to failure and Most primary engineering associations now have
terrorism. Even with the bumps as electricity deregu- an energy sub-organization or have integrated energy
lation was first tried, some states are now deregulated, into their missions. Examples are:
and wider-scale electric deregulation remains an excit- • The Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)
ing concept. • The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
As private sector businesses and the federal gov- • The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ernment expand their needs for energy management (ASME)
programs, opportunities are created for ESCOs (energy • The Association of Heating Refrigeration and Air
service companies), shared savings providers, perfor- Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
mance contractors, and other similar organizations. • The Illumination Engineers Society of North Amer-
These groups are providing the auditing, energy/eco- ica (IESNA)
nomic analyses, capital, and monitoring to help other • The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
organizations reduce their energy consumption, thus (IEEE)
reducing their expenditures for energy services. By Product and trade groups that include a focus on
guaranteeing and sharing the savings from improved energy include:
energy efficiency and improved productivity, both • National Electrical Manufacturers Association
groups benefit and prosper. (NEMA)
• Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Insti-
Market transformation is a component of the en- tute (AHRI, formed when ARI and GAMA merged)
ergy management industry. New technologies with • American Gas Association (AGA)
good promise are often expensive initially due to em- • Edison Electric Institute (EEI)
bedded R&D costs and initial limited sales volumes. • Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
Federal and State buildings and vehicle fleets are used • North American Insulation Manufacturers Associa-
as examples of the technology moving from the paper tion (NAIMA)
phase to reality. Various subsidizing mechanisms are
used to help accelerate the transition to the new tech- Associations related to energy policy, energy sup-
nology, including tax incentives, research grants, state ply, energy conservation, renewable energy, energy fi-
and federal incentives, and rebates. The costs of these nancing, include:
incentives are weighed against the benefit of the prod- • American Wind Energy Association (AWEA)
ucts achieving mainstream status sooner than they • International District Energy Association (IDEA)
would standard market forces. An example close to • American Solar Energy Society (ASES)
home is a private utility operating under the State Pub- • Association of Energy Service Professionals (AESP)
lic Utilities Commission (PUC), where requirements for • Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium (GHPC)
rebates are given as well as permission to collect money • International Ground Source Heat Pump Associa-
from ratepayers to fund them. tion (IGSHPA)
4 Energy Management Handbook

• National Association of State Energy Officials Note: to help spur this change along, Federal agencies
(NASEO) have requirements for leasing private building space
• World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE) that include energy use that is shown to meet Energy
• US Combined Heat and Power Association (USCH- Star levels.
PA)
• Alliance to Save Energy (ASE) Throughout it all, energy managers have proven
• American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy time and time again that energy management is cost ef-
(ACEEE) fective. Furthermore, energy management is vital to our
• Council of American Building Officials (CABO) national security, environmental welfare, and economic
• Building Owners and Managers Association productivity. This will be discussed in the next section.
(BOMA)
• Biomass Energy Research Association (BERA)
• Green Building Council (USGBC) 1.2 THE VALUE OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Quantifying costs and savings is often the missing Business, industry and government organizations
piece between groups that want to see improvements are under tremendous economic and environmental
and groups that need the numbers to make good finan- pressures. Being economically competitive in the global
cial choices; energy professionals provide this essential marketplace and meeting increasing environmental stan-
service every day. Understanding the customer’s busi- dards to reduce air and water pollution have been the
ness is also needed, especially when faced with business major driving factors in most of the recent operational
segments that inherently resist energy improvement pro- cost and capital cost investment decisions for all organi-
posals. The customer always chooses, but sometimes a zations. Energy management has been an important tool
fresh perspective can help. See Table 1-2. to help organizations meet these critical objectives for

Table 1-2. Example Use of Creativity to Unlock Energy Savings Potential (14)
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Obstacle Suggestions
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Leased building spaces Tenants have little interest Identify the portion of the cost and
in making capital improvements to the portion of the savings that will
building systems since it is not occur during the period of the lease,
their building; landlords have allowing the tenant investment to
little incentive to make efficiency prove itself within the period of the
improvements as long as they are lease
able to pass the utility costs along
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Normal replacement Using entire cost of project If old, most or all of the value of the
overwhelms energy savings, equipment has been used up, and
producing very long paybacks new equipment is need soon anyway.
Evaluate energy savings against the
remaining value of the asset (early re-
placement), plus any upgrade costs to
use more efficient equipment
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Buying and selling Short business horizon causes no Value of the building is improved
of buildings interest in energy improvements when the cost of operation is reduced
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Cost allocation Facilities that do not see the cost Allocate costs and accountability to
of their utility use tend to not individual buildings and
care about improvements departments
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Productivity Energy is the fuel for Expressing savings in terms of
manufacturing productivity, so productivity gains (more product
using less ‘sounds like’ doing less output for the same facility)
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Introduction 5

of how to proceed will remain with the customer;

√ Low cost activities first year or two: 5 to 15% however advice from a qualified energy manager
will provide the necessary input for key business
√ Moderate cost, significant effort, three to five decisions; thus the Certified Energy Manager be-
years: 15 to 30% comes a valuable business ally.
For facilities focusing on sustainability, the en-
√ Long-term potential, higher cost, more engi-
ergy manager can serve by linking improvements
neering: 30 to 50%
to current practice and facilities with associated
Figure 1-1. Typical Savings through Energy Management carbon or other emission reductions, providing a
path and options for the customer to achieve their
goal. Carbon inventory, ranking of options, and
their short-term survival and long-term success. other practical measures are brought to the cus-
The problems that organizations face from both tomer by the energy manager as ideas are matched
their individual and national perspectives include: with solutions.

• Meeting more stringent environmental qual- • Becoming—or continuing to be—economically

ity standards, primarily related to reducing global competitive in the global marketplace, which re-
warming and reducing acid rain. quires reducing the cost of production or servic-
Energy management helps improve environ- es, reducing industrial energy intensiveness, and
mental quality. Reduced energy consumption di- meeting customer service needs for quality and de-
rectly reduces upstream power plant emissions. livery times.
For example, the primary culprit in global warm- Significant energy and dollar savings are avail-
ing is carbon dioxide, CO2. The chemistry is not able through energy management. Most facilities
hard, but the math is even easier: With the na- (manufacturing plants, schools, hospitals, office
tion’s current mix of power sources, most of our buildings, etc.) can save according to the profile
electricity comes from fossil fuel and is generated shown in Figure 1-1. Even more savings have been
by equipment that is roughly 35% efficient. Each accomplished by some programs. Part of gaining
pound of coal, natural gas, or fuel oil burned cre- support for energy projects is the accountability for
ates a predictable amount of carbon dioxide, with achieving project success. “You can’t manage what you
coal producing the highest amount of the three. can’t measure” is a mantra that forms an essential in-
Thus, energy conservation can be equated directly gredient in any energy management program.
to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The same is
true for other pollutants related to fuel combustion, Thus, large savings can be accomplished often,
and energy management efforts are an effective with high returns on investments and rapid paybacks.
method of reducing SOx, NOx, CO2, mercury, and Energy management can make the difference between
particulates. profit and loss and can establish real competitive en-
Other environmental benefits of the energy hancements for most companies.
management industry are easy to find: Less energy Energy management helps companies improve
consumption means less petroleum field develop- their productivity and increase their product or service
ment and subsequent on-site pollution. quality. This is done through implementing new energy
Less energy consumption means less thermal efficiency technologies; new materials and new manu-
pollution and emissions at power plants and less facturing processes; and the use of new technologies in
cooling water discharge. Less energy consumption equipment and materials for business and industry. En-
extends the capacity of energy distribution infra- ergy cost savings have an amplified effect on the com-
structure and prolongs the life span of fossil fuel pany bottom line profits, and this is more pronounced
resources. The list could go on, but the bottom line the larger the fraction of total business expense that
is that energy manage­ment helps improve environ- comes from energy use and the lower the profit mar-
mental quality. With increased emphasis on envi- gin. See Figure 1-2. Note that a facility with energy cost
ronmental impact, the energy manager serves a vi- at 8% of total operating cost and operating on a 5% net
tal role in quantifying both the dollar benefit and profit margin will experience a profit increase from 5%
the emissions reduction for projects, as well as re- to 6.7% with a 20% reduction in energy use—a 34% profit
lating them to cost of implementation. The choices increase.
6 Energy Management Handbook

———————————————————————————————————————————————
20% Energy Savings
Table shows revised profit value
———————————————————————————————————————————————
Original Energy Cost % of Total Operating Cost
Profit
Margin 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
1% 1.2% 1.4% 1.6% 1.8% 2.0% 2.2% 2.4% 2.6% 2.9% 3.1%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
2% 2.2% 2.4% 2.6% 2.8% 3.0% 32% 3.4% 3.7% 3.9% 4.1%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
3% 3.2% 3.4% 3.6% 3.8% 4.0% 4.3% 4.5% 4.7% 4.9% 5.1%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
5% 5.2% 5.4% 5.6% 5.8% 6.1% 6.3% 6.5% 6.7% 6.9% 7.1%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
10% 10.2% 10.4% 10.7% 10.9% 11.1% 11.3% 11.6% 11.8% 12.0% 12.2%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
20% 20.2% 20.5% 20.7% 21.0% 21.2% 21.5% 21.7% 22.0% 22.2% 22.4%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
30% 30.3% 30.5% 30.8% 31.0% 31.3% 31.6% 31.8% 32.1% 32.4% 32.7%
———————————————————————————————————————————————
Figure 1-2. Energy Savings Effect on Profit (14)

Seeing the Big Picture controllable cost rather than an overhead cost. Tracking
Well-trained energy professionals bring added energy cost as a component of a manufactured item al-
value to customers when they can see the bigger pic- lows the energy cost to be compared directly to other
ture. Consider a commercial building ripe for a lighting ingredients; once in this light, management approaches
replacement. The quick answer may be to replace light- will focus differently upon energy. In buildings, the in-
ing one-for-one, and this will in fact produce predict- door climate conditions can be equated to energy cost,
able savings. However, it may pay to pause and do a and the management approach changes. Once energy
little homework. If, for example, the project building was is believed to be a controllable expense, awareness will
designed in an era where twice the lighting per-SF was be raised, and there will be new incentives to find im-
popular, re-designing the lighting to current illumination provements. Thus, the energy manager has a role in
standards and lighting power budgets may produce sav- customer education as well as the sciences.
ings well beyond the efficiency differential of the light- While we may be tempted, ours is not to save
ing hardware, amplifying the savings. Likewise, retrofit- the world as energy managers. While employed by a
ting water use fixtures, like shower heads, may produce customer, their focus becomes our focus—and usually
more savings alone than a high efficiency water heater— that focus is profit or productivity. Energy consump-
of course both collectively are best. Evaluating a series of tion is merely one more tool that allows a business
manufacturing processes for opportunities to inherently to function and thrive. Usually the expectation is to
use less energy would be the logical first step before fo- achieve energy savings transparently to existing pro-
cusing on equipment. The golden rule for energy conser- cesses or comfort, and one criterion for a customer se-
vation measures is to begin by using less. lecting an energy professional for a task will be suffi-
Energy conservation is effective at offsetting the cient skill and experience to avoid creating new prob-
need for increased generation capacity, including renew- lems in the process. Thus the successful energy man-
able energy use. It is almost always true that it is more ager will necessarily become a jack of many trades
cost effective to reduce the load through conservation and will be wise to work in teams and connect with
measures than to increase the size of the generator, PV other professionals. While we may find it interesting
panel, etc. The term “negawatts” was coined and intro- and rewarding that energy savings measures simulta-
duced by Amory Lovins, in a 1989 speech, and is effec- neously reduce emissions and prolong non-renewable
tive at describing the symbiotic effects of energy conser- energy supplies, the reality for most customers is that
vation. energy conservation makes business sense when it
A useful principle (and paradigm shift for many brings results to the business bottom line. This careful
customers) is to control energy functions as a direct balancing act of priorities is an ongoing challenge to
Introduction 7

the energy manager, and finding the business case for — Need to minimize the effects of a potential lim-
energy projects is a special skill all its own. ited energy supply interruption
Often, the energy savings is not the main driving
factor when companies decide to purchase new equip- None of these concerns can be satisfactorily met
ment, use new processes, or use new high-tech materi- without having an energy efficient economy. Energy
als. However, the combination of increased productivity, management plays a key role in helping move toward
increased quality, reduced environmental emissions, and this.
reduced energy costs provides a powerful incentive for
companies and organizations to implement these new
technologies. 1.3 THE ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROFESSION
Total quality management (TQM) is another empha-
sis that many businesses and other organizations have Energy management skills are important to peo-
developed. TQM is an integrated approach to operating a ple in many organizations, and certainly to people
facility, and energy cost control should be included in the who perform duties such as energy auditing, facility or
overall TQM program. TQM is based on the principle that building management, energy and economic analysis,
front-line employees should have the authority to make and maintenance. The number of companies employ-
changes and other decisions at the lowest operating levels ing professionally trained energy managers is large and
of a facility. If employees have energy management train- growing. A partial list of job titles is given in Figure
ing, they can make informed decisions and recommenda- 1-3. Even though this is only a partial list, the breadth
tions about energy operating costs. shows the robustness of the profession.
For some of these people, energy management
• Maintaining energy supplies that are: will be their primary duty, and they will need to ac-
— Available without significant interruption, and quire in-depth skills in energy analysis, as well as
— Available at costs that do not fluctuate too rap- knowledge about existing and new energy using equip-
idly. ment and technologies. For others, such as maintenance
managers, energy management skills are simply one
Energy management helps reduce the U.S. depen- more area to cover in an already full plate of duties and
dence upon imported oil. During the 1979 oil price crisis, expectations. The authors are writing this Energy Man-
the U.S. was importing almost 50% of our total oil con- agement Handbook for both of these groups of readers
sumption. By 1995, the U.S. was again importing 50% of and users.
our consumption. In 2007 about 58% of the petroleum In the 1980s, few university faculty members
consumed in the U.S. was imported from foreign coun- would have stated their primary interest was energy
tries(16). Sharp increases in crude oil demand from devel- management, yet today there are numerous faculty
oping countries has pushed crude oil prices to all time who prominently list energy management as their
highs. Thus, the U.S. is once again vulnerable to an oil principal specialty. In 2006, there were 26 universities
embargo or other disruption of supply. The trade balance throughout the country listed by DOE as industrial
would be much more favorable if we imported less oil. assessment centers (IAC).(17) Other universities offer
coursework and/or do research in energy management
• Helping solve other national concerns which in­ but do not have one of the above centers. Finally, sev-
clude: eral professional journals and magazines now publish
— Need to create new jobs exclusively for energy managers.
— Need to improve the trade balance by reducing Utility company demand-side management
costs of imported energy (DSM) programs have had their ups and downs. DSM

