Standards of Length Measurement |

Metrology

Sometimes, distances have to be measured between two lines

sometimes between two surfaces, or a combination of line and surface.
Depending on this, there are three standards of length measurements:
1. Line Standard. 2. End Standard 3. Wave Length Standard (Optical
Standard).

1. Line Standard:
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between
two lines, this is known as, obviously, line standard. Imperial Standard
Yard and International Standard Meter are the line standards both
comes under primary standard of length measurement.

Measuring scale and tapes are also line standards and comes under
working standards of length measurement. This form of measurement is
not very convenient to use. Measurement of length with scale is an
example of line standard.

2. End Standard:
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between
two surfaces or ends, this is referred as, obviously, end standard. Slip
gauges, end bars, micrometres etc. are comes in this category. The end
faces are hardened, lapped flat and parallel to a very high degree of
accuracy. This form of measurement is very convenient to use in tool-
rooms, laboratories, workshops etc.
It is difficult to convert between line measuring system and end
measuring system. For Example, a line measuring device (say scale) is
not suitable for the direct measurement of distance between two edges
or surfaces.

Similarly, an end measuring device (say slip gauges) are not suitable for
the measurement of distance between two lines. So the selection of
measuring device depends upon the each particular situation of
measurement.

There are two basic forms of end standards:

1. Slip gauges (gauge blocks)

2. Cylindrical end bars, (length bars)

1. Slip Gauges:
Slip gauges are used for measurement up to 200 mm. These are more
accurate than line standards.

2. Cylindrical End Bars:

When dealing with accurate dimensions that are larger than can be
conveniently assembled using slip gauges, length bars are used. In the
other words, a length bar has a similar function to gauge blocks but on
a larger scale. The length bars are available in different grades of
accuracy and in different sizes, ranging from 20 to 30 mm dia and up to
1 m length.
3. Light Wave Length Standard (Optical Standard):

Because of problems of variation in length of metallic standards such as

meter and yard wave length of light has been internationally considered
which defines the primary standard. The wavelength of monochromatic
light (red radiation) from, Krypton isotope 86 is used as a unit of length.

Eleventh General Conference of Weight and Measures held in

Paris in 1960 defined the meter as:
“The meter is equal to 1650,763.73 wavelengths of the red orange
radiation of Krypton isotope 86

(Kr-86) gas” as shown in Fig. 1.1.

This was an important advancement in which, a unique meter or yard is
replaced by a natural atomic standard of light.

It was a sensible movement that made easy accessibility of primary unit

to anywhere and in any laboratory without the risk of error.

According to this optical standard, other units of length can be

redined as:

Advantages of Light (Optical) Standard:

1. It is more reliable than metallic standards.

2. It could be access and adopted at any time in all countries without

the risk of being error.

3. It reduces the uncertainty by a factor 50-55.

4. It does not change length and hence provides more accuracy.

5. It provides higher accuracy than material standards for comparative
measurement.

6. It can be kept in all standard rooms and physical laboratories by

“identical copies”.

MEASUREMENT AND ITS TYPE

MEASUREMENT:
MEASUREMENT IS USED TO TELL US THE LENGTH, THE WEIGHT, THE TEMPERATURE, OR A CHANGE IN
ONE OF THESE PHYSICAL ENTITIES OF A MATERIAL. IT IS THE RESULT OF AN OPINION FORMED BY ONE
OR MORE OBSERVERS ABOUT THE RELATIVE SIZE OR INTENSITY OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITY. THE
OPINION IS FORMED BY THE OBSERVER AFTER COMPARING THE OBJECT WITH A QUANTITY OF SAME
KIND CHOSEN AS A UNIT, CALLED STANDARD.
THE RESULT OF MEASUREMENT IS EXPRESSED BY A NUMBER REPRESENTING THE RATIO OF THE
UNKNOWN QUANTITY TO THE ADOPTED STANDARD.

FIG NO: -1 FUNDAMENTAL MEASURING PROCESS

FOR EXAMPLE 10 CM LENGTH OF AN OBJECT IMPLIES THAT THE OBJECT IS 10 TIMES AS LARGE AS 1 CM;
THE UNIT EMPLOYED IN EXPRESSING LENGTH.

