Bahadur: Rituals and Beliefs Surrounding Death in Islam

PETRAS BAHADUR

Rituals and Beliefs Surrounding

Death in Islam

Islamic View of Human Nature

The view of human nature within Islam can be derived from the Qur’an
and the Hadiths. The Qur’an states that God created everything in six
days (7:54; 57:4), and after informing the angels about the creation of hu-
man beings and their superiority over them (15:28-29), he formed them
from dirt (22:5; 23:12-16). God keeps a supply of souls in heaven and takes
them from there1 (Merklin 2012:3) to place in each human being, choosing
the right one for each person (Sahih Muslims 1214). Therefore, it is God
who put a soul inside the first man’s body of clay and he became alive
(Qur’an 32:7-9). The Muslim belief regarding the soul is that the soul lives
on into eternity and will receive the reward or punishment along with the
body (Allen and Toorawa 2011:56). Haeri (1991:2) believes that the final
destiny of people will be decided at the final judgment, but this life is
given to finally allow the soul to return to where it emerged from, and that
is permanent non-time reality.
Although the angels knew that humans would be disobedient and
sin against God (Qur’an 3:30), Merklin (2012:6) explains that humanity’s
failure was in that they had “forgotten” God and his ways. The Qur’an
records that people were created weak (4:280), impatient (70:19), stingy
(17:100), and argumentative (18:54), and it is the soul that prompts a per-
son to do wrong as when Cain’s soul told him to kill his brother (5:29).

Islamic View of Death and State of the Dead

The Qur’an (67:2) states that God is the one who created death and life
to test humans. In Islamic literature the meaning of death is to move from
a life of sorrows and sufferings to a permanent life of peace and comfort

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(Ilahi 2010:2, 6) and is compared to the birth of a child from the narrow
womb of one’s mother to the comfort of the world (Tirmidhi).
God created human beings from clay and has predestined their time on
earth (Qur’an 6:2); therefore, all human beings will eventually taste death
(3:185; 21:35; 29:57). Islam (1989:9) reports that Muhammad said that the
person who is concerned about the affairs of this world is deceived by
temptations of the world and has no concern for the day of his death. Al-
Ghazali (1989:7) believes there are three kinds of people: those engrossed
in the things of the world, penitent, or Gnostics. It is penitent people who
often remember death so that fear engulfs their hearts and their repentance
becomes complete. Haeri (1991:3) argues that people are programmed to
fear death, but death is good because it returns the body to the earth and the
soul or “real self” from where it originally came from—a place of eternal
consciousness. Death does not mean the end of the process of life, but it
continues in paradise or hell (Shahid 2005:168). Muhammad taught that
death releases the person from the torment of this life, so it is actually a gift
from God to the believer (Al-Ghazali 1989:9). Schirrmacher (2012:252-255)
describes four ways of dying in Islam: death at one’s own hand (suicide),
death from another’s hand (accident, manslaughter, or murder), violent
death by self-sacrifice (a martyr’s death), and natural death.
Al-Ghazali suggests that the Angel of Death inspects every house three
times daily and takes away the spirit, at which point the person becomes a
dead person (54, 51). Apparently, David, Solomon, and other prophets met
the angel of death and died upon seeing it. When David came home, the
angel of death was waiting for him and upon meeting him he died
(Al-Ghazali 1989:44, 51). Muhammad Ibn Wasi is reported to have said
when dying, “O my brethren! Farewell! To Hell, or to the forgiveness of
God” (cited in Al-Ghazali 1989:47). Aisha reported that before Muhammad
died he “communed with his angel of death at length” (cited in Al-Ghazali
1989:65) and when the angel of death took the prophet Muhammad’s spir-
it, the agony of death came and his voice was raised in moaning, his color
changed, he breathed in and out and his left and right sides shook (57-58).
It is said that Aisha added, “I feel no envy for anyone whose death is easy
after having seen the rigour of the death of God’s emissary” (40).
The Qur’an states that near the time of death, Allah sends Izraeel, the
Angel of Death, to take the soul out of the flesh. “Say: The Angel of Death,
put in charge of you, will (duly) take your souls: Then shall you be brought
back to your Lord” (32:11). The angel of death will demand, “Expel your
souls” (6:93). The Angel of Death says to the soul of the unbeliever, “O
bad soul! Come out to Allah’s curse and anger.” The soul of unbelievers
comes out having a very foul smell (Sakr 1992:44), whereas the soul of the
believer comes out smelling like a good musk (Ilahi 2010:9). When the soul

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is transported to heaven, then Ilahi (13) reports that the Mishkat states
that “all the angels from earth to sky send their blessings on him and [the]
doors of heaven are thrown open for him.” In Paradise, “according to one
text the spirit lives inside the bird, according to another the spirit is out-
wardly like a bird” (Eklund 1941:20) and the souls of martyrs and other
believers are embodied in green birds (Ilahi 2010:25).