• Plant Energy Manager • Building/Facility Energy Manager

• Utility Energy Auditor • Utility Energy Analyst
• State Agency Energy Analyst • Federal Energy Analyst
• Consulting Energy Manager • Consulting Energy Engineer
• DSM Auditor/Manager

Figure 1-3. Typical Energy Management Job Titles

8 Energy Management Handbook

Table 1-3. Industrial Energy Functions by Expenditure and 1.4 SOME SUGGESTED PRINCIPLES
Btu, 1978 OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Source: Technical Appendix, The Least-Cost Energy Strategy, Carn-
egie-Mellon University Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979, Tables 1.2.1
and 11.3.2. EDITOR’S NOTE: The material in this section is repeated
from the first editions of this handbook published in 1982. Mr.
Dollar Roger Sant, who was then director of the Energy Productiv-
Expenditure Percent of Percent of ity Center of the Carnegie-Mellon Institute of Research in
Function (billions) Expenditure Total Btu Arlington, VA, wrote this section for the first edition. It was
—————————————————————————
Machine drive 19 35 12 unchanged for the second edition. Some of the numbers quot-
Feedstocks 16 29 35 ed may now be a little old, but the principles are still sound.
Process steam 7 13 23 Amazing, but what was right then for energy management is
Direct heat 4 7 13
still right today! The game has changed, the playing field has
Indirect heat 4 7 13
Electrolytic 4 7 3 moved; but the principles stay the same.
Space conditioning
and lighting 1 1 1 As with all general principles, there are clarifications.
Total 55 100 100 Here are a few:
—————————————————————————

efforts peaked in the late 80s and early 90s, then re- (Principle #1): Dollars are the bottom line for businesses,
trenched significantly as utility deregulation and the which is as it should be; fuel switching alternatives are a
movement to retail wheeling caused utilities to re- prime example of this. However, some energy management
duce staff and cut costs—including DSM programs— tasks are better done with Btus. Some examples:
as much as possible. This short-term cost cutting was • Building efficiency metrics and certifications are usually
seen by many utilities as their only way to become a in units of kBtu/SF-yr; as are industry benchmarks
competitive low-cost supplier of electric power and • Energy calculations may be viable for several years after
thereby hold onto their large customers. Not all util- an audit, but costs change each time the utility changes
ity programs are in a state of reduction. Utilities facing rates
growth and high costs of additional generating capac- • Some buildings use electric resistance heating. Compar-
ity may create incentives that curb peak demand and ing such a building to one that uses gas heating might
prolong the expense of the next plant. For those, once show the Btus per SF to be ‘normal,’ while comparing dol-
the next plant is finally built, incentives to continue lars per SF might suggest something is terribly wrong.
curbing the use may disappear in a familiar cycle. With
national awareness focused on global warming, utility One of the most desirable and least reliable skills for an energy
emissions are a certain first target; if emissions become manager is to predict the future cost of energy. To the extent
taxed or traded, a new business case will appear for en- that energy costs escalate in price beyond the rate of general
ergy conservation programs since the two are closely inflation, investment paybacks will be shortened, but of course
related. the reverse is also true. Figure 1-4 shows the pattern of en-
When there is a reduction in electric utility incen- ergy prices over time. Even the popular conception that energy
tive and rebate programs—and associated customer prices always go up is shown to be false when normalized to
support—the gap in energy service assistance is met by constant dollars. This volatility in energy pricing may account
equipment supply companies and energy service con- for some business decisions that appear overly conservative in
sulting firms that are willing and able to provide the establishing rate of return or payback period hurdles.
necessary technical and financial assistance. Energy
management skills are extremely important to those (Principle #3): Capturing the 80% meter is a good strategy
companies that are in the business of identifying en- when aiming directly at savings and tracking the results. Ob-
ergy savings and providing a guarantee of the savings viously, when comparing to a benchmark value expressed in
results. kBtu/SF-yr, the comparison is only valid when all energy and
Thus, the future for energy management is ex- all SF are incorporated. This can be especially challenging in
tremely promising. It is cost effective, it improves envi- campus properties with multiple buildings and a history of
ronmental quality, it helps reduce the trade deficit, and add-ons; the power from one building may serve two others
it helps reduce dependence on foreign fuel supplies. and the steam supply may serve other, different buildings. The
Energy management will continue to grow in size and energy use per SF metric is also important for any facility that
importance. reports carbon emissions.
Introduction 9

designed energy management programs produce few

results. In addition, we would like to suggest four basic
principles which, if adopted, may expand the effective-
ness of existing energy management programs or pro-
vide the starting point of new efforts.

The first principle is to control the costs of the en-

ergy function or service provided, but not the Btu of energy.
As most operating people have noticed, energy is just
a means of providing some service or benefit. With the
possible exception of feedstocks for petrochemical pro-
duction, energy is not consumed directly. It is always
converted into some useful function. The existing data
are not as complete as one would like, but they do in-
dicate some surprises. In 1978, for instance, the aggre-
gate industrial expenditure for energy was $55 billion.
Of that, 35% was spent for machine drive from electric
motors, 29% for feedstocks, 27% for process heat, 7%
for electrolytic functions, and 2% for space condition-
ing and light. As shown in Table 1-3, this is in blunt
Figure 1-4. Historical Energy Cost
contrast to measuring these functions in Btu. Machine
drive, for example, instead of 35% of the dollars, re-
Source: Annual Energy Review 2010, Table 3.3 Consumer Price Esti-
mates for Energy by Source, 1970-2009, EIA, October 2011. Values ad- quired only 12% of the Btu.
justed to constant 2009 dollars, using U.S. BLS CPI figures. In most organizations it will pay to be even more
specific about the function provided. For instance,
evaporation, distillation, drying, and reheating are
(Principle #4): It is very common and natural for habits to be all typical of the uses to which process heat is put. In
lax without accountability. “If it’s free, I don’t care” may be some cases it has also been useful to break down the
blunt, but underscores the point. So the concept of ‘controls’ heat in terms of temperature so the opportunities for
in this principle include accountability so that energy use and matching the heat source to the work requirement can
cost are on the operating radar screen. This gives rise to things be utilized.
such as: In addition to energy costs, it is useful to measure
• Being sure the utility usage and bills are shared with the depreciation, maintenance, labor, and other operat-
operations staff ing costs involved in providing the conversion equip-
ment necessary to deliver required services. These costs
• Tracking energy use and cost in each building of a fleet add as much as 50% to the fuel cost.
• Sub metering of tenant usage It is the total cost of these functions that must be
managed and controlled, not the Btu of energy. The
• Sub metering of discrete functions on a property, such as large difference in cost of the various Btu of energy can
the main boiler house, kitchen, laundry, or data center make the commonly used Btu measure extremely mis-
leading. In November 1979, the cost of 1 Btu of electric-
If energy productivity is an important opportu- ity was nine times that of 1 Btu of steam coal.
nity for the nation as a whole, it is a necessity for the Availabilities also differ, and the cost of maintain­
individual company. It represents a real chance for cre- ing fuel flexibility can affect the cost of the product.
ative management to reduce the component of product And as shown before, the average annual price increase
cost that has risen the most since 1973. of natural gas has been almost three times that of elec-
Those who have taken advantage of these op- tricity. Therefore, an energy management system that
portunities have done so because of the clear intent controls Btu per unit of product may completely miss
and commitment of the top executive. Once that com- the effect of the changing economics and availabilities
mitment is understood, managers at all levels of the of energy alternatives and the major differences in us-
organization can and do respond seriously to the op- ability of each fuel. Controlling the total cost of energy
portunities at hand. Without that leadership, the best functions is much more closely attuned to one of the
10 Energy Management Handbook

principal interests of the executives of an organiza- remaining items in a general category. Many manufac-
tion—controlling costs. turing plants in the United States have only one meter,
that leading from the gas main or electric main into the
The second principle of energy management is to plant from the outside source. Regardless of the reason­
control energy functions as a product cost, not as a part of ableness of the standard cost established, the inability
manufacturing or general overhead. It is surprising how to measure actual consumption against that standard
many companies still lump all energy costs into one gen- will render such a system useless. Sub metering the
eral or manufacturing overhead account without iden- main functions can provide the information not only
tifying those products with the highest energy function to mea­sure but to control costs in a short time interval.
cost. In most cases, energy functions must become part The cost of metering and sub metering is usually inci-
of the standard cost system so that each function can be dental to the potential for realizing significant cost im-
assessed as to its specific impact on the product cost. provements in the main energy functions of a produc-
The minimum theoretical energy expenditure to tion system.
produce a given product can usually be determined
en route to establishing a standard energy cost for that The fourth principle is to put the major effort of an
product. The seconds of 25-hp motor drive, the minutes energy management program into installing controls and
necessary in a 2200°F furnace to heat a steel part for fab- achieving results. It is common to find general knowl-
rication, or the minutes of 5-V electricity needed to make edge about how large amounts of energy could be
an electrolytic separation, for example, can be deter- saved in a plant. The missing ingredient is the disci-
mined as theoretical minimums and compared with the pline necessary to achieve these potential savings. Each
actual figures. As in all production cost functions, the step in saving energy needs to be monitored frequently
minimum standard is often difficult to meet, but it can enough by the manager or first-line supervisor to see
serve as an indicator of the size of the opportunity. noticeable changes. Logging of important fuel usage or
In comparing actual values with minimum values, behavioral observations are almost always necessary
four possible approaches can be taken to reduce the vari- before any particular savings results can be realized.
ance, usually in this order: Therefore, it is critical that an energy director or com-
1. An hourly or daily control system can be installed mittee have the authority from the chief executive to in-
to keep the function cost at the desired level. stall controls, not just advise line management. Those
2. Fuel requirements can be switched to a cheaper energy managers who have achieved the largest cost re-
and more available form. ductions actually install systems and controls; they do
3. A change can be made in the process methodology not just provide good advice.
to reduce the need for the function. As suggested earlier, the overall potential for in-
4. New equipment can be installed to reduce the cost creasing energy productivity and reducing the cost of
of the function. en­ergy services is substantial. The 20% or so improve-
ment in industrial energy productivity since 1972 is just
The starting point for reducing costs should be in the beginning. To quote the energy director of a large
achieving the minimum cost possible with the present chemical company: “Long-term results will be much
equipment and processes. Installing management con- greater.”
trol systems can indicate what the lowest possible ener- Although no one knows exactly how much we
gy use is in a well-controlled situation. It is only at that can improve productivity in practice, the American
point that a change in process or equipment configura- Physical Society indicated in their 1974 energy conser-
tion should be considered. An equipment change prior vation study that it is theoretically possible to achieve
to actually minimizing the expenditure under the pres- an eightfold improvement of the 1972 energy/produc-
ent system may lead to oversizing new equipment or re- tion ratio.9 Most certainly, we are a long way from an
placing equipment for unnecessary functions. economic saturation of the opportunities (see, e.g., Ref.
10). The common argument that not much can be done
The third principle is to control and meter only the after a 15 or 20% improvement has been realized ought
main energy functions—the roughly 20% that make up to be dismissed as baseless. Energy productivity pro-
80% of the costs. As Peter Drucker pointed out some vides an expanding opportunity, not a last resort. The
time ago, a few functions usually account for a majority chapters in this book provide the information that is
of the costs. It is important to focus controls on those necessary to make the most of that opportunity in each
that represent the meaningful costs and aggregate the organization.
Introduction 11

Energy Technology and Current Events (Editor’s Note) References

Books are a snapshot in time. Some energy-relat- 1. Statistical Abstract of the United States, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1999.
ed topics are well established, while others see rapid 2. Energy User News, Jan. 14, 1980.
change. Of the latest technology, some will become ac- 3. JOHN G. WINGER et al., Outlook for Energy in the United States
cepted and mainstream and others will not. This pres- to 1985, The Chase Manhattan Bank, New York, 1972, p 52.
4. DONELLA H. MEADOWS et al., The Limits to Growth,
ents a dilemma: to explain and promote all emerging Universe Books, New York, 1972, pp. 153-154.
technology and news, knowing some of it will fade, or to 5. JIMMY E. CARTER, July 15, 1979, “Address to the Nation,”
limit discussion to only proven and widely accepted in- Washington Post, July 16, 1979, p. A14.
6. Monthly Energy Review, Jan. 1980, U.S. Department of Energy,
formation with a track record. Many new developments
Washington, D.C., p. 16.
will make a marked change in how we do business and 7. Monthly Energy Review, Jan. 1980, U.S. Department of Energy,
use energy. Others could create chuckles five years down Washington D.C., p. 8; Statistical Abstract of the United States,
the road. Like extrapolation vs. interpolation, history is U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1979,
Table 1409; Energy User News, Jan. 20, 1980, p. 14.
always accurate but predictions are risky. 8. American Association for the Advancement of Science, “U.S.
In general, this text chooses to be conservative and Energy Demand: Some Low Energy Futures,” Science, Apr. 14,
focus on proven principles and solutions, presuming 1978, p. 143.
9. American Physical Society Summer Study on Technical
most customers do not wish to be test sites. That said, Aspects of Efficient Energy Utilization, 1974. Available as W.H.
our authors are experts in their field and pay close atten- CARNAHAN et al., Efficient Use of Energy, a Physics Perspective,
tion to promising technology. Thus, you may find brief from NTIS PB- 242-773, or in Efficient Energy Use, Vol. 25 of the
American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings.
descriptions of emerging technology or industry-shap-
10. R.W. SANT, The Least-Cost Energy Strategy, Carnegie-Mellon
ing news. We feel that small doses of this, in proper con- University Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979
text, are useful in this exciting industry. When current 11. U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). Energy
events and emerging technology are incorporated, we Efficiency in the Federal Government: Government by Good
Example? OTA-E-492, U.S. Government Printing Office,
have made the attempt to place it in a special section and Washington D.C., May 1991.
be brief. 12. U.S. Air Force. DOD Energy Manager’s Handbook Volume 1:
Installation Energy Management. Washington D.C., April
1993.
13. Department of Energy Greening Federal Facilities, Second Ed,
CONCLUSION May 2001, p. vii
14. Commercial Energy Auditing Reference Handbook, Doty, S.,
Fairmont Press, 2011
The energy management industry is integral to the
15. Natural Gas Supply Association http://www.naturalgas.org/
workings of a nations economy and the environment regulation/history.asp
the world shares. For newcomers and seasoned veterans 16. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) www.eia.doe.
alike, it holds exciting opportunities for the professionals gov
17. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Industrial Technology
that pursue it. Through professional advancement and Program, www. eere1.energy.gov
texts like this one, new challenges and developments
will be met effectively.
 Chapter 2