TYPE OF MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENTS ARE DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES

DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS

DIRECT MEASUREMENTS:
THE VALUE OF THE PHYSICAL PARAMETER (MEASURAND) IS DETERMINED BY COMPARING IT DIRECTLY
WITH REFERENCE STANDARDS. THE PHYSICAL QUANTITIES LIKE MASS, LENGTH, AND TIME ARE
MEASURED BY DIRECT COMPARISON.

INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS:
THE VALUE OF THE PHYSICAL PARAMETER (MEASURAND) IS MORE GENERALLY DETERMINED BY
INDIRECT COMPARISON WITH SECONDARY STANDARDS THROUGH CALIBRATION.
 PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS

PRIMARY:
IN PRIMARY MODE, THE SOUGHT VALUE OF A PHYSICAL PARAMETER IS DETERMINED BY COMPARING IT
DIRECTLY WITH REFERENCE STANDARDS. THE REQUISITE INFORMATION IS OBTAINABLE THROUGH
SENSES OF SIGHT AND TOUCH. E.G. ARE MATCHING OF TWO LENGTHS WHEN DETERMINING THE
LENGTH OF AN OBJECT WITH A RULER.

SECONDARY: -
THE INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING ONE TRANSLATION ARE CALLED SECONDARY
MEASUREMENTS. THE CONVERSION OF PRESSURE INTO DISPLACEMENT BY BELLOWS (FIG:-2) IS A
SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF THE SECONDARY MEASUREMENT.

FIG NO: -2 BELLOWS CONVERT PRESSURE INTO DISPLACEMENT

TERTIARY:
THE INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING TWO CONVERSIONS ARE CALLED TERTIARY
MEASUREMENTS. THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SPEED OF A ROTATING SHAFT BY MEANS OF AN ELECTRIC
TACHOMETER IS THE EXAMPLE OF THE TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS.

 CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT TYPE MEASUREMENTS

CONTACT MEASUREMENT: - WHERE THE SENSING ELEMENT OF THE MEASURING DEVICE HAS A
CONTACT WITH THE MEDIUM WHOSE CHARACTERISTICS ARE MEASURED.

NON-CONTACT: - WHERE THE SENSOR DOES NOT COMMUNICATE PHYSICALLY WITH THE MEDIUM.

Elements of a measurement system

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable being
measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading or signal
according to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more complex measurement
situations, a measuring system consists of several separate elements as shown in Figure :-
 1.The first element in any measuring system is the primary sensor: this gives an output that is a function of the
measured (the input applied to it).

2.Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a primary transducer is in an inconvenient
form and has to be converted to a more convenient form. In some cases, the primary sensor and variable
conversion element are combined, and the combination is known as a transducer.

3.Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some way.

4.In addition to these three components just mentioned, some measurement systems have one or two other
components, firstly to transmit the signal to some remote point and secondly to display or record the signal if it is
not fed automatically into a feedback control system.

5.The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where the measured signal is utilized.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Direct comparison:
•Compare unknown quantity (measurand) against a known quantity (standard). Eg: tape measure.
•Direct comparison not always possible or practical. Eg: measuring sound levels.

Indirect comparison (calibrated system):

•Makes use of a sensor or transducing device (transducer) to transform the measurand into an analogous form.
•The sensor is connected to a series of instruments which convert the output of the sensor into a useful
analogous form which presents the measurand in a useful and practical format.

Classification of instruments

•Active and passive instruments

•Null-type and deflection-type instruments
•Analogue and digital instruments
•Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Smart and non-smart instruments

 Limits Fits and Tolerance

1.1 Limits Fits and Tolerance

Two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the actual size is
contained are called limits. The relationship existing between two parts
which are to be assembled with respect to the difference on their sizes before
assembly is called a fit. Tolerance is defined as the total permissible
variation of a size. It is the difference between maximum limit and minimum
limit of size.

The following terms and definitions are important from the

subject point of view:
1. Shaft:
The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but to
any external dimension on a component.

The definition of shaft is shown in figure. 1.49:

2. Hole:
The term hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but to
any internal dimension of a component.

The definition of hole is shown in figure. 1.50:

3. Size:
The term size refers to the numerical value of a linear dimension in a
particular unit.

4. Nominal Size:
The term nominal size refers to the size of a part specified in the
drawing for convenience to shop floor.