Questioning in the Grave

Islamic literature informs that after death, two angels, Munkar and
Nakir, come to question the dead and prepare a report (Shahid 2005:169).
Upon entering the dead person’s grave, probably on the first night (Star-
key 2009:290, 298), the angels ask the dead person several questions and
the believer is expected to be ready with answers as follows. “God is my
Lord, Muhammad my Prophet, the Qur’an my guide, Islam my Din, the
Kaaba my Qibla, Abraham my Father and his community my community”
(Smith and Haddad 1981:44). According to Tirmidhi (Hadith 51), the main
question that the soul is asked by the angels after death is, “Which reli-
gion did you follow?” However, Sahih Al-Bukhari 23.422 believes that the
question is, “Did you do any good deeds (in your life)?” After the initial
interrogation, the souls are placed in barzakh (Ilahi 2010:2), a “period be-
tween death and resurrection” (Shahid 2005:186; see Qur’an 25:55, 55:20,
23:102), whereas Eklund (1941:21) questions whether this concept of Bar-
zakh refers to time or space. Other scholars believe that instead of being
placed in Barzakh after the interrogation, the dead are told of their reward:
gardens of bliss for the righteous and curses of angels and the fires of hell
for the unbeliever (Shahid 2005:170-171).

Torments of the Grave

In the grave, while waiting for the day of resurrection, there is tor-
ment or punishment. This torment includes the narrowing of the grave so
that the dead are “squeezed like an egg” (Tabarani), ribs are crushed (Al-
Bara ibn ‘Azib), they are “hit by iron hammers” (Sahih Al-Bukhari 2.456),
“lashed a hundred times,” or “ninety-nine dragons bite . . . and sting . . .
till there comes the hour (of resurrection)” (Al-Tirmidhi 46).
Muhammad said, “When the dead body is placed in the grave, he lis-
tens to the sound of their shoes as they depart (from the cemetery)” (Sahih
of Muslim 17:204; (4:#6863) of the English Translation) and he believed
that they can hear but cannot answer (17:206; (4:#6868) of the English
Translation). At one time, “the camel of the prophet was afraid while go-
ing through a graveyard at hearing, as only animals can, the shrieks of the

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damned suffering the torments of the grave.” Another time, “the prophet
was walking with his friends by a graveyard when he realized that two
people buried there were being tortured, so they cut off shoots from a
tree and placed one on each grave to cool them off” (Smith and Haddad
1981:45; see also al-Subki, Taqi al-Din, Shifa al-Saqam fi ziyara khayr al-
anam p. 148).
Al-Ghazali (1989:41) reported that Muhammad used to pray, “O Lord
God! Grant me your support in death and render it easy for me to bear.”
This is probably the reason why the funeral prayers include the following:

O Allah! Forgive him, have mercy on him, pardon him, heal him, be
generous to him, cause his entrance to be wide and comfortable, wash
him with the most pure and clean water, and purify him from sins as
a white garment is washed clean of dirt. Give him in exchange a home
better than his home (on earth) and a family better than his family and
a wife better than his wife and protect him from the trial of the grave
and the torture of Hell Fire. (Fiqh-us-Sunnah 4.40)