Effective Energy Management

WILLIAM H. MASHBURN, P.E., CEM • Most manufacturing companies are looking for a
competitive edge. A reduction in energy costs to
Professor Emeritus manufacture the product can be immediate and
Mechanical Engineering Department permanent. In addition, products that use en-
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University ergy, such as motor driven machinery, are being
Blacksburg, Virginia evaluated to make them more energy efficient, and
therefore more marketable. Many foreign coun-
tries, where energy is more critical, now want to
2.1 INTRODUCTION know the maximum power required to operate a
piece of equipment.
Some years ago, a newspaper headline stated,
“Lower energy use leaves experts pleased but puzzled.” • Energy technology is changing so rapidly that
The article went on to state, “Although the data are state-of-the-art techniques have a half life of ten
preliminary, experts are baffled that the country appears years at the most. Someone in the organization
to have broken the decades-old link between economic must be in a position to constantly evaluate and
growth and energy consumption.” update this technology.
For those involved in energy management, this • Energy security is a part of energy management.
comes as no surprise. We have seen companies becom- Without a contingency plan for temporary short-
ing more efficient in their use of energy, and that’s ages or outages, and a strategic plan for long range
showing in the data. Those that have extracted all pos- plans, organizations run a risk of major problems
sible savings from downsizing are now looking for other without immediate solutions.
ways to become more competitive. Better management
of energy is a viable way, so there is an upward trend in • Future price shocks will occur. When world energy
the number of companies that are establishing an energy markets swing wildly with only a five percent de-
management program. Management is now beginning crease in supply, as they did in 1979, it is reason-
to realize they are leaving a lot of money on the table able to expect that such occurrences will happen
when they do not instigate a good energy management again.
plan.
With the new technologies and alternative energy Those people then who choose—or in many cases
sources now available, this country could possibly re- are drafted—to manage energy will do well to recognize
duce its energy consumption by 50%—if there were this continuing need and to exert the extra effort to be-
no barriers to the implementation. But of course there come skilled in this emerging and dynamic profession.
are barriers, mostly economic. Therefore, we might The purpose of this chapter is to provide the funda-
conclude that managing energy is not a just technical mentals of an energy management program that can be,
challenge, but one of how to best implement those and have been, adapted to organizations large and small.
technical changes within economic limits, and with a Developing a working organizational structure may be
minimum of disruption. the most important thing an energy manager can do.
Unlike other management fads that have come
and gone, such as value analysis and quality circles, the
need to manage energy will be permanent within our 2.2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
society.
There are several reasons for this: All the components of a comprehensive energy
management program are depicted in Figure 2-1. These
• There is a direct economic return. Many opportuni- components are the organizational structure, a policy, and
ties found in an energy survey have less than a two- plans for audits, education, reporting, and strategy. It is
year payback. Some are immediate, such as load hoped that by understanding the fundamentals of manag-
shifting or going to a new electric rate schedule. ing energy, the energy manager can then adapt a good
13
14 Energy Management Handbook

working program to the existing organizational structure. pany. Every successful program has had this one thing
Each component is discussed in detail below. in common—one person who is a shaker and mover that
makes things happen. The program is then built around
this person.
2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE There is a great tendency for the energy manager
to become an energy engineer and attempt to conduct
The organizational chart for energy management the whole effort alone. Much has been accomplished
shown in Figure 2-1 is generic. It must be adapted to in the past with such individuals working alone, but
fit into an existing structure for each organization. For for the long haul, managing the program by involv-
example, the presidential block may be the general man- ing everyone at the facility is much more productive
ager, and VP blocks may be division managers, but the and permanent. Developing a working organizational
fundamental principles are the same. The main feature structure may be the most important thing an energy
of the chart is the location of the energy manager. This manager can do.
position should be high enough in the organizational The role and qualifications of the energy manager
structure to have access to key players in management, have changed substantially in the past few years, af-
and to have a knowledge of current events within the fected by required certification of federal energy manag-
company. For example, the timing for presenting energy ers, deregulation of the electric utility industry (bringing
projects can be critical. Funding availability and other both opportunity and uncertainty), and performance
management priorities should be known and under- contracting requiring more business skills than engineer-
stood. The organizational level of the energy manager ing. In her book titled Performance Contracting: Expanded
is also indicative of the support management is willing Horizons, Shirley Hansen gives the following require-
to give to the position. ments for an energy management:

2.3.1 Energy Manager • Create and maintain an energy management plan

One very important part of an energy management • Establish energy records
program is to have top management support. More im- • Identify outside assistance
portant, however, is the selection of the energy manager, • Assess future energy needs
who can, among other things, secure this support. The • Identify financing sources
person selected for this position should be one with a • Make energy recommendations
vision of what managing energy can do for the com- • Implement recommendations

ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

President
Policy

VP VP VP Audit Plan

Educational
Energy Manager Plan

Reporting
Coordinator Coordinator Coordinator System

Strategic
Employees Plan

Figure 2-1
Effective Energy Management 15

• Provide liaison for the energy committee cautious about corporate level staff coming in and
• Plan communication strategies taking credit for their work.
• Evaluate program effectiveness
• All divisions don’t progress at the same speed.
Energy management programs can and have origi- Work with those who are most interested first,
nated within one division of a large corporation. The then through the reporting system to top manage-
division, by example and savings, motivates people at ment give them credit. Others will then request
corporate level to pick up on the program and make assistance.
energy management corporate wide. Many programs
also originate at corporate level with people who have 2.3.2 Energy Team
facilities responsibility and have implemented a good The coordinators shown in Figure 2-1 represent
corporate facilities program. They then see the impor- the energy management team within one given orga-
tance and potential of an energy management program nizational structure, such as one company within a
and take a leadership role in implementing one. In every corporation. This group is the core of the program. The
case observed by the author, good programs have been main criteria for membership should be an indication
instigated by one individual who has recognized the of interest. There should be a representative from the
potential, is willing to put forth the effort (in addition administrative group, such as accounting or purchas-
to regular duties), will take the risk of pushing new ing, someone from facilities and/or maintenance, and a
concepts, and is motivated by a seemingly higher call- representative from each major department.
ing to save energy. This energy team of coordinators should be ap-
If initiated at corporate level, there are some ad- pointed for a specific time period, such as one year.
vantages and some precautions. Some advantages are: Rotation can then bring new people with new ideas,
provide a mechanism for tactfully removing non-per-
• More resources are available to implement the
formers, and involve greater numbers of people in the
program, such as budget, staff, and facilities.
program in a meaningful way.
• If top management support is secured at corporate Coordinators should be selected to supplement
level, getting management support at division skills lacking in the energy manager since, as pointed
level is easier. out above, it is unrealistic to think one energy manager
can have all the qualifications outlined. So total skills
• Total personnel expertise throughout the corpora- needed for the team, including the energy manager, may
tion is better known and can be identified and be defined as follows:
made known to division energy managers.
• Have enough technical knowledge within the
• Expensive test equipment can be purchased and
group to either understand the technology used
maintained at corporate level for use by divisions
by the organization or be trainable in that technol-
as needed.
ogy.
• A unified reporting system can be put in place.
• Have a knowledge of potentially new technology
• Creative financing may be the most needed and that may be applicable to the program.
the most important assistance to be provided from
corporate level. • Have planning skills that will help establish the
organizational structure, plan energy surveys, de-
• Impacts of energy and environmental legislation
termine educational needs, and develop a strategic
can best be determined at corporate level.
energy management plan.
• Electrical utility rates and structures, as well as
effects of unbundling of electric utilities, can be • Understand the economic evaluation system used
evaluated at corporate level. by the organization, particularly payback and life
cycle cost analysis.
Some precautions are:
• Have good communication and motivational
• Many people at division level may have already skills since energy management involves everyone
done a good job of saving energy and may be within the organization.
16 Energy Management Handbook

The strengths of each team member should be may be sources of releasing motivation,
evaluated in light of the above desired skills, and their A study done by Heresy and Blanchard [1] in 1977
assignments should be made accordingly. asked workers to rank job related factors listed below.
The results were as follows:

2.3.3 Employees
1. Full appreciation for work done
Employees are shown as a part of the organiza-
2. Feeling “in” on things
tional structure, and are perhaps the greatest untapped
3. Understanding of personal problems
resource in an energy management program. A struc-
4. Job security
tured method of soliciting their ideas for more efficient
5. Good wages
use of energy will likely prove to be the most produc-
6. Interesting work
tive effort of the energy management program. A good
7. Promoting and growth in the company
energy manager will devote 20% of total time working
8. Management loyalty to workers
with employees. Too many times employee involvement
9. Good working conditions
is limited to posters that say “Save Energy.”
10. Tactful discipline of workers
Employees in manufacturing plants generally
know more about the equipment than anyone else in
This priority list would no doubt change with time
the facility, because they operate it. They know how
and with individual companies, but the rankings of what
to make it run more efficiently, but because there is no
supervisors thought employees wanted were almost dia-
mechanism in place for them to have input, their ideas
metrically opposed. They ranked good wages as first.
go unsolicited.
It becomes obvious from this that job enrichment
An understanding of the psychology of motivation
is a key to motivation. Knowing this, the energy man-
is necessary before an employee involvement program
ager can plan a program involving employees that can
can be successfully conducted. Motivation may be de-
provide job enrichment by some simple and inexpensive
fined as the amount of physical and mental energy that
recognitions.
a worker is willing to invest in his or her job. Three key
Some things to consider in employee motivation
factors of motivation are listed below:
are as follows:
• Motivation is already within people. The task of • There appears to be a positive relationship between
the supervisor is not to provide motivation, but to fear arousal and persuasion, if the fear appeals
know how to release it. deal with topics primarily of significance to the
individual; e.g., personal well being.
• The amount of energy and enthusiasm people are
willing to invest in their work varies with the in- • The success of persuasive communication is direct-
dividual. Not all are over-achievers, but not all are ly related to the credibility of the source of commu-
lazy either. nication, and it may be reduced if recommended
changes deviate too far from existing beliefs and
• The amount of personal satisfaction to be derived
practices.
determines the amount of energy an employee will
invest in the job. • When directing attention to conservation, display
the reminder at the point of action at the appropri-
Achieving personal satisfaction has been the sub- ate time for action, and specify who is responsible
ject of much research by industrial psychologists, and for taking the action and when it should occur.
some revealing facts have emerged. For example, they Generic posters located in the work area are not
have learned that most actions taken by people are done effective.
to satisfy a physical need, such as the need for food,
or an emotional need, such as the need for acceptance, • Studies have shown that pro-conservation attitudes
recognition, or achievement. and actions will be enhanced through associations
Research has also shown that many efforts to mo- with others with similar attitudes, such as being
tivate employees deal almost exclusively with trying to part of an energy committee.
satisfy physical needs, such as raises, bonuses, or fringe
benefits. These methods are effective only for the short • Positive effects are achieved with financial incen-
term, so we must look beyond these to other needs that tives, if the reward is in proportion to the savings
Effective Energy Management 17

and represents respectable increments of spendable manager, coordinators, and any committees or task
income. groups.

• Consumers place considerable importance on the • Reporting—Without authority from top manage-
potential discomfort in reducing their consumption ment, it is often difficult for the energy manager
of energy. Changing thermostat settings from the to require others within the organization to comply
comfort zone should be the last desperate act for with reporting requirements necessary to properly
an energy manager. manage energy. The policy is the place to estab-
lish this. It also provides a legitimate reason for
• Social recognition and approval is important and
requesting funds for instrumentation to measure
can occur through such things as the award of
energy usage.
medals, designation of employee of the month,
and selection to membership in elite sub-groups.
• Training—If training requirements are established
Note that the dollar cost of such recognitions is
in the policy, it is again easier to include this in
minimal.
budgets. It should include training at all levels
• The potentially most powerful source of social within the organization.
incentives for conservation behavior—but the least
used—is the commitment to others that occurs in Many companies, rather than adopt a compre-
the course of group decisions. hensive policy encompassing all the features described
above, choose to go with a simpler policy statement.
Before entering seriously into a program involving Appendices A and B give two sample energy
employees, be prepared to give a heavy commitment of policies. Appendix A is generic and covers the items
time and resources. In particular, have the resources to discussed above. Appendix B is a policy statement of a
respond quickly to their suggestions. multinational corporation.