5. Basic Size:
The term basic size refers to the size from which the limits of size are
derived by the application of tolerance (i.e. upper and lower deviation).
The basic size or nominal size of a part is often the same and it is
termed as zero line.

6. Actual Size:
The term actual size referred to the actual measured dimension of a
part. The difference between the basic size and the actual size should
not exceed a certain limit, if so; it will disturb the interchangeability of
assembly parts.
7. Limits of Size:
The term limits of size referred to the two extreme permissible sizes for
a dimension of a part, between which the actual size should lie. The
largest permissible size for a dimension is called upper or high or
maximum limit, whereas the smallest size is called lower or minimum
limit.

The limits of sizes are shown in Fig. 1.52:

8. Maximum Limit of Size:
The term maximum limit of size referred to the maximum or greatest
permissible size of a feature.

9. Minimum Limit of Size:

The term minimum limit of size referred to the minimum or smallest
permissible size of a feature.

10. Allowance:
The term allowance refers to the difference between the basic
dimensions of mating parts. The allowance may be Positive or negative.
In positive allowance the shaft size is less than the hole size, and in
negative allowance the shaft size is greater than the hole size.

Allowance tells the type of fit. Positive allowance provides clearance fit
while negative allowance provides interference fit. Sometimes it is also
referred as clearance.

11. Tolerance:
The term tolerance refers to the difference between the upper
(maximum) limit and lower (minimum) limit of a dimension. In other
words, tolerance is the maximum permissible variation in a dimension.
The tolerance may be of two types i.e. unilateral or bilateral.

When the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size,

e.g., , then it is said to be unilateral system of tolerance. ‘When
the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g.,
then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance.
The unilateral system is widely used in practice as it permits changing
the tolerance value while still retaining the same allowance or type of
fit. The two methods of providing tolerance are shown in Figure 1.53.

Example:

12. Tolerance Zone:

The term tolerance zone refers to the zone between the maximum and
minimum limit size.

The definition of tolerance zone is shown in Figure 1.54:

13. Zone Line:
The term zero line refers to the straight line corresponding to the basic
size, to which deviations and tolerances are referred. According to
convention, the positive and negative deviations are shown above and
below the zero line respectively.

14. Deviation:
The term deviation referred to the algebraic difference between a size
(actual size limits of size, etc.) and the corresponding basic size.

15. Upper-Deviation:
The term upper deviation refers to the algebraic difference between the
maximum limit and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is
demoted by a symbol ‘ES’ and of a shaft is denoted by a symbioses’.

This is shown in Fig. 1.55:

16. Lower Deviation:

The term lower deviation refers to the algebraic difference between the
minimum limit and basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is denoted
by a symbol ‘EI’ and of a shaft it is denoted by a symbol ‘ei’. This is
shown in Fig. 1.55.

17. Actual Deviation:

The term actual deviation refers to the algebraic difference between an
actual size and the corresponding basic size.

18. Mean Deviation:

The term mean deviation refers to the arithmetical mean between the
upper and lower deviations.

19. Fundamental Deviation:

The term fundamental deviation refers to the deviation, either the upper
or the lower deviation, which is nearest one to the zero line for either a
hole or a shaft. Fundamental deviation provides the position of the
tolerance zone with respect to the zero line. The fundamental deviation
is shown in fig. 1.55.

20. Fits:
The term fits refers to the degree of tightness or looseness between two
mating parts. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole and shaft.

Fits may be classified into the following three types:

(i) Clearance fit.

(ii) Interference fit.

(iii) Transition fit.

21. Clearance:
The term clearance refers to the difference between the sizes of the
hole and the shaft before assembly. Clearance must be positive.

22. Interference:
The term interference refers to the arithmetical difference between the
sizes of the- hole and the shaft, before assembly. Interference is
negative clearance.

23. Clearance Fit:

A fit that always provides a clearance (gap) between the hole and shaft
when assembled is known as clearance fit.

In clearance fit, the minimum size of the hole is either greater than or,
equal to (in extreme case) the maximum size of the shaft, so that the
shaft can rotate or slide as per the purpose of the assembled members.