Aisha, the wife of the Prophet questioned, “If believers will undergo
pressure of the tomb. [The] Prophet said, ‘Pressure of the tomb is like
a mother stroking her son’s head when he complains of [a] headache’”
(Smith and Haddad 1981:46). However, the believers who pass away in
the night or on Friday will not be tormented in the grave (see Ahmad
and Tirmidhi), and if one dies in sickness that person is like a martyr.
There are five rewards for martyrs1 (1) they are forgiven, (2) experience
no torment in the grave, (3) remain safe from embarrassment on the day of
resurrection, (4) will have a crown on their heads, and (5) will be given 72
celestial brides (Ilahi 2010:36). If the believers have done good works, they
will have a comfortable rest until the resurrection and judgment, their
graves will expand to 4,900 cubic feet, the grave will be illuminated, and
they will sleep like a bride whom nobody can awake except her husband
(Al-Tirmidhi 44).
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad feared the torment of
the grave because he heard that other prophets had suffered before him.
God asked Moses what he thought of death, and he replied, “It was like
[a] sparrow being roasted alive or like [a] sheep being flayed alive” (Al-
Ghazali 1989:42).

View of the Last Day and Afterlife

in Heaven or Hell

Islamic belief about the Last Day is that the life on earth is actually a
preparation for death, resurrection, and judgment before God. “Our faith
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will be verified and then our deeds will be weighed before He dispenses
perfect justice” (Lamkahouan 2019). There are a number of texts in the
Qur’an referring to the resurrection day and the Day of Judgment when
the angels hand out rewards (Merklin 2012:9). Farnaz Masumian says the
Qur’an mentions
al-akhira (the hereafter) 113 times, which shows the significance Islam
places on the next life (1996:75).
There are three signs before the hour of resurrection—the appearance of
anti-Christ, the return of Christ, and the coming of the Mahdi (Masumian
1996:77). After three trumpet blasts by Israfil, there will be a general
resurrection (79). All humanity will arrive in Jerusalem after having
walked on the Sirat bridge, over which the prophet will be the first one to
cross (79, 80). God will come down with his angels and everyone’s deeds
will be weighed in balances after which they will be assigned heaven
or hell. Surah 79:7-12 says, “The Hour is a day in which every person is
accountable for his deeds” and “then shall each soul know what it has put
forward” (81:1-14).
In Islamic theology, there is the concept of two judgments—the ques-
tioning in the grave and the ultimate judgment on the day of resurrec-
tion (Smith and Haddad 1981:4). On the final resurrection day, the angel
Israfil (Seraphiel from Hebrew) will blow the trumpet three times. The first
blast causes terror among the people (Qur’an 22:1-2). The second trumpet
blast causes all in heaven and earth to die (39:68). The third trumpet blast
will recreate the human bodies so they can receive their spirits (Shahid
2005:12). The interval between the first and second trumpet blast is an
interval of probably forty days or forty months or forty years and the in-
terval between the second and third trumpet blast is as long as God wills
(Shahid 2005:177). God will resurrect the inhabitants of heaven—Seraphiel,
Gabriel, and Michael. When the Seraphiel blows the trumpet of resurrection,
all spirits, good and bad, will burst forth and will enter into people’s bodies
through their nostrils to prepare them for the Day of Reckoning (182).

Unbelievers in Hell

Unbelievers will spend their next life in hell. The description of hell
according to Islamic traditions says that it is so deep that it takes 70 years
for a stone to sink to the bottom of hell (Ilahi 2010:43). The walls are so
wide that it takes forty years of walking to go from one end to the other
(44). Hell has seven gates (45), is black and dark (45) and the fuel of hell
fire is people and stones (Qur’an 66.6). Islamic scholars name seven
layers of hell—Hawia (for hypocrites like Pharoah), Jahim (for polytheists),
Saqar (for the Saibeen, a sect having no religion), Nati (for Iblis and his

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associates), Hatma (for Jews), Sa’ah (for Christians), and Jahan’num (for
general Muslim sinners) (Ilahi 2010:48, 49). The Qur’an states that there is
no death in hell (43:75; 35:36; see also Bukhari and Muslim) because hell
goes on forever.
Different ways of punishment in hell include boiling water poured over
heads with fresh skins given to them. Those who concealed knowledge
will have a bridle of fire in their mouth. Those who used to be drunk or
used intoxicants will drink pus. Those who preached without practicing
will have their intestines removed. Those who used gold or silver utensils
will have stomachs filled with the fire of hell. Photographers and painters
will be punished by the pictures they made. Those who committed suicide
will keep doing the same act in hell again and again. Arrogant people will
be in the form of ants (Ilahi 2010:61-67). The Qur’an states that wrong do-
ers will remain in hell (19:72) where there is crying (11:106). Sinners will be
driven to hell like cattle are driven to water (19:86), dragged through hell
on their faces (54:48), thrown headlong into hell (26:94-95), with no way
of escape (14:21). Believers will laugh at the unbelievers (83:35); however,
eventually death will be slain (Tirmidhi), but the hypocrites, polytheists,
and unbelievers will be in hell forever (Ilahi 2010:221; Smith and Haddad
1981:86). Bukhari and Muslim both report that the prophet was shown
that the majority of those in hell are women (Ilahi 2010:72).