2.4 ENERGY POLICY 2.5 PLANNING

A well-written energy policy that has been au- Planning is one of the most important parts of the
thorized by management is as good as the proverbial energy management program, and for most technical
license to steal. It provides the energy manager with people it is the least desirable. It has two major functions
the authority to be involved in business planning, new in the program. First, a good plan can be a shield from
facility location and planning, selection of production disruptions. Second, by scheduling events throughout
equipment, purchase of measuring equipment, energy the year, continuous emphasis can be applied to the
reporting, and training—things that are sometimes dif- energy management program, and this will play a major
ficult to do. role in keeping the program active.
If you already have an energy policy, chances are Almost everyone from top management to the cus-
that it is too long and cumbersome. To be effective, todial level will be happy to give an opinion on what can
the policy should be short—two pages at most. Many be done to save energy. Most suggestions are worthless.
people confuse the policy with a procedures manual. It It is not always wise from a job security standpoint to
should be bare bones but contain the following items as say this to top management. However, if you inform peo-
a minimum: ple—especially top management—that you will evaluate
their suggestion, and then assign a priority to it in your
• Objectives—This can contain the standard mother- plan, not only will you not be disrupted, but you may
hood and flag statements about energy, but most be considered effective because you do have a plan.
important is that the organization will incorporate Many programs were started when the fear of
energy efficiency into facilities and new equip- energy shortages was greater but have since declined
ment, with emphasis on life cycle cost analysis into oblivion. By planning to have events periodically
rather than lowest initial cost. through the year, a continued emphasis will be placed
on energy management. Such events can be training
• Accountability—This should establish the organi- programs, audits, planning sessions, demonstrations,
zational structure and the authority for the energy research projects, lectures, etc.
18 Energy Management Handbook

The secret to a workable plan is to have people • Motors

who are required to implement the plan involved in • Lighting
the planning process. People feel a commitment to mak- • Steam system
ing things work if they have been a part of the design. • Water
This is fundamental to any management planning, but • Controls
more often that not is overlooked. However, in order to • HVAC
prevent the most outspoken members of a committee
from dominating with their ideas and rejecting ideas • Employee suggestions
from less outspoken members, a technique for managing
committees must be used. A favorite of the author is the By defining individual audits in this manner, it
nominal group technique developed at the University is easy to identify the proper team for the audit. Don’t
of Wisconsin in the late 1980’s by Andre Delbecq and neglect to bring in outside people such as electric util-
Andrea Van de Ven [2]. This technique consists of the ity and natural gas representatives to be team members.
following basic steps: Scheduling the audits, then, can contribute to the events
that will keep the program active.
1. Problem definition—The problem is clearly de- With the maturing of performance contracting,
fined to members of the group. energy managers have two choices for the energy audit
process. They may go through the contracting process to
2. Grouping—Divide large groups into smaller select and define the work of a performance contractor,
groups of seven to ten, then have the group elect or they can set up their own team and conduct audits.
a recording secretary. In some cases, such as a corporate energy manager,
performance contracting may be selected for one facility
3. Silent generation of ideas—Each person silently and energy auditing for another. Each has advantages
and independently writes as many answers to the and disadvantages.
problem as can be generated within a specified
time. Advantages of performance contracting are:
4. Round-robin listing—the secretary lists each idea • No investment is required of the company, other
individually on an easel until all have been re- than that involved in the contracting process,
corded. which can be very time consuming.
5. Discussion—Ideas are discussed for clarification, • A minimum of in-house people are involved,
elaboration, evaluation and combining. namely the energy manager and financial people.

6. Ranking—Each person ranks the five most impor- Disadvantages are:

tant items. The total number of points received
for each idea will determine the first choice of • Technical resources are generally limited to the
the group. contracting organization.

• Many firms underestimate the work required.

2.6 AUDIT PLANNING • The contractor may not have the full spectrum of
skills needed.
The details of conducting audits are discussed in
a comprehensive manner in Chapter 4, but planning • The contractor may not have an interest in low/
should be conducted prior to the actual audits. The plan- cost no/cost projects.
ning should include types of audits to be performed,
• High markups are likely.
team makeup, and dates.
By making the audits specific rather than general
Advantages of setting up an audit team are:
in nature, much more energy can be saved. Examples of
some types of audits that might be considered are: • The team can be selected to match the equipment
to be audited, and it can be made up of in-house
• Tuning-Operation-Maintenance (TOM) personnel, outside specialists, or best, a combina-
• Compressed air tion of both.
Effective Energy Management 19

• They can identify all potential energy conservation both, can be an educational experience since we learn
projects, both low-cost/no-cost and large capital best when we have to make a presentation.
investments. Ultimately, the energy manager should aspire to
be a part of business planning for the organization. A
• The audit can be an excellent training tool by strategic plan for energy should be a part of every busi-
involving others in the process, and by adding a ness plan. This puts the energy manager into a position
training component as a part of the audit. for more contact with management people and thus the
opportunity to inform and teach.

Disadvantages of an audit team approach:

2.7.2 Energy Team Training
Since the energy team is the core group of the en-
• Financing identified projects becomes a separate
ergy management program, proper and thorough train-
issue for the energy manager.
ing for them should have the highest priority. Training
is available from many sources and in many forms.
• It takes a well-organized energy management
structure to take full advantage of the work of the
• Self study—This necessitates having a good library
audit team.
of energy related materials from which coordina-
tors can select.

2.7 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING • In-house training—This may be done by a quali-

fied member of the team, usually the energy man-
A major part of the energy manager’s job is to ager, or someone from outside.
provide some energy education to persons within the
organization. In spite of the fact that we have been • Short courses—These are offered by associations
concerned with it since the 70s, there is still a sea of such as the Association of Energy Engineers [3],
ignorance concerning energy. by individual consultants, by corporations, and by
Raising the energy education level throughout the colleges and universities.
organization can have big dividends. The program will
• Comprehensive courses—Such courses of one to
operate much more effectively if management under-
four weeks duration are offered by universities,
stands the complexities of energy—and particularly the
including Virginia Tech and N.C. State University.
potential for economic benefit; the coordinators will be
more effective is they are able to prioritize energy con- For large decentralized organizations, an annual
servation measures, and are aware of the latest technol- two- or three-day seminar can be the base for the edu-
ogy; the quality and quantity of employee suggestions cational program for energy managers. Such a program
will improve significantly with training. should be planned carefully. The following suggestions
Educational training should be considered for should be incorporated into such a program:
three distinct groups—management, the energy team,
and employees. • Select quality speakers from both inside and out-
side the organization.
2.7.1 Management Training
It is difficult to gain much of management’s time, • This is an opportunity to get top management
so subtle ways must be developed to get them up to support. Invite a top level executive from the or-
speed. Getting time on a regular meeting to provide up- ganization to give opening remarks. It may be wise
dates on the program is one way. When the momentum to offer to write the remarks, or at least to provide
of the program gets going, it may be advantageous to some material for inclusion.
have a half- or one-day presentation for management.
A good, concise report periodically can be a tool • Involve the participants in workshop activities
to educate management. Short articles that are perti- so they have an opportunity to have input into
nent to your educational goals, taken from magazines the program. Also, provide some practical tips
and newspapers, can be attached to reports and sent on energy savings that they might go back and
selectively. Having management be a part of a training implement immediately. One or two good ideas
program for either the energy team or employees, or can sometimes pay for their time in the seminar.
20 Energy Management Handbook

• Make the seminar first class, with professional intrusion into the program, once it is established and
speakers. Consider a banquet with an entertain- approved. It provides the basis for resources such as
ing—not technical—after dinner speaker and a funding and personnel for implementation. It projects
manual that includes a schedule of events, bios- strategic planning into overall planning by the orga-
ketches of speakers, list of attendees, information nization, and hence it legitimizes the program at top
on each topic presented, and other things that will management level. By involving the implementers in the
help pull the whole seminar together. Vendors will planning process, there is a strong commitment to make
contribute door prizes. it work.
Appendix C contains flow charts depicting a stra-
• You may wish to develop a logo for the program tegic plan developed in a workshop conducted by the
and include it on small favors such as cups, car- author for a large defense organization. It is a model
rying cases, etc. plan in that it deals not only with the technical aspects
of energy management, but also with funding, commu-
2.7.3 Employee Training nications, education, and behavior modification.
A systematic approach for involving employees
should start with some basic training in energy. This
will produce a much higher quality of ideas from 2.9 REPORTING
them. Employees place a high value on training, so a
side benefit is that morale goes up. Simply teaching There is no generic form to that can be used
the difference between electrical demand and kilowatt for reporting. There are too many variables, such as
hours of energy, and that compressed air is very expen- organization size, product, project requirements, and
sive, is a start. Short training sessions on energy can procedures already in existence. The ultimate reporting
be injected into other ongoing training for employees, system is one used by a chemical company making a
such as safety. A more comprehensive training program textile product. The Btu/lb of product is calculated on
should include: a computer system that gives an instantaneous reading.
This is not only a reporting system, but one that detects
maintenance problems. Very few companies are set up
• Energy conservation in the home
to do this, but many do have some type of energy index
• Fundamentals of electric energy for monthly reporting.
• Fundamentals of energy systems When energy prices fluctuate wildly, the best en-
• How energy surveys are conducted and what to ergy index is usually based on Btus, but when energy
look for prices are stable, the best index is dollars. However,
there are still many factors that will influence any index,
such as weather, production, expansion or contraction of
2.8 STRATEGIC PLANNING facilities, new technologies, etc.
The bottom line is that any reporting system has
Developing objectives, strategies, programs, and to be customized to suit individual circumstances. And,
action items constitutes strategic planning for the en- while reporting is not always the most glamorous part
ergy management program. It is the last but perhaps of managing energy, it can make a contribution to the
most important step in the process of developing the program by providing the bottom line on its effective-
program, and unfortunately it is where many stop. The ness. It is also a straight pipeline into management and
very term “strategic planning” has an ominous sound can be a tool for promoting the program.
to those who are more technically inclined. However, by The report is probably of most value to the one
using a simplified approach and involving the energy who prepares it. It is a forcing function that requires all
management team in the process, a plan can be devel- information to be pulled together in a coherent manner.
oped using a flow chart that will define the program for This requires much thought and analysis that might not
the next five years. otherwise take place.
If the team is involved in developing each of the By making reporting a requirement of the energy
components of objectives, strategies, programs, and ac- policy, getting the necessary support can be easier. In
tion items, using the nominal group technique, the result many cases, the data may already be collected on a
will be a simplified flow chart that can be used for many periodic basis and put into a computer. It may simply
purposes. First, it is a protective plan that discourages require combining production data and energy data to
Effective Energy Management 21

develop an energy index. • Use proven technology. Many programs get

Keep the reporting requirements as simple as pos- bogged down trying to make a new technology
sible. The monthly report could be something as simple work and lose sight of the easy projects with good
as adding to an ongoing graph that compares present payback. Don’t buy serial number one. In spite of
usage to some baseline year. Any narrative should be price breaks and promise of vendor support, it can
short, with data kept in a file that can be provided for be all too consuming to make the system work.
any supporting in-depth information.
With all the above considered, the best way to • Go with the winners. Not every department within
report is to do it against an audit that has been per- a company will be enthused about the energy
formed at the facility. One large corporation has its program. Make those who are look good to top
facilities report in this manner and then has an award management through the reporting system, and all
for those that complete all energy conservation measures will follow.
listed on the audit.
• A final major tip—Ask machine operators what
should be done to reduce energy. Then make sure
2.10 OWNERSHIP they get proper recognition for ideas.

The key to a successful energy management pro-

gram is one word—ownership. This extends to everyone 2.11 SUMMARY
within the organization. Employees that operate a ma-
chine “own” that machine. Any attempt to modify their Let’s now summarize by assuming you have just
“baby” without their participation will not succeed. been appointed energy manager of a fairly large com-
They have the knowledge to make or break the attempt. pany. What are the steps you might consider in setting
Members of the energy team are not going to be inter- up an energy management program? Here is a sug-
ested in seeing one person—the energy manger—get gested procedure.
all the fame and glory for their efforts. Management
people that invest in energy projects want to share in 2.11.1 Situation Analysis
the recognition for their risk taking. A corporate energy Determine what has been done before. Was there
team that goes into a division for an energy audit must a previous attempt to establish an energy management
help put a person from the division in the energy man- program? What were the results of this effort? Next, plot
agement position, then make sure the audit belongs to the energy usage for all fuels for the past two—or more
the division. Below are more tips for success that have years. Then project the usage and cost for the next five
been compiled from observing successful energy man- years, at the present rate. This will not only help you
agement programs. sell your program but will identify areas of concentra-
tion for reducing energy.
• Have a plan. A plan dealing with organization,
surveys, training, and strategic planning—with 2.11.2 Policy
scheduled events —has two advantages. It pre- Develop some kind of acceptable policy that gives
vents disruptions by non-productive ideas, and it authority to the program. This will help later on with
keeps the program active. such things as reporting requirements and the need for
measurement instrumentation.
• Give away—or at least share—ideas for saving
2.11.3 Organization
energy. The surest way to kill a project is to be
Set up the energy committee and/or coordinators.
possessive. If others have a vested interest they
will help make it work.
2.11.4 Training
With the committee involvement, develop a train-
• Be aggressive. The energy team, after some train- ing plan for the first year.
ing, will be the most energy knowledgeable group
within the company. Too many management deci- 2.11.5 Audits
sions are made with a meager knowledge of the Again with the committee involvement, develop
effects on energy. an auditing plan for the first year.
22 Energy Management Handbook

2.11.6 Reporting II. Energy Management Program Objectives

Develop a simple reporting system. It is the company’s objective to use energy effi-
ciently and to provide energy security for the organiza-
2.11.7 Schedule tion, both immediate and long range, by:
From the above information, develop a schedule
of events for the next year, timing them so as to give • Utilizing energy efficiently throughout the compa-
periodic actions from the program, which will help keep ny’s operations.
the program active and visible.
• Incorporating energy efficiency into existing equip-
2.11.8 Implement the program ment and facilities, as well as in the selection and
purchase of new equipment.