In clearance fit, the difference between the maximum size of the hole
and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance, whereas
the minimum size of the hole and maximum size of the shaft is known as
minimum clearance.

Clearance fit is shown in Fig. 1.56 (a):

The clearance fit may be of different types, e.g., slide fit, easy sliding fit,
running fit, slack running fit and loose running fit, etc.

24. Interference Fit:

A fit that everywhere provides interference between the hole and shaft
when assembled, is known as interference fit. In interference fit, the
maximum size of the hole is either smaller or equal to (in extreme case)
the minimum size of the shaft.

In this fit, the shaft and the hole members are intended to be attached
permanently, so that they can be used as a solid component, but
according to the purpose and function of this combination, this type of
fit can be varied.

It may be noted from the figure that in interference fit, the tolerance
zone of the hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft.

In interference fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole
and the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum interference.
Whereas difference between the maximum size of the hole and the
minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum interference,
Interference fit is shown in Fig. 1.56 (b).

The interference fit may be of different types, e.g., shrink fit, light drive
fit, heavy drive fit. Example of this type of fit are bearing bushes which
are in an interference fit in their housing of a small end of the
connecting rod of an engine.

25. Transition Fit:

A fit which may provide either a clearance or interference between the
shaft and hole when assembled, depending on the actual sizes of the
shaft and hole, is known as Transition fit. It may be noted that in a
transition fit, the tolerance zone of shaft and hole overlap completely or
partially. Transition fit is shown in Fig. 1.56 (c).
The transition fit may be of different types, e.g. Push fit, force fit, tight
fit etc.

26. Hole Basis System:

In hole basis system, the size of the hole is constant and different fits
are obtained by varying the size of shaft as shown in Fig. 1.57 (a).

It may be noted that, from manufacturing point of view, a hole basis

system is always preferred. Because holes are produced by standard
size of drills and reamers, whose size cannot be adjusted easily on the
other hand, the size of the shaft which is to go into hole, can be easily
adjusted by turning and grinding.

27. Shaft Basic System:

In shaft basic system, the size of the shaft is constant and different fits
are obtained by varying the size of the hole, as shown in fig. 1.58 (b).
28. Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and Least or Minimum Metal
Limit (LML) for a Shaft:
The shaft shown in Fig. 1.59 has an upper and lower limit of 40.05 mm
and 39.95 mm respectively. The shaft is said to have a maximum metal
limit (MML) of 40.05mm because at this limit the shaft has the
maximum possible amount of metal.

The limit of 39.95mm is called the minimum or least metal limit (LML)
because at this limit the shaft has minimum or least possible amount of
metal.

29. Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and Least or Minimum Metal

Limit (LML) for a Hole:
The hole shown in figure 1.60 has an upper and lower limit of 20.05 mm
and 19.95 mm respectively. When the hole is at its upper limit the
minimum amount of metal is left.

The limit of 20.05 mm is therefore called the least or minimum metal

limit (LML). When the hole is at its lower limit the maximum amount of
metal is left and hence the limit of 19.95mm is called the maximum
metal limit (MML).

This is shown in Figure 1.60:

 INTERCHANGEABILITY
Definition
 An interchangeable part is one which can be substituted for similar part manufactured to the same drawing.

 When one component assembles properly (and which satisfies the functionality aspect of the assembly) with
any mating component, both chosen at random, then it is known as interchangeability. Or

 The parts manufactured under similar conditions by any company or industry at any corner of the world can be
interchangeable

The advantages of interchangeability

1. The assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any component picked up from its lot will assemble with any other
mating part from another lot without additional fitting and machining.

2. It enhances the production rate.

3. It brings down the assembling cost drastically.

4. Repairing of existing machines or products is simplified because component parts can be easily replaced.

5. Replacement of worn out parts is easy.

6. Without interchangeability mass production is not possible

Examples:- Keys, Couplings, Pin Joints, Screwed Fasteners, Gears, Clutches etc

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Definition of Accuracy

By the term ‘accuracy’, we mean the degree of compliance with the standard
measurement, i.e. to which extent the actual measurement is close to the
standard one. It measures the correctness and closeness of the result at the
same time by comparing it to the absolute value.

Therefore, the closer the measurement, the higher is the level of accuracy. It
mainly depends on the way; data is collected.