Believers in Paradise

Heavenly rewards for believers are described in Qur’an 55:46-76 as

having two gardens (46), containing all kinds of delights (48), two flow-
ing springs (50), every kind of fruit (52), carpets to recline on (54), and
with virgins, whom no man or jinn has touched (56). Believers are like
rubies (58), which are the reward for the good (60). There are two addi-
tional gardens (62), also with two springs pouring forth water in contin-
ued abundance (66), peopled with fair companions, good, and beautiful
(70), companions restrained in their glances (72), whom no man or jinn has
touched (74), reclining on green cushions and rich carpets of beauty (76).
Manji (2005:57) reports that God’s promise to the martyrs is that “gardens
of paradise are waiting for you in all their beauty, and women of paradise
are waiting, calling out, ‘come hither, friend of God.’”
Qur’an 56 presents a picture of further rewards—companions on the
right hand and left hand (9) reclining on couches and facing each other
(16), while around them are youths of perpetual freshness who will serve
them (17) with goblets filled with clear-flowing fountains of wine (18).
There will be no after-ache and no intoxication (19). There are fruits to
be selected (20), as much flesh from fowl as they may desire (21), and

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companions with beautiful big and lustrous eyes like pearls well-
guarded—all this as a reward for the deeds of the past life (22-24). These
companions are from a special creation (v. 35), are virgins who are pure
and undefiled (36), and beloved and equal in age (37). Qur’an 76 lists a
few additional rewards: garments of silk (12), raised thrones where there
is neither the sun’s excessive heat nor the moon’s excessive cold (13).

Islamic Rituals for the Dying and Deceased

Since “there is a strict and clear ritual order laid down in Islamic law”
which outlines the procedure for the purification of the dead” (Venhorst
2012:8), most followers of Islam practice special rituals for preparing the
dying and the deceased (Dockray 2013; see also
K. M. Islam 1989). In certain parts of Egypt, it is the custom for those
near a person who has died to squeeze his/her body with their hands to
force the soul out of it (Starkey 2009:290). The Talqeen, the reading per-
formed for those who are dying before they take their last breaths, is to
ensure they are spiritually ready for the journey into death. The person
leading the Talqeen says to the dying person, “In the name of Allah and on
the creed, religion, and faith of rasulullah (apostle or messenger of God). O!
Allah, ease upon him his matters, and make light for him whatever comes
hereafter, and honor him with Your meeting and make that which he has
gone to better than that which he came out from.”
After those who are present have the opportunity to share their own
prayers, the person leading the Talqeen then encourages the dying person
to recall the Shahada before taking their last breath by saying, “I bear wit-
ness that there is no god except Allah; One is He, no partner hath He, and
I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and messenger.”
Some prefer to give a sweet drink or zamzam water to the dying so that
the soul can have an easy exit through the throat. The Shias of Northern
India put pomegranate or honey syrup in the mouth of the dead. In
Gujarat leaves of marjoram are rubbed on the face, the eyes are closed
with a pledget of cotton, and two toes are brought together and tied with
a thin strip of cloth (Sharif 1972:90, 91).
Once the person has died, Bilal Abu Aisha lists the following rituals
that are to be performed for the dying person (2011).
Just after Death: As soon as a Muslim person dies, it is customary to close
the person’s eyes, bind the jaw and cover the body with a clean sheet. It is
also important to prepare the body for the funeral as quickly as possible.
Mourning: Hidaad, or mourning, for a close relative should last only
three days. There are guidelines about how that mourning should take
shape. Weeping is acceptable, but the Islamic faith discourages loud crying