2.12 CONCLUSION • Complying with government regulations—federal,

state, and local.
Energy management has now matured to the point
that it offers outstanding opportunities for those willing • Putting in place an energy management program
to invest time and effort to learn the fundamentals. It to accomplish the above objectives.
requires technical and management skills that broadens
educational needs for both technical and management III. Implementation
people desiring to enter this field. Because of the eco- A. Organization
nomic return of energy management, it is attractive to The company’s energy management program shall be
top management, so exposure of the energy manager at administered through the facilities department.
this level brings added opportunity for recognition and
advancement. Managing energy will be a continuous 1. Energy Manager
need, so persons with this skill will have personal job The energy manager shall report directly to the
security, even as we are caught up in the downsizing vice president of facilities and shall have overall re-
fad now permeating our society. sponsibility for carrying out the energy management
program.
References
2. Energy Committee
1. Hersey, Paul and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Management of Organiza-
tional Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, Harper and Row, 1970 The energy manager may appoint an energy com-
2. Delbecq, Andre L., Andrew H. Van de Ven, and David H. Gus- mittee, to be comprised of representatives from various
tafson, Group Techniques for Program Planning, Green Briar Press, departments. Members will serve for a specified period
1986.
3. Mashburn, William H., Managing Energy Resources in Times of Dy- of time. The purpose of the energy committee is to ad-
namic Change, Fairmont Press, 1992 vise the energy manager on the operation of the energy
4. Turner, Wayne, Energy Management Handbook, 2nd edition, Chapter management program and to provide assistance on
2, Fairmont Press, 1993.
specific tasks when needed.

3. Energy Coordinators
Appendix A Energy coordinators shall be appointed to repre-
sent a specific department or division. The energy man-
ENERGY POLICY ager shall establish minimum qualification standards for
coordinators and shall have joint approval authority for
Acme Manufacturing Company each coordinator appointed.
Coordinators shall be responsible for maintain-
Policy and Procedures Manual
ing an ongoing awareness of energy consumption and
Subject: Energy Management Program expenditures in their assigned areas. They shall recom-
mend and implement energy conservation projects and
I. Policy energy management practices.
Energy management shall be practiced in all areas Coordinators shall provide necessary information
of the company’s operation. for reporting from their specific areas.
They may be assigned on a full-time or part-time
Effective Energy Management 23

basis, as required to implement programs in their ar- the quality of the work environment, optimize service
eas. reliability, increase productivity, and enhance the safety
of our workplace.
B. Reporting
The energy coordinator shall keep the energy of-
fice advised of all efforts to increase energy efficiency in Appendix C
their areas. A summary of energy cost savings shall be
submitted each quarter to the energy office.
The energy manager shall be responsible for con-
solidating these reports for top management.

C. Training
The energy manager shall provide energy training
at all levels of the company.

IV. Policy Updating

The energy manager and the energy advisory
committee shall review this policy annually and make
recommendations for updating or changes.

Appendix B
POLICY STATEMENT

Acme International Corporation is committed to

the efficient, cost effective, and environmentally respon-
sible use of energy throughout its worldwide operations.
Acme will promote energy efficiency by implementing
cost-effective programs that will maintain or improve Figure 2-2
24 Energy Management Handbook

Figure 2-4
Figure 2-3
Effective Energy Management 25

Figure 2-6
Figure 2-5
26 Energy Management Handbook

Figure 2-7
 Chapter 3
Energy Auditing

BARNEY L. CAPEHART Professor Emeritus energy auditors analyze the monthly bills, inspect the
University of Florida construction of the dwelling unit, and inspect all of the
Gainesville, FL energy-consuming appliances in a house or an apart-
ment. Ceiling and wall insulation is measured, ducts are
MARK B. SPILLER inspected, appliances such as heaters, air conditioners,
Spiller Consulting water heaters, refrigerators, and freezers are examined,
Gainesville, FL and the lighting system is checked.
Some utilities also perform audits for their indus-
SCOTT FRAZIER
trial and commercial customers. They have professional
Oklahoma State University
engineers on their staff to perform the detailed audits
Stillwater, OK
needed by companies with complex process equipment
and operations. When utilities offer free or low-cost
3.1 INTRODUCTION
energy audits for commercial customers, they usually
Saving money on energy bills is attractive to busi- only provide walk-through audits rather than detailed
nesses, industries, and individuals alike. Customers audits. Even so, they generally consider lighting, HVAC
whose energy bills use up a large part of their income, systems, water heating, insulation and some motors.
and especially those customers whose energy bills repre- Large commercial or industrial customers may hire
sent a substantial fraction of their company’s operating an engineering consulting firm to perform a complete
costs, have a strong motivation to initiate and continue energy audit. Other companies may elect to hire an en-
an on-going energy cost-control program. No-cost or ergy manager or set up an energy management team
very low-cost operational changes can often save a cus- whose job is to conduct periodic audits and to keep up
tomer or an industry 10-20% on utility bills; capital cost with the available energy efficiency technology.
programs with payback times of two years or less can The U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. DOE) funds
often save an additional 20-30%. In many cases these a program where universities around the country op-
energy cost control programs will also result in both erate industrial assessment centers which perform free
reduced energy consumption and reduced emissions of energy audits for small and medium sized manufactur-
environmental pollutants. ing companies. There are currently 26 IACs funded by
The energy audit is one of the first tasks to be the Industrial Division of the U.S. DOE.
performed in the accomplishment of an effective energy The state energy program is another energy audit
cost control program. An energy audit consists of a de- service funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. It is
tailed examination of how a facility uses energy, what usually administered through state energy offices. This
the facility pays for that energy, and finally, a recom- program pays for audits of schools, hospitals, and other
mended program for changes in operating practices or institutions, and it has some funding assistance for en-
energy-consuming equipment that will cost-effectively ergy conservation improvements.
save dollars on energy bills. The energy audit is some-
times called an energy survey or an energy analysis, so
that it is not hampered with the negative connotation of 3.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ENERGY AUDIT
an audit in the sense of an IRS audit. The energy audit
is a positive experience with significant benefits to the An initial summary of the basic steps involved in
business or individual, and the term “audit” should be conducting a successful energy audit is provided here,
avoided if it clearly produces a negative image in the and these steps are explained more fully in the sections
mind of a particular business or individual. that follow. This audit description primarily addresses
the steps in an industrial or large-scale commercial au-
dit; not all of the procedures described in this section
3.2 ENERGY AUDITING SERVICES are required for every type of audit.
The audit process starts by collecting information
Energy audits are performed by several different about a facility’s operation and past record of utility
groups. Electric and gas utilities throughout the country bills. These data are then analyzed to get a picture of
offer free residential energy audits. A utility’s residential how the facility uses—and possibly wastes—energy, as

27
28 Energy Management Handbook

well as to help the auditor learn what areas to examine Knowing process temperatures allows the auditor to
to reduce energy costs. Specific changes—called energy determine process equipment efficiencies and to also
conservation opportunities (ECOs)—are identified and identify waste heat sources for potential heat recovery
evaluated to determine their benefits and their cost-ef- programs. Inexpensive electronic thermometers with in-
fectiveness. These ECOs are assessed in terms of their terchangeable probes are now available to measure tem-
costs and benefits, and an economic comparison is made peratures in both these areas. Some common types in-
to rank the various ECOs. Finally, an action plan is cre- clude an immersion probe, a surface temperature probe,
ated where certain ECOs are selected for implementa- and a radiation shielded probe for measuring true air
tion, and the actual process of saving energy and saving temperature. Other types of infrared thermometers and
money begins. thermographic equipment are also available. An infrared
“gun” is valuable for measuring temperatures of sur-
3.3.1 The Auditor’s Toolbox faces or steam lines that are not readily reached without
To obtain the best information for a successful a ladder.
energy cost control program, the auditor must make Humidity sensors are useful to measure indoor hu-
some measurements during the audit visit. The amount midity levels. Excessive humidification or dehumidifica-
of equipment needed depends on the type of energy- tion is expensive and is easily spotted in this way. It is
consuming equipment used at the facility and on the also useful to verify the performance of some economiz-
range of potential ECOs that might be considered. For er control operations that make control choices based on
example, if waste heat recovery is being considered, then dew point, wet bulb, or enthalpy of air, and for cooling
the auditor must take substantial temperature measure- tower optimization from wet bulb temperature.
ment data from potential heat sources. Tools commonly
needed for energy audits are listed below: Infrared Cameras
Infrared cameras have come down in price sub-
Tape Measures stantially by 2008, but they are still rather expensive
The most basic measuring device needed is the pieces of equipment. An investment of at least $10,000
tape measure. A 25-foot tape measure (1" wide) and to $15,000 is needed to have a good quality infrared
a 100-foot tape measure are used to check the dimen- camera. However, these are very versatile pieces of
sions of walls, ceilings, windows, and distances between equipment and can be used to find overheated electri-
pieces of equipment for purposes such as determining cal wires, connections, neutrals, circuit breakers, trans-
the length of a pipe for transferring waste heat from one formers, motors and other pieces of electrical equip-
piece of equipment to the other. ment. They can also be used to find wet insulation,
missing insulation, roof leaks, and cold spots. Thus,
Lightmeter infrared cameras are excellent tools for both safety
One simple and useful instrument is the light- related diagnostics and energy savings diagnostics. A
meter, which is used to measure illumination levels in good rule of thumb is that if one safety hazard is found
facilities. A lightmeter that reads in footcandles allows during an infrared scan of a facility, then that has paid
direct analysis of lighting systems and comparison with for the cost of the scan for the entire facility. Many in-
recommended light levels specified by the Illuminating surers require infrared scans of buildings for facilities
Engineering Society. A digital lightmeter that is portable once a year.
and can be hand carried is the most useful. Many ar-
eas in buildings and plants are still significantly over- Voltmeter
lighted, and measuring this excess illumination then al- An inexpensive digital voltmeter is useful for de-
lows the auditor to recommend a reduction in lighting termining operating voltages on electrical equipment,
levels through lamp removal programs, or by replacing especially when the nameplate has worn off of a piece
inefficient lamps with high efficiency lamps that may of equipment or is otherwise unreadable or missing. The
not supply the same amount of illumination as the old most versatile instrument is a digital combined volt-
inefficient lamps. ohm-ammeter with a clamp-on feature for measuring
currents in conductors that are easily accessible. This
Thermometers type of multi-meter is convenient and relatively inex-
Several thermometers are generally needed to mea- pensive. Any newly purchased voltmeter or multimeter
sure temperatures in offices and other work areas, and should be a true RMS meter, for greatest accuracy where
to measure the temperature of operating equipment. harmonics might be involved.
Energy Auditing 29

Clamp-on Ammeter es per hour in the facility. This often helps determine
These are very useful instruments for measur- whether the facility has substantial structural or duct
ing current in a wire without having to make any live leaks that need to be found and sealed. See section 3.4.2
electrical connections. The clamp is opened up and put for additional information on blower doors.
around one insulated conductor, and the meter reads the
current in that conductor. New clamp-on ammeters can Smoke Generator
be purchased rather inexpensively that read true RMS A simple smoke generator can also be used in resi-
values. This is important because of the level of har- dences, offices, and other buildings to find air infiltra-
monics in many of our facilities. An idea of the level of tion and leakage around doors, windows, ducts, and
harmonics in a load can be estimated from using an old other structural features. Care must be taken in using
non-RMS ammeter and then using a true RMS ammeter this device since the chemical “smoke” produced may
to measure the current. If there is more than a five to be hazardous, and breathing protection masks may be
ten percent difference between the two readings, there needed. See section 3.4.1 for additional information on
is a significant harmonic content to that load. the smoke generation process and the use of smoke gen-
erators.
Wattmeter/Power Factor Meter
A portable hand-held wattmeter and power fac- Safety Equipment
tor meter is very handy for determining the power The use of safety equipment is a vital precaution
consumption and power factor of individual motors for any energy auditor. A good pair of safety glasses is
and other inductive devices. This meter typically has a an absolute necessity for almost any manufacturing facil-
clamp-on feature that allows an easy connection to the ity audit visit. Hearing protectors may also be required
current-carrying conductor, as well as probes for voltage on audit visits to noisy plants or areas with high horse-
connections. Any newly purchased wattmeter or power power motors driving fans and pumps. Electrical insu-
factor meter should be a true RMS meter for greatest lated gloves should be used if electrical measurements
accuracy where harmonics might be involved will be taken, and thermally insulated gloves should be
used for working around boilers and heaters. Breathing
Combustion Analyzer masks may also be needed when hazardous fumes are
Combustion analyzers are portable devices capa- present from processes or materials used. Steel-toe and
ble of estimating the combustion efficiency of furnaces, steel-shank safety shoes may be needed on audits of
boilers, or other fossil fuel burning machines. Electronic plants where heavy materials, hot or sharp materials,
digital combustion perform the measurements and read- or hazardous materials are being used. (See section 3.3.3
out in percent combustion efficiency. Today these instru- for an additional discussion of safety procedures.)
ments are hand-held devices that are very accurate, and
they are also quite inexpensive at $800-$1,000 for most Miniature Data Loggers
heaters and boilers. Miniature ("mini") data loggers have appeared in
low cost models in the last five years. These are often
Airflow Measurement Devices devices that can be held in the palm of the hand and are
Measuring air flow from heating, air conditioning, electronic instruments that record measurements of tem-
or ventilating ducts, or from other sources of air flow, perature, relative humidity, light intensity, light on/off,
is one of the energy auditor’s tasks. Airflow measure- and motor on/off. If they have an external sensor input
ment devices can be used to identify problems with air jack, these little boxes are actually general purpose data
flows, such as whether the combustion air flow into a loggers. With external sensors they can record measure-
gas heater is correct. Typical airflow measuring devices ments of current, voltage, apparent power (kVA), pres-
include a velometer, an anemometer, or an airflow hood. sure, and CO2.
See section 3.4.3 for more detail on airflow measurement These data loggers have a microcomputer control
devices. chip and a memory chip, so they can be initialized and
then record data for periods of time from days to weeks.
Blower Door Attachment They can record data on a 24-hour-a-day basis, without
Building or structure tightness can be measured any attention or intervention on the part of the energy
with a blower door attachment. This device is frequently auditor. Most of these data loggers interface with a digi-
used in residences and in small office buildings to de- tal computer PC and can transfer data into a spreadsheet
termine the air leakage rate or the number of air chang- of the user’s choice, or they can use the software pro-
30 Energy Management Handbook