Definition of Precision

Precision represents the uniformity or repeatability in the measurements. It is

the degree of excellence, in the performance of an operation or the techniques
used to obtain the results. It measures the extent to which the results are close
to each other, i.e. when the measurements are clustered together.

Therefore, the higher the level of precision the less is the variation between
measurements. For instance: Precision is when the same spot is hit, again and
again, which is not necessarily the correct spot.

Key Differences Between Accuracy and Precision

The difference between accuracy and precision can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:

1. The level of agreement between the actual measurement and the absolute
measurement is called accuracy. The level of variation that lies in the
values of several measurements of the same factor is called as precision
2. Accuracy represents the nearness of the measurement with the actual
measurement. On the other hand, precision shows the nearness of an
individual measurement with those of the others.
3. Accuracy is the degree if conformity, i.e. the extent to which measurement
is correct when compared to the absolute value. On the other hand,
precision is the degree of reproducibility, which explains the consistency of
the measurements.
4. Accuracy is based on a single factor, whereas precision is based on more
than one factor.
5. Accuracy is a measure of statistical bias while precision is the measure of
statistical variability.
 6. Accuracy focuses on systematic errors, i.e. the errors caused by the
problem in the instrument. As against this, precision is concerned with
random error, which occurs periodically with no recognisable pattern.
Conclusion

 So, if the actual measurement is high in accuracy and precision, the result
would be free from errors.
 If the actual measurement is precise but inaccurate, then the result is in
disagreement with the expected one.
 If the actual result is accurate but imprecise, then there are huge
variations in the measurements.
 And finally, if the actual measurement is neither accurate nor precise, then
the result would lack correctness and exactness at the same time.

The sources of errors in measurement

It is not possible to measure the true value of an object, there will be definitely an existence of error
either it can be very small (Negligible) or considerable based on application. This error can be evaluated
as either an absolute error or a relative error.

Error in Measurement
Basically, the error can be defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value.
This error can be evaluated as following types

 Absolute Error
 Relative Error

Absolute Error
Absolute error = |True value-Measured Value|

Relative Error
Relative error = Absolute Error/Measured value

They are as simple as that.

While measuring a parameter with a measuring instrument there are so many factors that determine
the accuracy of the measurement, these factors are the sources of the errors in measurement. Let’s
discuss different sources of errors in measurement.

Sources of Errors in measurement

sources of errors in measurement are nothing but the different error possibilities in the measurement.
the different types of errors are listed as a tree diagram below.

Static Errors
There are three static errors those are Reading errors, Characteristic errors, Environmental errors. The
static error means no relation to the time variation in the measurement, only related to the physical
nature of the measuring instrument. That is what a static Error means.

i) Reading error: Reading errors such as reading with

 parallax error: Observing the readings from the dial without putting it normal to the eye.
 Interpolation error: Taking correct interpolation when the indicator is in between two graduations.

ii)Characteristic Error:

 Not able to attain the theoretical performance of the Instrument in taking an actual measurement.

iii) Environmental Errors:

 Environmental factors such as wind, surrounding temperature, humidity, effects the on measuring
instruments.
 Even the electrical and the magnetic field also influence the error in the measuring instruments while in
static measurement.
 This environmental error is also a source of an error under instrumental loading errors.
Instrumental Loading Errors
 Instrument loading errors mean, due to the measuring instrument the object which needs to be measured
tends to change. For example, due to applying overpressure on the object by using the measuring
instrument forcibly, the object may tend to change its shape and gives us an error.
 The environmental factor also affects the object to change in its parameter and becomes a source of an
error as we said earlier.

Dynamic Errors
Dynamic errors mean the error caused by the time variation in the measurand(the object being
measured). The main factor causes the dynamic error are the inertia, damping, friction in the sensing
system or the display system of the measuring instrument.