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and acting out during the mourning period. Although mourning is per-
mitted, Islamic theologians believe it should be “composed or restrained”
(Schirrmacher 2012:258). However, within Shi’ite mourning practices, the
Ahsura rituals for mourning the suffering and the death of the final male
of Muhammad’s family, Al-Hussain, is done every year during the first
ten days of the month of Muharram (259).
Washing the Dead: This washing requires following very specific rules.
Most adult family members of the same sex as the deceased can do the
washing of the deceased person’s body. The body is placed on a wooden
plank, the private parts are covered with a cloth, and the “entire body
must be washed an odd number of times, three or, if necessary, five or
seven” (Dessing 2001:145-147). The water for ablution can be mixed with
perfume, herbs, rose water, lotus, or camphor. After the final washing,
the body is dried, and cotton plugs placed in the body openings (Bot
1998:136). Sometimes, there are professional washers (Sharif 1972:91, 93),
but within orthodox Islamic tradition, most people would not allow pay-
ment for washing. After the body is washed, it is dried with a clean white
sheet, and then typically enshrouded in a plain, white cloth or three pieces
of cloth for a man and five for a woman. Finally, the body is perfumed.
Shrouding the Body: There are different rules for shrouding male and
female Muslims. To wrap a male Muslim corpse, three white sheets and
four ropes are used. After placing the man’s hands on his chest, right hand
on top of the left hand, each sheet is wrapped over the body with the
right side first. To finish the shrouding, two ropes are tied just above the
head and just below the feet, with two additional ropes used to secure the
sheets around the body.
Funeral Prayer or Salatul Janazah: Even Muslims who are not close to
the deceased or the family can participate in this ritual. The prayer should
happen immediately after shrouding the body, and usually occurs outside
of the mosque and its prayer room. The prayer should take place at dusk
or sunset, if possible, unless the body is decomposing and needs burial
immediately.
The Funeral: Funeral attendees stand in three horizontal lines facing
Mecca: men in the front row, children in the second row, and women in
the third row. Like the silent prayer, this occurs outside the mosque, if
possible, and the entire prayer service takes place while the people are
standing. Participants silently commit to pure intentions for the funeral
service, and then they silently recite the Fatihah, the first section of the
Qur’an. This seven-verse prayer, also called Sanaa prayer, asks for Allah’s
mercy and guidance. After the silent Fatihah, there are four more prayers
in traditional Muslim funeral services. Before each prayer, attendees say,
“Allahu Akbar,” which means, “God is good.” The four prayers are the

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Darood prayer,2 dua prayer,3 salaam prayer,4 and prayer when putting dirt
on the grave.5
Transporting the Body: Traditionally, several men carry the body to the
cemetery on foot with the funeral goers following behind. Today, how-
ever, the body can be transported in a hearse with a funeral procession
behind it. The car or truck transporting the body should not be a military
vehicle and the funeral procession should keep a respectful silence. No
singing, loud crying, or reading the Quran is allowed. There should also
be no incense or candles in the funeral procession.
Muslim Burial Tradition: Traditionally, Muslims should be buried in
a Muslim cemetery. No women or children are allowed at the gravesite
during the burial. The body goes into the grave on its right side, facing
Mecca, ideally not inside a coffin. If the cemetery is located in a place with
abundant wildlife, sometimes Muslims will cover the grave with bricks or
stones to keep animals from disturbing the body.
Marking and Visiting the Grave: Muslim cemeteries are all about mini-
malism and deference, so they do not have extravagant grave markers.
A small marker or gravestone, however, is fine. Traditionally, nothing is
placed on or around the grave, such as cut flowers, candles, or other of-
ferings.
Consoling Family and Friends: Consoling grieving friends and family is
important in the Muslim community and does not have many rigid rules
governing how to comfort those in mourning. It is traditional to reach out
to the mourning family with sympathy and with food for three days after
the funeral.