vided by the suppliers of the loggers. previous 12 months. Twenty-four months of data might
Collecting audit data with these small data loggers be necessary to adequately understand some types of
gives a more complete and accurate picture of an energy billing methods. Bills for gas, oil, coal, electricity, etc.
system’s overall performance, because some conditions should be compiled and examined to determine both the
may change over long periods of time or when no one amount of energy used and the cost of that energy. This
is present. data should then be put into tabular and graphic form to
see what kind of patterns or problems appear from the
Vibration Analysis Gear tables or graphs. Any anomaly in the pattern of energy
Relatively new in the energy manager’s tool box is use raises the possibility for some significant energy or
vibration analysis equipment. The correlation between cost savings by identifying and controlling that anoma-
machine condition (bearings, pulley alignment, etc.) lous behavior. Sometimes an anomaly on the graph or
and energy consumption is related, and this equipment in the table reflects an error in billing, but generally the
monitors such machine health. This equipment comes in deviation shows that some activity is going on that has
various levels of sophistication and price. At the lower not been noticed or is not completely understood by the
end of the spectrum are vibration pens (or probes) that customer.
simply give real-time amplitude readings of vibrating
equipment in in/sec or mm/sec. This type of equipment Rate Structures
can cost under $1,000. The engineer compares the mea- To fully understand the cost of energy, the audi-
sured vibration amplitude to a list of vibration levels tor must determine the rate structure under which that
(ISO2372) and is able to determine if the vibration is energy use is billed. Energy rate structures may go from
excessive for that particular piece of equipment. the extremely simple ones—for example, $2.00 per gal-
The more typical type of vibration equipment will lon of Number 2 fuel oil—to very complex ones, such
measure and log the vibration into a database (on-board as electricity consumption which may have a customer
and downloadable). In addition to simply measuring charge, on- and off-peak charge, energy charge, demand
vibration amplitude, the machine vibration can be dis- charge, power factor charge, and other miscellaneous
played in time or frequency domains. The graphs of vi- charges that vary from month to month. Few customers
bration in the frequency domain will normally exhibit or businesses really understand the various rate struc-
spikes at certain frequencies. These spikes can be inter- tures that control the cost of the energy they consume.
preted by a trained individual to determine the relative The auditor can help here because the customer must
health of the machine monitored. know the basis for the costs in order to control them
The more sophisticated machines are capable of successfully.
trend analysis so that facility equipment can be moni-
tored on a schedule and changes in vibration (ampli- • Energy charges: For electrical use, this is in terms of
tudes and frequencies) can be noted. Such trending can kWh and is often different for on- and off-peak use.
be used to schedule maintenance based on observations For fuel, this is in terms of gallons of oil, therms of
of change. This type of equipment starts at about $3,000 gas, etc. and usually does not differentiate by time
and goes up, depending on features desired. of use, although there may be seasonal adjustments
(e.g. higher in winter).
3.3.2 Preparing for the Audit Visit
Some preliminary work must be done before the • Electrical Demand Charges: The demand charge is
auditor makes the actual energy audit visit to a facility. based on a reading of the maximum power in kW
Data should be collected on the facility’s use of energy that a customer demands in one month. Power
through examination of utility bills, and some prelimi- is the rate at which energy is used, and it varies
nary information should be compiled on the physical de- quite rapidly for many facilities. Electric utilities
scription and operation of the facility. This data should average the power reading over intervals from
then be analyzed so that the auditor can do the most fifteen minutes to one hour, so that very short
complete job of identifying energy conservation oppor- fluctuations do not adversely affect customers.
tunities during the actual site visit to the facility. Thus, a customer might be billed for demand for
a month based on a maximum value of a fifteen
Energy Use Data minute integrated average of their power use.
The energy auditor should start by collecting data Demand charges are often different for on- and
on energy use, power demand, and cost for at least the off-peak times.
Energy Auditing 31

• Ratchet Clauses: Some utilities have a ratchet • Water and wastewater charges: The energy auditor
clause in their rate structure which stipulates that also looks at water and wastewater use and costs
the minimum power demand charge will be the as part of the audit visit. These costs are often re-
highest demand recorded in the last billing period lated to the energy costs at a facility. Wastewater
or some percentage (i.e., typically 70-75%) of the charges are usually based on some proportion of
highest power demand recorded in the last year. the metered water use since the solids are difficult
The ratchet clause can increase utility charges for to meter. This can needlessly result in substantial
facilities during periods of low activity or where increases in the utility bill for processes which
power demand is tied to extreme weather. do not contribute to the wastewater stream (e.g.,
makeup water for cooling towers and other evapo-
• Discounts/Penalties: Utilities generally provide rative devices, irrigation, etc.). For many utilities a
discounts on their energy and power rates for water sub meter can be installed on branch lines
customers who accept power at high voltage and that supply the loads not returning water to the
provide transformers on site. They also commonly sewer system. This can reduce the sewer charges
assess penalties when a customer has a power fac- for these branch water flows by up to 75%.
tor less than 0.9-0.95. Inductive loads (e.g., lightly
loaded electric motors, old fluorescent lighting bal- NOTE: Understanding the relationship between
lasts, etc.) reduce the power factor. Improvement the cost of energy compared to water/waste water
can be made by adding capacitance to correct for is important for effective audit recommendations.
lagging power factor, and variable capacitor banks For example, in areas where electricity cost is low
are most useful for improving the power factor at and water cost is high, suggested HVAC measures
the service drop. Capacitance added near the loads that convert air-cooled equipment to evaporatively
can effectively increase the electrical system capac- cooled may find most of the energy savings ne-
ity. Turning off idling or lightly loaded motors can gated by water and waste water charges, even with
also help. the sewer consumptive use credit.

Figure 3-1. Sample Summary of Energy Usage and Costs

Demand Total
kWh Used kWh Cost Demand Cost Cost
Month (kWh) ($) (kW) ($) ($)
—————————————————————————————————————————
Mar 44960 1581 213 1495 3076
—————————————————————————————————————————
Apr 47920 1859 213 1495 3354
—————————————————————————————————————————
May 56000 2318 231 1621 3939
—————————————————————————————————————————
Jun 56320 2423 222 1558 3981
—————————————————————————————————————————
Jul 45120 1908 222 1558 3466
—————————————————————————————————————————
Aug 54240 2410 231 1621 4032
—————————————————————————————————————————
Sept 50720 2260 222 1558 3819
—————————————————————————————————————————
Oct 52080 2312 231 1621 3933
—————————————————————————————————————————
Nov 44480 1954 213 1495 3449
—————————————————————————————————————————
Dec 38640 1715 213 1495 3210
—————————————————————————————————————————
Jan 36000 1591 204 1432 3023
—————————————————————————————————————————
Feb 42880 1908 204 1432 3340
—————————————————————————————————————————
Totals 569,360 24,243 2,619 18,385 42,628
—————————————————————————————————————————
Monthly 47,447 2,020 218 1,532 3,552
Averages
—————————————————————————————————————————
This example is simplified for the sake of illustration. Most rate structures that include demand charges
also include time of use charges for on/off peak, and power factor charges.
Other documents randomly have
different content
bräunlich angeflogen, innen heller bräunlich 8. — Vom Vertex zum
Anus 490 mm, von der Lippe zum Anus (alle Krümmungen
mitgemessen) 650, Hinterhand 170. Von Schädel- und
Skeletmaassen dieses Exemplares seien nur die folgenden
angegeben und zum Vergleiche die eines alten männlichen Skelettes
von Parepare, das W e b e r (p. 103 und 104) „very large“ nennt, das
aber erheblich kleiner und schwächlicher ist als das von Tonkean,
trotzdem die Schädelnähte weit mehr verstrichen sind; ebenso
weisen sich die Zähne bei dem Tonkean Männchen in allen
Dimensionen um ⅓ grösser aus. Dieses Parepare Skelet gehört jetzt
dem Dresdner Museum (B 3274).

T o n k e a n (B P a r e p a r e (B
3166) 3274)
Schädellänge 144 mm 137 mm
Jochbogenbreite 100 88.5
,, ,,
Breite am proc. zygom. os. front 77.3 70.6
,, ,,
Geringste Breite zwischen den 7.2 6
Augenhöhlen ,, ,,
Breite an den Alveolen der 37.5 35.2
Caninen ,, ,,
Geringste Breite am Pterion 49.4 47.8
,, ,,
Grösste Breite am Pterion 61.5 55
,, ,,
Länge des Femur 210 189
,, ,,
Länge der Tibia 193 166
,, ,,
 T o n k e a n (B P a r e p a r e (B
3166) 3274)
Länge des Humerus 185 165
,, ,,
Länge des Radius 185 169
,, ,,

Einen jüngeren weiblichen Schädel hat M u r i e (P. Z. S. 1872, 725)

beschrieben und abgebildet, aber der adulte Schädel differirt
bedeutend, so dass auch die Charakteristik, die A n d e r s o n (Anat.
Zool. Res. 1878, 81) von dem jüngeren Schädel entwirft (und die
F o r b e s : Primates II, 12 1894 verkürzt reproducirt), durchaus nicht
für den alten zutrifft. Die Abbildungen dürften eine nähere
Beschreibung des adulten Tonkean-Schädels überflüssig machen.
Das Exemplar hat 9 Caudalwirbel; S c h l e g e l (Cat. VII, 117, 118
1876) giebt 8 für maurus und ocreatus an, der 9., die Spitze, ist
allerdings sehr klein; das Parepare Exemplar hat 7, ist aber
möglicherweise defect.

Das Museum besitzt noch den S c h ä d e l eines Jungen von Süd

Celebes (259), von mir mitgebracht, im Zahnwechsel, der 1.
bleibende Molar bereits vorhanden. Schädellänge 100 mm,
Jochbogenbreite 63.

Ferner das S k e l e t eines mas juv. von Süd Celebes (B 1984), von
mir mitgebracht, noch nicht im Zahnwechsel, aber der 1. bleibende
Molar im Durchbruche. Schädellänge 90 mm, Jochbogenbreite 56.

Endlich einen F o e t u s in Spiritus vom Pik von Bonthain, 1500´

hoch, an dem die Haarstellung vortrefflich zu sehen ist (R i b b e und
K ü h n 1883 coll.).

Beide Tonkean Exemplare, das junge Weibchen sowohl, als auch

das adulte Männchen, haben schwarze Extremitäten, gegenüber den
grauen des jungen Paares von Buton und Kandari, und, so viel mir
scheint, kannte man a d u l t e s c h w a r z g l i e d r i g e bis jetzt
überhaupt nicht. So hat, wie Dr. J e n t i n k mir gütigst mittheilt 9, das
grösste sehr alte Männchen des Leidener Museums (S c h l e g e l
Cat. VI, 118 1876 Ex. 1, J e n t i n k XI, 32 1892 Ex. g) Grau an den
Unterarmen und Unterschenkeln; es dürfte dem Tonkean-Männchen
an Grösse kaum nachstehen, denn es misst vom Vertex zum Anus
480 mm und von der Lippe zum Anus (mit allen Krümmungen) 640,
bei einer Hinterhandlänge von 155 (gegen 490, 650, 170 bei dem
[4]Tonkean Exemplare). Wie sich das alte Männchen von Parepare
(W e b e r p. 103 und 104 Nr. 333, Skelet B 3274 M. Dr.) in dieser
Beziehung verhielt, ist nicht mehr zu eruiren gewesen. A n d e r s o n
(Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus. I, 77 1881) registrirt nur graugliedrige, aber
es sind keine adulten darunter. Da das Grau gegenüber dem
einfarbigen dunkleren Jugendkleide schon der Charakter einer
Altersentwicklung ist, so scheint das junge schwarzgliedrige
Weibchen von Tonkean zu beweisen, dass die graue Phase an
Unterarm und Unterschenkel auch übersprungen werden kann, allein
es ist weiteres Material nöthig, um hierin klar zu sehen.

Ich zögere um so weniger M. maurus nur für den jungen ocreatus

anzusehen, entgegen der Annahme W e b e r s (p. 108), „that both
are variations of one species“, als bereits B a r t l e t t (bei M u r i e
P. Z. S. 1872, 723) am Lebenden beobachtet hat, d a s s d i e
helle Zeichnung sich aus einem einfarbigen
K l e i d e m i t d e m A l t e r e n t w i c k e l t . Auch Dr. J e n t i n k
glaubt, wie er die Güte hatte mir mitzutheilen, dass die 11 Exemplare
des Leidener Museums dasselbe lehren. Es ist wohl möglich, wie
W e b e r (p. 107) meint, dass Manche diese Entwicklung überhaupt
nicht durchmachen und einfarbig bleiben, was ja auch das junge
Tonkean Weibchen zu lehren schien. Das Zusammenvorkommen der
verschiedenen Färbungen in einem Truppe, das W e b e r (p. 104
und 108) beobachtete, spricht vielleicht ebenfalls dafür. Prof.
W e b e r hatte die Freundlichkeit mir dieses Zusammenvorkommen
noch folgendermaassen auszuführen: „In der Umgegend von Maros
waren in einem Walde die Exemplare zahlreich und nicht scheu; sie
liessen sich daher gut beobachten. Doch sah ich in demselben
Truppe sehr verschiedene Färbungen, namentlich bezüglich der
Ausbreitung von Grau oder Weiss auf der Hinterextremität und bei
manchen auch auf der Vorderextremität.“ Es sind jedoch weitere
Beobachtungen und mehr Materialien nöthig, um hier Klarheit zu
gewinnen, denn diese liegt noch keineswegs sicher vor.