There are two different dynamic errors. They are

i) Systematic Errors:
These systematic errors are

 Regular or repeats in nature and also can be controllable. (Repeats after a certain amount of time)
 Can be eliminated sometimes.
 Calibration errors, variation in the contact pressure, variation in the atmospheric pressure, Parallax error,
misalignment errors are the sources of Systematic errors.

ii) Random Errors:

These Random Errors are

 Errors randomly occurred with the measuring instrument. (Unable to predict the when the error going to
happen)
 Hard to control.
 Can be corrected in the final results.
 Error due to the variation of in the setting of the workpiece and the instrument, backlash and friction in the
components of the measuring instruments are the sources of the Random errors in measurement.
UNIT-2) PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

• For increasing the accuracy of direct observation methods,
following mechanical means of magnification are adopted:
1. Lever method
2. Vernier method
3. Screw & Screw nut method
1. Lever Method:
In fig.2.1 is shown the principle of simple magnifying lever
(consisting of multiplying lever & a scale).
The lever is supported on a knife edge support. When a distance ‘l’
is measured by the indicator the magnification ratio is given by:
a/b = Reading on the scale/bsinα= a. α/bsinα
Where α= angle of displacement corresponding to the measured
distance l.
It may be observed that the magnification ratio increases by
increasing the displacement angle α.
Thus for equal distance l there will be unequal displacement angle
α, so that scales will have unequal divisions.
To eliminate this, the angular measurement range of the system
must be made relatively small. In this method the magnification is
practically limited to 10:1 because of the greater friction involved
on pivots & bearing of the system for greater magnification
The friction can be reduced by means of specially designed pivots &
bearings & making use of knife edges

2. Vernier Method Principle:

• If a sliding Vernier is provided , whose scale length equals 9mm
but is divided into 10 equal divisions, the difference b/w the
scale division of the vernier & that of the main scale will be (1.0
-9/10)=0.1mm
• If the vernier scale is set so that its zero coincides with the zero
line of the main scale, the first line on the vernier scale will be
0.1mm shorter than the corresponding line on the main scale .
Therefore scale value of 0.1mm can be achieved by using a
vernier
• If a sliding Vernier is provided , whose scale length equals 9mm
but is divided into 10 equal divisions, the difference b/w the
scale division of the vernier & that of the main scale will be (1.0
-9/10)=0.1mm
• If the vernier scale is set so that its zero coincides with the zero
line of the main scale, the first line on the vernier scale will be
0.1mm shorter than the corresponding line on the main scale.
 Therefore scale value of 0.1mm can be achieved by using a
vernier
• When the scale is to be read, the reading of the main scale is
first taken upto the zero mark of the vernier then the reading
of the vernier scale graduation that coincide with the division
on the main scale is noted, which gives the fraction of the main
scale graduation according to the scale value of the vernier
• Vernier principle can be applied for increasing the accuracy of
angular measurements

3. Screw & Screw-nut Method:

• Refer Fig 3.3. The Screw & nut consists of the following:
Fixed Frame: It has two contact members or anvils. One anvil is
fixed & the other is moveable
Moveable Anvil: It is provided with the threaded part & can be
advanced by means of barrel nut
Barrel nut: The Periphery of the barrel nut is graduated & its
reading can be taken opposite to a fixed pointer
Scale: The number of complete terms of the nut is indicated by
means of a scale engraved on the plain part
• The scale should read zero when the anvils (fixe & moveable)
are in contact. The readings of the scale give the distance b/w
the end faces of the anvils
 • If p is the pitch of the screw thread & N is the total number of
equal divisions on the barrel nut then the corresponding axial
shift ‘a’ per movement of one division on the barrel nut is given
as the scale value of the instrument by;
a = p/N

• Normally when the pitch, p=0.5mm the barrel will be divided to

50 divisions. In that case, each division will read
0.5/50=0.01mm. In this case the main scale must be graduated
in 0.5 mm, which is equal to the pitch of the screw thread
• When the pitch p=1mm, the barrel will be divided to 100
divisions such that each division reads 0.01mm. The scale can
be divided in millimeters
• When a vernier is employed to read the barrel division, the
accuracy can be increased 10 times so that it is possible to
obtain a reading to the nearest 0.001mm