View of Ancestors and Ancestor-Worship

Orthodox Islam does not allow ancestor worship or mediation of

the deceased; however, the actual practice may be very different. Even
the rituals of death and burial are not necessarily followed according to
prescription. Claudia Venhorst (2012:3) states, “A clash between formalized
rules and the actual praxis is not unusual.” Ancestor worship is the
practice in many Islamic cultures. Kikuta Haruka (2011:63-78) reports that
the shared custom among Muslims in Central Asia is to hold a banquet
which involves the sacrifice of animals to Allah and the dead. Towards the
end of the banquet, chapters of the Qur’an are recited to bring comfort to
the spirits of the deceased. Prayer is specifically dedicated to these spirits,
such as the following prayer. “May the spirit of ____ (person’s name) be
content.” The banquet functions as a means that allows people to make
contact with ruh and many people ask ruh for protection or happiness.
Valikhanov (1958 [1862]):148-154, 177, 178), commenting on these ruh

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rituals considered them to be remnants of the pre-Islamic faith of Central

Asians and Soviet ethnographers (cited in Peshchereva 1959:362, 363).
Rituals concerning ruh were also practiced by sedentary Muslims as a
ritual banquet, during which time dishes and candles were offered to the
ruh of their deceased masters and passages from the Qur’an were read.
Appealing to deceased relatives or ancestors for aid is viewed as against
orthodox Islamic faith, although a sizable number accept the practice in
Central Asia, Russia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Visiting Shrines and Appealing to the Deceased

Pew Research conducted a survey in 2012 (see appendix 1) asking

people in 23 countries whether visiting shrines of Muslim saints was a
legitimate form of worship. The majority agreed that such practices were
acceptable, indicating that such views are widespread in Central Asia,
Southeast Asia, and South Asia, and are also practiced in the Middle East
and North Africa. In Azerbaijan, Iraq, and Lebanon, Shias are more ac-
cepting than their Sunni counterparts in appealing to deceased ancestors.
The Qur’an does not specifically mention pilgrimages except to Mecca but
certain hadiths encourage pilgrimage to shrines, including Jerusalem’s al-
Aqsa mosque in the Sunni tradition and the shrine of Imam Hussein in
Karbala, Iraq, in the Shia tradition (Elad 1999:65). For more information on
Sunni traditions, see Sahih Muslim 7:3218 and for pilgrimages to shrines
in the Shia tradition, see a hadith by the eighth Shia Imam, Ali al-Rida
(cited in Nakash 1995:155).
Today, the graves of many early Islamic figures are holy sites for Mus-
lims, including Ali, and the cemetery containing many of Muhammad’s
companions and early caliphs. Many other mausoleums are major archi-
tectural, political, and cultural sites, including the National Mausoleum in
Pakistan and the Taj Mahal in India. However, the religious movement of
Wahhabism views this respect for holy sites as a form of idolatry. Follow-
ers of this movement have destroyed many gravesite shrines, including
in Saudi Arabia and in territory formerly controlled by the Islamic State
(Veneration of the Dead 2020). However, during the termination of Rama-
dan, orthodox theologians do not reject visiting graves if it is done with
the goal of bringing death to one’s attention (Schirrmacher 2012:261).
Muslims travel vast distances in order to imitate the religious rite of
tawaaf—circling the kaaba seven times—by also circling the tombs of saints.
Some even offer prayers inside and outside the tombs and other piously
bring sacrificial animals to these sites in order to perform the rites of dhabh
(ritual sacrifice). Most of those who perform rites of worship at shines or
graves believe that the righteous among these dead people are so close to

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Allah that all acts of worship done in their vicinity will more likely be ac-
cepted by Allah than if they were done elsewhere.
Because of this belief, grave worshippers often wipe the walls of
graves, and then wipe the residue on themselves in order to collect extra
blessings. In addition, they also collect some of the earth in the vicinity of
the graves, in the belief that the earth has special healing powers due to
the effect of the blessings manifest in those buried there. Many branches
of the Shi‘ites (Shias) collect clay from Karbala, where Imam Hussain was
martyred, and bake it to make small tablets on which they prostrate them-
selves during their salaah (prayer).
The Pew Research survey (2012) finds that many Muslims consider
visiting the shrines of Muslim saints an acceptable practice as noted in
appendix 1. This is especially true in Southeast Asia, where eight-in-ten
or more Muslims in Thailand (99%), Malaysia (89%) and Indonesia (81%)
say visiting shrines falls within the bounds of Islam. The acceptance of
pilgrimages to shrines is also widespread in Central Asia, with three-quar-
ters or more endorsing the practice. In South Asia, the number of Muslims
who believe visiting shrines is part of Islamic tradition range from 96% in
Bangladesh to a more modest 63% in Pakistan.
Relatively few Muslims in the countries surveyed (appendix 2) believe
it is permissible to appeal to dead relatives or ancestors for aid, for the
Quran states that prayers should be offered to God alone (108:2). The two
exceptions are Iraq and Lebanon, where 28% and 22% of Muslims say the
practice is acceptable, perhaps reflecting the Shia tradition of honoring
forebears, such as Hussein and Ali as noted in appendix 3.
Appeals to Spirits, Jinn, Sorcery, and the Deceased
The Qur’an states that God created non-human creatures, referred to
as jinn and, as discussed earlier in this report, many Muslims affirm that
jinns exist. However, few Muslims believe it is acceptable to make offer-
ings or appeals to these supernatural beings, as noted in appendix 4, since
prayers and sacrifices are to be made to God alone (108:2). Appeals to jinn
and the use of sorcery are almost universally regarded as falling outside
of Islamic tradition, even though many Muslims say they believe in the
existence of these supernatural beings and in witchcraft.
Shia and Sunni Muslims differ little when it comes to rejecting the use
of sorcery within Islam. In Lebanon and Azerbaijan, members of both
groups hold similar views on the acceptability of making appeals to jinn.