1 Ich habe bisher Celébes, mit Accent auf der zweiten Silbe, geschrieben, weil die
Holländer so betonen, A . W i c h m a n n hat aber kürzlich (Gids 1896, 328)
wieder hervorgehoben, dass die Spanier im 16. Jahrhunderte die Gegend von
Mindanao bis Nord Celebes als Archipel der Célebe oder als Inseln der Célebes,
mit Accent auf der 1. Silbe, bezeichneten. Die Leute nannten sich Célebe. Die
Herkunft des Wortes ist bis jetzt dunkel. Man vergleiche C r a w f u r d s
etymologische Conjectur (Descr. Dict. Ind. Is. 1856, 90). Der von W i c h m a n n
versuchte Beweis, dass die allgemeine Anwendung des Namens Celebes für die
ganze Insel sich erst in Folge eines Missverständnisses von H a c k l u y t
eingebürgert habe, ist jedoch nicht als gelungen anzusehen. (S. auch E g l i : Etym.
geogr. Lex. 1880, 108.) ↑
2 Was auch L y d e k k e r (Geogr. Hist. Mam. 1896, 47) noch ganz neuerdings
thut: „peculiar to the southern portion of the island“. R a d d e (25. Jb. Ver. Erdk.
Dresden 1896, 120) sah Buton-Exemplare irrthümlich für Cynopithecus niger an (s.
auch unten p. 5 Anm. 2). ↑
3 Siehe die Karte in Abh. Mus. Dresden 1896/7 Nr. 2. ↑
4 E v e r e t t (bei H a r t e r t Nov. Zool. III, 150 1896) erwähnt „probably“ M.
maurus vom Pik von Bonthain. Das Museum besitzt einen Foetus dieser Art
daher, von 1500′ Höhe (s. unten). ↑
5 Am 3. August 1871 hörte ich in Poso, laut Tagebuchnotiz, dass dort weisse
Affen als Anführer der schwarzen vorkommen sollen. Es sind dies vielleicht sehr
alte Individuen, Greise, oder jüngere albinotische, wie W e b e r (Zool. Erg. I. 104
1890) sie beschreibt (s. unten Anm.). ↑
6 R e i c h e n b a c h (Affen T. XXIV Fig. 370 s. a.) hat die Vorderhälfte davon
copirt; Fig. 368 und 369 sollen ebenfalls maurus vorstellen, gehören aber
keinenfalls der Art an; sie sind nach einem Exemplare des Museums gezeichnet
(p. 142), das nicht mehr zu identificiren ist. ↑
7 R e i c h e n b a c h (l. c.) hat die Abbildung von P. Z. S. 1860 auf Tafel XXVIII Fig.
408 copirt. ↑
8 Diese fünf abkürzten Beschreibungen mögen in Bezug auf Details durch die
Abbildungen ergänzt werden. ↑
9 Dr. J e n t i n k schreibt auch, dass nur die Exemplare a, b, c (aus der
Gefangenschaft) und j (Cat. XI, 32 1892) Arme und Beine n i c h t grau hätten,
diese 4 aber sind noch nicht adult; a, b und j werden zwar als: „à peu près adulte“
bezeichnet, aber bei a (Länge vom Vertex zum Anus 330 mm, Hinterhand 120)
sind die 3. Molaren erst eben zu sehen, bei b (375 und 140) im Unterkiefer eben im
Durchbruche, bei j (420 und 140) sitzt der Schädel noch im Balge, die
Längenmaasse beweisen jedoch die Jugend des Thieres zur Genüge. Ex. c ist als
„passablement jeune“ bezeichnet (410 und 140). 3. Molar noch nicht zu sehen.
Alte Individuen mit dunklen Beinen sind dies also keineswegs. Auch die weiblichen
Albinos, die W e b e r (Zool. Erg. i, 104 1890) von Maros und Parepare beschreibt,
und die er „full grown“ nennt, dürften nicht adult gewesen sein, denn das eine misst
vom Vertex zum Anus nur 435, gegen 490 bei dem Dresdner Tonkean
Männchen. ↑
[Inhalt]
 2. und 3. Macacus cynomolgus L. und
philippinensis Js. Geoffr.

Das Vorkommen von Macacus cynomolgus auf C e l e b e s ist noch

nicht ganz sichergestellt. Te m m i n c k (Coup d’oeil III, 112 1849)
sagt, dass er dort eine leichte Färbungsdifferenz aufzuweisen
scheine. Worauf er sich dabei stützt, ist nicht angegeben, im
Leidener Museum sind keine Exemplare von Celebes (S c h l e g e l
Cat. VII, 102 1876, J e n t i n k XI, 27 1892). Im Norden kennt man
die Art nicht, Dr. R i e d e l , der so lange da lebte, hat nie davon
gehört. R o s e n b e r g (Mal. Arch. 1878, 266) giebt an, dass sie im
Süden gemein sei. Das kann man jedoch keinenfalls behaupten. Die
Herren S a r a s i n theilten mir mit, dass dieser Affe ihnen in Freiheit
auf Celebes nicht begegnet sei. W e b e r (Zool. Erg. I, 102 1890)
sah in Parepare an der Südwestküste ein Exemplar in
Gefangenschaft, was nicht beweisend ist, und seine Jäger
beobachteten eines bei Loka auf dem Pik von Bonthain, was
Bestätigung verlangt. Sonst finde ich keine Angaben; es bedarf
daher der sicheren Constatirung des Wildlebens der Art auf Celebes,
und, wenn dies der Fall sein sollte, der Untersuchung, wie sie sich
zu dem typischen cynomolgus verhält.

Der Makak der P h i l i p p i n e n ist ebensowenig genügend bekannt,

wenn auch weit bekannter als der von Celebes. J s . G e o f f r o y
basirte 1843 (Arch. Mus. Paris II, 568 pl. 5 = XXXIII, s. auch Cat.
syst. 1851, 29) seinen M. philippinensis auf einen von Manila lebend
erhaltenen Albino. S l a r k fand in Paris ein Exemplar „von den
Philippinen“, das er als M. fur beschrieb (P. Ac. Philad. 1867, 36 pl. I
uncol.), J . V e r r e a u x hatte ihm mitgetheilt, dass dieser Affe nur
auf Luzon vorkäme, was nicht richtig ist. In Luzon erhielt ich ihn 1872
auch (Mus. Berlin). G ü n t h e r (P. Z. S. 1876, 735) führt M.
philippinensis aus der S t e e r e schen Sammlung vom Berge
Mahayhay in Luzon und (1879, 74) aus der E v e r e t t schen von
Nord Mindanao auf. Ich erhielt ihn 1872 auf dem diesem nahen Süd
Negros (Mus. Dr. und Berlin) und auf Panay (Mus. Berlin 1). Das
Dresdner Museum besitzt ihn ausserdem von Cebu. Dr. P l a t e n
sammelte ihn 1887 auf Palawan (Mus. Leiden und Braunschweig 2);
S t e e r e (List 1890, 28) erwähnt ihn von Basilan, Samar und Leyte.
(Auf die kritiklose Compilation E l e r a s : Cat. sist. I, 2 1895 kann
man in diesem Fall unmöglich Rücksicht nehmen.) Thatsächlich also
ist ein Makak über die ganzen Philippinen verbreitet, jedoch noch
nicht so genügend bekannt, dass man, ohne Serien von Exemplaren
von vielen dieser Inseln [5]in der Hand, über ihn urtheilen könnte.
Erst solche werden ergeben, ob, oder wie sich die Localformen
dieses weit verbreiteten Affen auf den Philippinen gegen einander
abgrenzen.

1 Auch im Britischen Museum sind Exemplare aus meinen Sammlungen

vorhanden. ↑
2 Prof. W . B l a s i u s hatte die Güte mir das Exemplar zur Ansicht zu senden. ↑
[Inhalt]
 4. und 5. Cynopithecus niger (Desm.) und
nigrescens (Temm.)

Tafel II Fig. 3–4 und III Fig. 3–4

S c h l e g e l (Cat. VII, 119 1876) führt beide als Macacus niger. Was
die generische Stellung anlangt, so sagt er zwar (p. 118): „Ce singe
rappelle les Papions par son ensemble et plus particulièrement par
son museau prolongé et pourvu de deux côtes saillantes“, erachtet
dies jedoch nicht für wichtig genug, um die Art zu den afrikanischen
Pavianen zu stellen. J e n t i n k (Cat. XII, 32 1892) ist ihm hierin
gefolgt, fast alle anderen Autoren aber acceptiren für diese isolirte
Form die Gattung Cynopithecus. Auch ich finde die Differenzen,
speciell des Schädels, zwischen ihr und Macacus viel zu bedeutend,
als dass ich, unter Anwendung der sonst üblichen Regeln, das
Zusammenstellen zweier so verschiedener Thiere in e i n e Gattung
für gerechtfertigt halten könnte, und andrerseits auch die
Unterschiede von Cynocephalus gross genug, um, bei dem
räumlichen Abstande, den Celebes Affen von dieser Gattung zu
trennen. Es bleibt eben eine der charakteristischesten Celebes-
Formen, ein Überbleibsel aus früherer Zeit, das erst
palaeontologische Entdeckungen ganz verstehen lehren werden. Die
Art ist noch viel isolirter als Macacus maurus, dessen nächsten
lebenden Verwandten wir doch in M. arctoides Js. Geoffr. von
Hinterindien 1 suchen können, wenn dieser Verwandter auch kein
sehr naher ist. Stellt man mit S c h l e g e l und J e n t i n k C. niger in
die Gattung Macacus und neben M. maurus, so verliert er allerdings
viel des Exceptionellen, und man könnte dann an die Entstehung
dieser beiden isolirten Formen aus einander denken, allein hierzu
möchte ich mich keineswegs bekennen.
Zwar haben Q u o y & G a i m a r d (Voy. Astrol. 1833 pl. 7) schon
zwei Schädel von C. niger abgebildet, einen jüngeren und einen
älteren, allein auch der ältere ist nicht adult, denn der obere 3. Molar
ist noch nicht ganz heraus, auch spricht die geringe Dimension des
ganzen Schädels, wenn natürliche Grösse gemeint ist, dagegen.
Ausserdem lässt die Kleinheit der Eckzähne ein Weibchen
vermuthen, worüber weder aus dem unklar gehaltenen Text (I, 67
1830), noch aus den Tafelerklärungen im Atlas und Texte Sicherheit
zu schöpfen ist. Auch scheint das Exemplar gar nicht von Celebes,
sondern von Batjan — „Matchian“ (sic!) — zu sein (p. 69). Ich bilde
daher auf Tafel II Fig. 3–4 und III Fig. 3–4 den Schädel eines adulten
Männchens von Main in der Minahassa (B 2735), in der norma
facialis, lateralis, verticalis und basalis (¾ nat. Gr.) ab, so dass ein
directer Vergleich mit dem Schädel von Macacus maurus auf
denselben Tafeln möglich ist. Dieser Vergleich ergiebt leicht die sehr
bedeutenden Unterschiede und erlässt mir ihre textliche
Hervorhebung, sowie die nähere Begründung dafür, dass ich nicht
beide in die Gattung Macacus zusammenstelle. Wenn der
abgebildete Schädel von C. niger auch 8 mm kürzer als der von M.
maurus ist, so sind sie im Ganzen doch gleich gross zu nennen und
jedenfalls ungefähr gleichaltrig, sowie adult. Auch die Körpergrösse
der beiden Exemplare kommt ziemlich überein (vom Vertex zum
Anus c. 490 mm 2). Der abgebildete ist nicht der grösste niger-
Schädel des Museums; ein männlicher (B 1477) von Batjan übertrifft
ihn, dessen Maasse, sowie die eines alten, aber defecten
männlichen von Main, in der Minahassa (B 2729), ich daneben setze
(es sind dieses die 3 ältesten aus einer Serie von 20 Schädeln), und
auch einige Skeletmaasse, soweit möglich, hinzufüge, um die oben
von M. maurus gegebenen vergleichen zu können: [6]

B 2735 B 2729 B 1477

(Cel.) (Cel.) (Batjan)
Schädellänge 136 mm — mm 142 mm
 B 2735 B 2729 B 1477
(Cel.) (Cel.) (Batjan)
Jochbogenbreite 83,7 90,6 87
,, ,, ,,
Breite am proc. zygom. os. 63 67,2 63,6
front. ,, ,, ,,
Geringste Breite zw. den 6,7 6 5,6
Augenhöhlen ,, ,, ,,
Breite an den Alveolen der 40 41,3 43
Caninen ,, ,, ,,
Geringste Breite am Pterion 48 45,3 44,5
,, ,, ,,
Grösste Breite am Pterion 55,4 52,8 49
,, ,, ,,
Länge des Femur 3 194 — 201
,, ,, ,,
Länge der Tibia 178 — 185
,, ,, ,,
Länge des Humerus 170 — 175
,, ,, ,,
Länge des Radius 172 — 182
,, ,, ,,