4. Compound Gearing and Helical Spring Methods

PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Reflection. It is of two kinds--diffuse and regular. Diffuse reflection is the kind by which we ordinarily see
objects. It gives us information about their shape, size, color and texture. Regular reflection is mirrorlike. We
don't see the surface of the mirror; instead, we see objects that are reflected in it. When light strikes a mirror at an
angle, it is reflected at the same angle. In diffuse reflection, light leaves at many different angels. The degree of
surface roughness determines the proportion of diffuse and regular reflection that occurs. Reflection from a
smooth, polished surface like a mirror is mostly regular, while diffuse reflection takes place at surfaces that are
rough compared with the wavelength of light. Since the wavelength of light is very small (about 5,000 A), most
reflection is diffuse.... Viewed microscopically, all reflection is regular. The appearance of diffuse reflection is due
to the many different angles that light rays encounter when they strike a rough surface. The reflection of each
single ray is regular--that is, it is reflected at the same angle at which it strikes the surface. A fairly smooth surface,
such as that of a glossy vinyl raincoat, shows both diffuse and regular reflection, the relative proportions depending
on the angle of the incident light. But a rough surface, such as that of a tweed coat, shows only diffuse reflection. It
has no "shiny" surface.

Refraction. It is the bending of a light ray when it crosses the boundary between two different materials, as from
air into water. This change in direction is due to a change in speed. Light travels fastest in empty space and slows
down upon entering matter. Its speed in air is almost the same as its speed in space, but it travels only 3/4 as fast in
water and only 2/3 as fast in glass. The refractive index of a substance is the ratio of the speed of light in space (or
in air) to its speed in the substance. This ratio is always greater than one.

When a beam of light enters a pane of glass perpendicular to the surface (above), it slows down, and its wavelength
in the glass becomes shorter in the same proportion. The frequency remains the same. Coming out of the glass, the
light speeds up again, the wavelength returning to its former size.

When a light ray strikes the glass at some other angel, it changes direction as
well as speed. Inside the glass, the ray ends toward the perpendicular or
normal. If the two sides of the glass are parallel, the light will return to its
original direction when it leaves the glass, even though it has been displaced
in its passage. If the two sides of the glass are not parallel, as in the case of a
prism or a lens, the ray emerges in a new direction.

Interference is an effect that occurs when two waves of equal frequency are
superimposed. This often happens when light rays from a single source
travel by different paths to the same point. If, at the point of meeting, the
two waves are in phase (vibrating in unison, and the crest of one coinciding
with the crest of the other), they will combine to form a new wave of the
same frequency. The amplitude of the new wave is the sum of the
amplitudes of the original waves. The process of forming this new wave is
called constructive interference.
If the two waves meet out of phase (crest of one coinciding with a trough of
the other), the result is a wave whose amplitude is the difference of the
original amplitudes. This process is called destructive interference. If the
original waves have equal amplitudes, they may completely destroy each
other, leaving no wave at all. Constructive interference results in a bright
spot; destructive interference produces a dark spot.
Partial constructive or destructive interference results whenever the waves
have an intermediate phase relationship. Interference of waves does not
create or destroy light energy, but merely redistributes it.
Two waves interfere only if their phase relationship does not change. They
are than said to be coherent. Light waves from two different sources do not
interfere because radiations from different atoms are constantly changing
their phase relationships. They are non-coherent
Polarization is a phenomenon peculiar to transverse waves, i.e., waves that vibrate in a direction perpendicular to their
direction of propagation. Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave (see electromagnetic radiation ). Thus a light wave
traveling forward can vibrate up and down (in the vertical plane), from side to side (in the horizontal plane), or in an
intermediate direction. Ordinarily a ray of light consists of a mixture of waves vibrating in all the directions perpendicular to its
line of propagation. If for some reason the vibration remains constant in direction, the light is said to be polarized.

Introduction to Optical Prisms

Prisms are solid glass optics that are ground and polished into geometrical and optically significant shapes.
The angle, position, and number of surfaces help define the type and function. One of the most recognizable
uses of prisms, as demonstrated by Sir Isaac Newton, consists of dispersing a beam of white light into its
component colors (Figure 1). This application is utilized by refractometer and spectrographic components.
Since this initial discovery, prisms have been used in "bending" light within a system, "folding" the system
into a smaller space, changing the orientation (also known as handedness or parity) of an image, as well as
combining or splitting optical beams with partial reflecting surfaces. These uses are common in applications
with telescopes, binoculars, surveying equipment, and a host of others.