Practical Missiological Challenges and Worldview

Transformation for Becoming a Disciple of Christ

What are some of the missiological challenges facing Muslims when

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they become a disciple of Jesus Christ in the 21st century and what aspects
of their worldview needs transformation?

Torment in the Grave

Smith and Haddad (1981:47) believe that the information about the
events that take place in the grave undoubtedly come from pre-Islamic
Arabic beliefs. Farnaz Masumian (1996:76) states that “the early Muslim
theologians and thinkers combined the Zoroastrian belief in a personal
judgment in the grave with the pre-Islamic Barzakh doctrine to form
a coherent system of personal judgment for the faithful.” This is why
Masumian (76) is convinced that the concept of Barzakh (purgatory) is of
significance since it is similar to some other faith traditions, especially
to the Zoroastrianism. Samuel Shahid (2005:172) concurs by stating that
Muhammad was probably informed by Salman al-Farsi who explained his
previous faith. Masumian (1996:84, 80-81) suggests that “even a cursory
look at Muslim eschatology reveals numerous similarities between
Muslim and Zoroastrian accounts of the afterlife,” such as, the state of the
soul before judgment, the two judgments, the bridge, heaven and hell, and
the vision of the Creator.
Ragnar Eklund (1941:3) believes that the doctrine of torment in the
grave was first presented to Muhammad by Aisha who heard it from a
Jewess since Jews already believed in such a concept. Aisha said that a
Jewess came to her and mentioned the punishment in the grave, stating,
“May Allah protect you from the punishment of the grave.” Aisha then
asked Allah’s Apostle about the punishment of the grave. He said, “Yes,
[there is] punishment in the grave.” Aisha added, “After that I never saw
Allah’s Apostle but seeking refuge with Allah from the punishment in the
grave in every prayer he prayed” (Sahih Al-Bukhari 2:454).
In several hadiths Muhammad apparently spoke to the dead in the
graves. When asked, he responded that “they hear quite well, although
they cannot answer.” Eklund (1941:10) believes that this concept contra-
dicts the Qur’an which states “verily thou shalt not make the dead to hear”
(27:82). Therefore, Eklund questions the interrogation in the grave, which
relates to questions about the prophet and quotes Tirmidhi al-Hakim who
stated that former communities were to be tested based on their prophets,
and Muslims based on their prophet Muhammad (Eklund 1941:50).
Barzakh, which is very much connected to torment in the grave, causes
much fear in the hearts of many Muslims. This view is probably similar to
the view of purgatory in Catholicism. Even the prophet used to pray that
his time in the grave would be easy. Based on this belief there is certainly
fear among Muslims about death and what will transpire after death. Is

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their fear justified? Within the Bible, belief concerning death can be pre-
sented from Ecclesiastes 9:5, which states, “For the living know that they
will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no further reward, and
even their name is forgotten.” Also, 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 states that the
dead are resting in their graves until the day when Jesus comes again, at
which time the dead in Christ will rise first. This text says to comfort each
other with this hope. So according to the Bible there is no concept of Bar-
zakh (purgatory) or torment in the grave. This is one place where a Muslim
background believer would need a worldview transformation so as to no
longer believe that the dead are being punished or tormented in the grave
but will face judgment at the resurrection.