Die Zahl der Schwanzwirbel giebt S c h l e g e l (Cat. VII, 119 1876)

auf 5 an. Das Museum besitzt 7 Skelette: Vier von Celebes haben 3,
4 und 5 Wirbel, bei dem einen der beiden mit 5 sind sie zu 4
verwachsen, eins von Lembeh hat 4, zu 3, zwei von Batjan haben 5,
zu 2, resp. 3 verwachsen. Man kann also nicht in allen Fällen von 5
normalen Caudalwirbeln sprechen. Die Ungleichmässigkeit zeigt,
dass der Schwanzrest bereits in absteigender Entwicklung begriffen
ist; jedenfalls ist er kürzer als der von Macacus maurus.
In meinem Tagebuche finde ich folgende Aufzeichnungen: Im
Februar 1871 sah ich an den Ufern des Flusses T u m u m p a t
unweit Manado Schaaren von 25 und mehr, ich schoss auch einige;
man hört sie schreien und sieht sie beim Herannahen des Bootes
von Baum zu Baum springen, so dass die Äste unter ihrer Last
krachen. Am 9. April schoss ich einige hinter M a l a l a j a n g unweit
Manado. Am 25. April sah ich sie sehr zahlreich auf M a n a d o
t u a . Die Insel ist unbewohnt, aber von Fischern viel und von
weither besucht, die die Affen füttern. Früher wurde jährlich von
Manado ein Boot mit Essen hingesandt und am Strande deponirt,
später beschränkte man sich darauf, ein Floss mit Essen und
brennenden Lichtern Abends in See zu schicken 4, 1871 that man
auch dies nicht mehr, erlaubte aber nicht, sie zu schiessen, da man
sonst sterben müsse. Die Affen waren dick und fett und so zahm,
dass sie sich in nächster Nähe niedersetzten und erst wegliefen,
wenn man sie, sozusagen, greifen konnte, doch näherten sich nur
Männchen. Sie warteten auf den Bäumen über uns bis wir vom
Essen am Boden aufstanden und stürzten sich dann auf die Reste.
(Vgl. auch bei S c h l e g e l : Cat. VI, 120 1876.) Wahrscheinlich sind
sie vom Menschen nach der kleinen vulkanischen Insel Manado tua
übergebracht worden. Im April beobachtete ich einen Trupp bei
Ta t e l i , nahe Manado, auf hohen Bäumen, wohinauf die Gewehre
nicht reichten, auch versteckten sie sich im Laube. Wir machten
unten ein Feuer mit viel Rauch, worauf sie auf eine nahe hohe
Kokospalme flüchteten. Diese erkletterte einer meiner Begleiter,
währenddem sich ein Affe c. 60 Fuss hoch herabfallen liess und
anscheinend unbeschädigt davonlief. Auch sah ich einmal am
Waldesrand eine Wache, die das Nahen einer Gefahr meldete,
worauf aus dem Innern geantwortet wurde. Auf der Insel B a n g k a ,
im Norden von Celebes (5. Mai), fand ich sie nicht; diese Insel ist
grösser als Manado tua. Am 10. Mai in der Strasse Lembeh notirte
ich, dass viel Affen auf der Insel und auf der Festlandküste seien.
Am 23. Juni in P a n g h u , im Gebirge der Minahassa, viele. Bei
einer Besteigung des K l a b a t (2. Juli) sah ich keine, doch heisst
es, dass viele daselbst seien. Am 24. August fand ich welche c.
2000 Fuss hoch auf dem B o l i o h u t o , nordwestlich von Gorontalo,
und notirte, dass sie von unten gräulich wären, also alte Exemplare,
die stets an der Brust und den Vorderextremitäten [7]grau sind. Sonst
ist die Art vom G o r o n t a l o schen und von To m i n i registrirt
(S c h l e g e l Cat. VII, 121 1876) und P. und F. S a r a s i n
beobachteten sie in Bolang Mongondo zwischen der Minahassa und
Gorontalo (Z. Erdk. Berl. XXIX, 375 1894). H i c k s o n (Nat. N. Cel.
1889, 82) nennt sie auf der Insel Talisse, an der Nordspitze von
Celebes, häufig.

Te m m i n c k sagt (Coup-d’oeil III, 112 1849) von C. niger, dass er

überall, mit Ausnahme der grauschwarzen Schenkel, intensiv
schwarz sei. Dies ist jedoch nicht richtig. C. niger ist nie überall
intensiv schwarz, sondern stets auf der Oberseite mehr oder
weniger, oft sehr stark, mit Braun versetzt. Das eine oder andere
Exemplar unter den 16 des Dresdner Museums von der Minahassa,
Manado tua und Lembeh ist tiefer schwarz, aber auf dem Rücken
zeigen auch diese stets Braun. Es darf daher, entgegen der Angabe
fast aller Autoren, die Hervorhebung dieser Farbe in der
Beschreibung nicht fehlen. Ferner sind nur die Oberarme und
Umgebung (bei alten Individuen aber auch die Unterarme) gräulich,
im Gegensatze zu Macacus maurus, wo vornehmlich die Schenkel
so auffallend hellgrau gezeichnet erscheinen.

Zugleich trennte Te m m i n c k (p. 112) C. nigrescens ab als

braunschwarz, besonders auf den Schultern und dem Rücken, und
mit jederseits ungetheilten Gesässchwielen,
g e g e n ü b e r d e n j e d e r s e i t s z w e i t h e i l i g e n b e i niger.
Die braunschwarze Färbung kann jedoch keinen Unterschied
abgeben, denn alle Exemplare, junge wie alte, männliche wie
weibliche, aus der Minahassa, von Manado tua und Lembeh haben,
wie bereits bemerkt, mehr oder weniger Braun, letztere besonders
ausgesprochen. Erst durch S c h l e g e l (Cat. VII, 121 1876) erfuhr
man, dass Te m m i n c k zur Fundirung seines nigrescens 5
Exemplare von Gorontalo, Tulabello und Tomini, also nicht aus der
Minahassa, dienten, bei denen es allerdings auffällig ist, dass sie
jederseits eine ungetheilte Gesässchwiele haben, gegenüber der
jederseits zweitheiligen der Minahassa Exemplare. S c h l e g e l (p.
119) hielt dies für individuelle Variation, was ich nicht annehmen
möchte. Die 5 genannten Exemplare, in den Jahren 1842 und 1864,
also in 22jährigem Zwischenraum, an 3 verschiedenen Localitäten
gesammelt, sprechen schon dagegen, und von den 16 Exemplaren
des Dresdner Museums von der Minahassa, Manado tua und
Lembeh hat nicht Eines eine ungetheilte Gesässchwiele, auch führt
S c h l e g e l (p. 120) unter 5 Exemplaren der Minahassa nur eines
an, das sie links ungetheilt habe. Von den Gefangenschafts-
Exemplaren, deren Herkunft man nicht kennt, sehe ich ab. Man kann
daher hier nicht von individueller Variation sprechen, sondern es
dürfte sich um einen constanten Charakter, der einer
geographischen Provinz angehört, handeln. Auch i c h habe in
meinem Tagebuch eine Notiz, dass das Gesäss der Gorontaloer
Affen dunkler sei, als das der Minahassaer, es muss mir also eine
Verschiedenheit aufgefallen sein, ich hatte jedoch keine
Gelegenheit, dies näher zu verfolgen. Jedenfalls muss es durch
weitere Untersuchungen klar gestellt werden, wie auch, ob andere
Differenzen vorhanden sind, vorläufig allerdings lässt sich C.
nigrescens als Subspecies—mehr würde die Form nie
beanspruchen können—nicht erweisen, sondern man kann nur
sagen, dass die Exemplare von Gorontalo bis Tomini an den
Gesässchwielen von den Minahassa Exemplaren abzuweichen
scheinen.
Der B a t j a n -Affe ist derselbe wie der der Minahassa, von wo er
auch dorthin gebracht 5 worden sein dürfte. Die 2 Exemplare des
Museums haben zweitheilige Schwielen und unter den 5 des
Leidener Museums (S c h l e g e l l. c. 121) hat nur eines ungetheilte.
Das von Q u o y & G a i m a r d (Voy. Astrol. pl. 7 1833) abgebildete
Gesäss eines Exemplares von Makjan (rect. Batjan) ist ungetheilt,
allein auf diese Abbildung dürfte kaum Etwas zu geben sein. Ich
muss auch bemerken, dass die Art des Trocknens der Häute und die
Art des Präparirens hier irreführen kann; 2 Exemplare aus der
Minahassa schienen ungetheilte Schwielen zu haben, nach dem
Aufweichen kam die Theilung jedoch sehr deutlich zum Vorschein.
A n d e r s o n (An. Zool. Res. I, 83 1878 Anm.) lässt auf Batjan
nigrescens zu Hause sein—„Celebes, Moluccas, and the small
adjacent Island of Batchian“ (sic!) —, was nun ganz irrig ist. 6

Die sich durch fast alle Bücher schleppende irrthümliche Angabe,

dass sich diese oder eine verwandte [8]Art auch auf den Philippinen
fände 7, mag daher rühren, dass die seit lange jährlich die Minahassa
und die Tominibucht zum Cacao-Einkaufe besuchenden Philippinen-
Schiffe lebende Affen mit zurücknahmen, die dann z. B. von Manila
aus in ein europäisches Museum kamen oder sonst (z. B. von Sulu
durch G o g o r z a , An. Soc. Espan. XVII, 9 des S. A., 1888) registrirt
wurden. Eine solche Verschleppung hat gewiss oft statt gefunden,
denn Affen werden jedem einlaufenden Schiff angeboten, so m i r
sofort, als ich am 25. November 1870 Abends in Kema per
Dampfschiff ankam.

1 E v e r e t t (P. Z. S. 1893, 494) führt arctoides auch von Borneo auf, indem er
melanotus Ogilb., den G ü n t h e r (P. Z. S. 1876, 425) von dort nennt, damit
identificirt (nach A n d e r s o n : An. Zool. Res. I, 45 1878 und Cat. Mamm. I, 74
1881), allein das betreffende junge Exemplar hatte, bei einer Körperlänge von 12
Zoll, einen 3½ Zoll langen Schwanz, es kann also nicht arctoides gewesen sein.
(S. auch H o s e Mamm. Borneo 1893, 8.) Die neuesten Abbildungen von jungen
und alten arctoides findet man bei A n d e r s o n (l. c. pl. I u. II 1878). ↑
2 Die ähnliche Färbung jüngerer Exemplare scheint z. B. W a l l a c e , der
vielleicht keine oder wenig Affen auf Celebes schoss, verleitet zu haben, M.
maurus im Süden für C. niger zu halten (Mal. Arch. D. A. I, 331 1869), was schon
W e b e r (Zool. Erg. I, 103 1890) bespricht (vgl. auch J e n t i n k : T. Aardr. Gen.
1889, 246). So irrte W a l l a c e auch, wohl ebenfalls in Folge dieser
Verwechselung, wenn er C. niger über „ganz Celebes“ (p. 393) verbreitet sein
lässt; wir sahen bereits oben unter M. maurus, dass er wahrscheinlich nur die
Nordhalbinsel bewohnt. Auch Te i j s m a n n (Nat. T. Ned. Ind. 38, 77 1879, s.
auch 23, 367 1861) nahm M. maurus im Süden (Pangkadjene) für C. niger; er
heisst hier dureh. (S. auch oben p. 1 Anm. 2.) ↑
3 Die entsprechenden Maasse einiger jüngeren weiblichen Exemplare sind:
B 2737 (Cel.) B 3077 (Lembeh) B 1475 (Batjan)
Länge des Femur 158 mm 146 mm 176 mm
Länge der Tibia 143 138 158
,, ,, ,,
Länge des Humerus 141 130 157
,, ,, ,,
Länge des Radius 147 136 159
,, ,, ,,

4 Ob Letzteres nicht in anderem Zusammenhange wie mit den Affen geschah,

will ich hier nicht untersuchen. Man vergleiche u. a. H i c k s o n : Nat. N. Cel.
1889, 163 und Globus LX, 154 1891, sowie S c h u r t z Abh. Sächs. Ges. Wiss.
Phil. Hist. Cl. XV, II. 68 1895. ↑
5 Der v . R o s e n b e r g schen Angabe (Mal. Arch. 1878, 268) möchte ich kein
grosses Gewicht beimessen, wenn es sich auch so verhalten haben
könnte. ↑
6 Die beste Synonymie von C. niger und nigrescens findet man in A n d e r s o n s
ausgezeichnetem Werke. ↑
7 Siehe z. B. W a l l a c e (Mal. Arch. D. A. I, 393 1869 und Geogr. Verbr. D. A. I,
495 1876). S c h u i l i n g (T. Aardr. Gen. 2. s. v, 536 1888) folgt W a l l a c e
blindlings, was schon J e n t i n k (l. c. VI, 244, 1889) gebührend beleuchtet hat,
und so bringt ebenfalls er dieses Philippinen-Vorkommen, wenn auch mit einem
„vielleicht“. Dass E l e r a , der unkritischeste aller Compilatoren, noch neuerdings
(Cat. sist. fauna fil. I, 4 1895) wieder die Art auch von Negros und Sulu aufführt,
kann unter diesen Umständen nicht Wunder nehmen; eine so kaltblütige
Abschreiberei, wie sie E l e r a in seinem mehrbändigen Werke sich hat zu
Schulden kommen lassen, dürfte einzig dastehen. ↑
[Inhalt]
 6. Tarsius fuscus Fisch.-Waldh.

Die Art kommt nach W e b e r (Zool. Ergebn. III, 264 1893) nur auf
Celebes, Sangi, Saleyer 1 und Savu vor, wir werden aber sehen,
dass die Sangi Form von der von Celebes abweicht und
abzutrennen ist. Das Museum besitzt T. fuscus von Manado, Lotta
und Kenilo, in der Minahassa, von der Insel Menado tua 2 bei
Manado, vom Pik von Bonthain in Süd Celebes, von Tonkean, in
Nordost Celebes gegenüber Peling, und von der Insel Saleyer, im
Ganzen 15 Exemplare, das Leidener Museum hat ihn ausserdem
von Gorontalo (J e n t i n k Cat. XI, 81 1892), und ebendaher das
Berliner Museum aus meiner Sammlung, er scheint also ganz
Celebes zu bewohnen. Die Exemplare von Manado tua
unterscheiden sich nicht von denen des Festlandes. Ob T. fuscus,
wie wahrscheinlich auch Cynopithecus niger, vom Menschen auf
diese kleine vulkanische Insel hinübergebracht worden ist?

Das Exemplar von Saleyer hat den Schwanz weniger behaart,

scheint aber noch jung zu sein.

Inländischer Name in der Minahassa: tankassin. Ich besass das

Gespenstthierchen im Jahr 1871 in Manado lebend, konnte es aber
nicht lange in der Gefangenschaft erhalten.

F o r b e s (Prim. I, 21 1894) registrirt die Art irrigerweise auch von

den Philippinen. Er nennt als einziges Unterscheidungsmerkmal von
T. spectrum (Pall.) die dunkelbraunen Hände, allein an der Farbe der
Hände kann man die beiden Arten, deren Charaktere W e b e r
schon genügend und in bemerkenswerther Weise klar gestellt hat,
nicht erkennen. Die Verschiedenheiten im Skeletbaue lohnte es sich
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