Figure 1: Dispersion through a Prism

A notable characteristic of prisms is their ability to be modelled as a system of plane mirrors in order to
simulate the reflection of light within the prism medium. Replacing mirror assemblies is perhaps the most
useful application of prisms, since they both bend or fold light and change image parity. Often, multiple
mirrors are needed to achieve results similar to a single prism. Therefore, the substitution of one prism in lieu
of several mirrors reduces potential alignment errors, increasing accuracy and minimizing the size and
complexity of a system.

Principle of Operation of Electrical Measuring Instruments

 The principle of working of all electrical measuring instruments depend upon the various effects of electric
current or voltage. The effects utilised in the manufacturing of electrical instruments are magnetic, heating,
chemical, electrostatic and electromagnetic effects.

 The classification of the instruments according to the effects utilised in their operation is given below.

Table 2.1 Classification of instruments based on principle of operation

Effects Instrument Suitable for type of measurement

Ammeters, voltmeters, Current, voltage, power and energy on

Magnetic
wattmeters, integrating meters both ac and dc systems

Current and voltage for both dc and ac

Thermal Ammeters and voltmeters
systems

Chemical Integrating meters For measurement of dc ampere-hours

Voltage only, on both ac and dc

Electrostatic Voltmeters only
systems

Voltmeters, ammeters, For measurement of voltage, current,

Electromagnetic Induction
wattmeters, energy meters power and energy in ac system only

PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTS

Basic Principles

A pneumatic definition would state that a pneumatic system is basically a method to turn electricity into
mechanical motion using compressed gasses instead of motors or electromagnets. For many
applications, this is much more efficient and practical. Systems typically include an air compressor,
which stores compressed air in a cylinder and releases the compressed air under electric control. The
compressed gas is almost always ordinary air because it is free and non- toxic. Often the air is slightly
modified by taking out some of the water vapour and adding a small amount of atomized oil to make
the gas more machine friendly.
transducers

Transducers
• A Transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
• Alternatively, a Transducer is defined as a device which provides usable output response to a specific input
measured which may be a physical quantity.
• A Transducer can also be defined as a device when actuated by energy in one system supplies energy in the
same form or in another form to a second system.

Classification of Transducers
• Transducers may be classified according to their application, method of energy conversion, nature of the
output signal, and so on.
• Transducers On The Basis of principle Used Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analog/Digital Transducers/
Inverse Transducers Capacitive Inductive Resistive

Active and Passive Transducers

• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation. Therefore they are also
called as self generating type transducers. I. The active transducer are self generating devices which operate
under the energy conversion principle. II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical
output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric potential, without any external source of energy being used

Classification of Active Transducers

Example of active transducers

• Piezoelectric Transducer- When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in
the voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value of sound or
vibration.
Passive Transducers
• These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are not self generating type
transducers.
• A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power source. • These
transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in electrical parameter like resistance,
capacitance or inductance.
• Examples – Thermistor, Potentiometer type transducer
Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device. The mechanical device converts the
physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical device are called as the primary
transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured.
• The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical
device are known as secondary transducers.
Example of Primary and secondary transducer Primary transducer Displacement voltage Secondary transducer
According to Transduction principle used
Capacitive Transduction:
• Here, the measurand is converted into a change in capacitance. • A change in capacitance occurs either by
changing the distance between the two plates or by changing the dielectric. d Area=A
Electromagnetic transduction:
• In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in the
magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
• The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active transducers • The motion between a piece of
magnet and an electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Inductance Transduction:
• In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is attached to a mechanical sensing element Piezoelectric
Transduction:
• In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when it is mechanically stressed.
 Photovoltaic Transduction: • In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to voltage generated
when the junction between dissimilar material is illuminated.
Photoconductive Transduction: • In photoconductive transduction the measurand is converted to change in
resistance of semiconductor material by the change in light incident on the material.
Analog and Digital Transducers Analog transducers: • These transducers convert the input quantity into an
analog output which is a continuous function of time. • Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a
thermistor may be called as Analog Transducers as they give an output which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers: • These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the form
of pulses and its output is represented by 0 and 1.
1. 17. Transducer and Inverse Transducer Transducer: • Transducers convert non electrical quantity to electrical
quantity. Inverse Transducer: • Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a non electrical quantity. A
piezoelectric crystal acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it
changes its dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.
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