Delights of Paradise

The Qur’an describes the material delights of paradise in 76:12-22

and a few other places. Masumian describes these “material delights” as
streams of wine, milk, and honey
(Q 47:16, 55:54; 56:15) with tents of lovely damsels (houris) (1996:80).
Hughes (1973:453) reports one tradition which describes paradise as fol-
lows: “He who is least amongst the people of paradise, shall have eighty
thousand slaves, and seventy-two women, and has a tent pitched for him
of pearls, rubies, and emeralds. . . . Those who die in the world, young or old,
are made of thirty years of age, and not more, when they enter paradise.”
When Jesus was asked about marriage in heaven, he responded by say-
ing: “At the resurrection people will neither marry nor be given in mar-
riage; they will be like the angels in heaven” (Matt 22:30). From this it is
clear that the Qur’anic concept of marriage in heaven is centered around
the carnal nature of human beings and is another area where worldview
transformation needs to happen for a Muslim background believer. The
holiness of God and being in his presence for eternity should be an alter-
native emphasis as the primary attraction of heaven.

Islamic Eschatology and Jesus

According to Islamic eschatology, Jesus is coming again but after his

second coming he will die, and righteous people will also die to avoid the
anguish of the evildoers who will live after the blast of the last trumpet
(Shahid 2005:167). If Jesus comes at the Last Hour (Qur’an 43:61) and ush-
ers in a kingdom of peace in which all evil will be eradicated, then why
would Jesus need to die so that he can be saved from evildoers? Qur’an
43:61 states, “Jesus shall be a sign of the hour of judgment. Therefore, have
no doubt about the hour.” Only as one believes in Jesus, who will come

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at the Last Hour (before judgment), that one can stand in judgment. One
does not need to doubt about that hour but can stand in the assurance of
Jesus who has gone ahead of us to paradise to prepare a place for us to
spend eternity with him.

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Appendix 1

Is Visiting Shrines Acceptable?

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Appendix 2

Acceptable to Appeal to the Deceased for Aid under Islam?

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Appendix 3

More Shia Say Appealing to Deceased is Acceptable

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Appendix 4

Acceptable to Make Offerings to Jinn Under Islam?

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Endnotes

1 Merklin states that the “translations of the Qur’an are not consistent in the
translation of ruh and nafs, just as English translations in the Bible for the Hebrew
equivalents” (2012:3).
2 “Allah, we ask You to raise the rank of Muhammad, and have mercy upon
the Al (family, friends, and everyone else present for the funeral) of Muhammad,
as You raised the rank of Ibrahim (Abraham), and the Al of Ibrahim. Verily, You are
the One Who deserves to be praised and thanked, and the One Who is glorified. O
Allah, we ask You to bless Muhammad, and the Al of Muhammad, as You blessed
Ibrahim, and the Al of Ibrahim. Verily, You are the One Who deserves to be praised
and thanked, and the One Who is glorified.”
3 “Allah, grant forgiveness to our living and to our dead, and to those who
are present and to those who are absent, and to our young and our old folk, and to
our males and females. O Allah! Whomsoever you grant to live, from among us,
help him to live in Islam, and whom of us you cause to die, help him to die in faith.
Grant especially this dead person your ease, rest, forgiveness and consent Allah, if
he acted well, then increase for him his good action, and if he acted wrongly, then
overlook his wrong actions. Grant him security, glad tidings, generosity and close-
ness to you. We seek Thy blessings, Thou art the most Merciful.”
4 “May the peace and mercy of Allah be upon you.”
5 “Out of it We (Allah) created you, and into it We deposit you, And from it We
shall take you out once again” (Qur’an 20:55).

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Petras Bahadur is the Director of the Global Center for Adventist-

Muslim Relations at the General Conference of Seventh-day
Adventists. He holds a Doctor of Ministry from Andrews University,
specializing in the concept of House Churches as an assimilation
model; and is currently pursuing PhD studies from Oxford Center
for Mission Studies in England, with a focus on presenting the Trinity
to non-Christians. After 37 years’ experience in management and 20
years in the field of mission, he now lectures to thought leaders;
theologians, missiologists, church administrators and professionals
on building bridges of understanding and approaches to people
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with an Asian worldview.
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