MTH 101-Elementary Mathematics I
A. T. Ademola
Yellow House Building, MBB 007
Department of Mathematics
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
March 15, 2021
Module 5.3: The general quadratic equation
The standard general quadratic equation in one variable is defined as
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, (a 6= 0 Why?) (1)
where a, b and c are real numbers. Since a 6= 0, divide equation (1) by a,
we have
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
2
1 b
Add the coefficient of x square i.e., 2 to both sides of the last
2 4a
equation to be able to write the left hand side(lhs) a perfect square.
b b2 b2 c
x2 + x+ 2 = 2−
a 4a 4a a
b 2 b 2 − 4ac
(x + ) =
2b 4a2
Taking the square of both sides, we obtain
√
−b ± b 2 − 4ca
x= (2)
2a
Note the following:
1. Equation (2) are the roots of the general quadratic equation (1) (or
solution of (1));
2. Equation (2) enable us to investigate the dependence of the roots on
the relative values of a, b and c;
3. The types of roots of equation (1) depend on the quantity
b 2 − 4ac = D, called the discriminant of the equation;
4. If b 2 − 4ac = D > 0, its square roots will be real and we shall obtain
two real distinct roots for (1). See Figure 3;
5. If b 2 − 4ac = D = 0, both roots of the (1) will be real and equal to
b
− (see Figure 4);
2a
2
6. If b − 4ac = D < 0, its square root will be negative and equation
(1) has complex roots (irrational roots) as shown in Figure 5; and
7. Equation (1) has real roots if b 2 − 4ac = D ≥ 0.
Example
Find the values of p if equation (5p + 1)x 2 − 8px + 3p = 0 has equal
roots.
Solution.
If (5p + 1)x 2 − 8px + 3p = 0 has equal roots have equal roots then the
discriminant
D = b 2 − 4ac = 0 (i)
where a = 5p + 1, b = −8p and c = 3p. Using the values of a, b and c
in (i) to get
p 2 − 3p = 0, ⇒ p(p − 3) = 0 ⇒ p = 0 or p = 3.
Example
For what value of k does the equation x 2 − (4 + k)x + 9 = 0 have real
roots?
Solution.
The discriminant is
D = b 2 − 4ac = 0 (i)
where a = 1, b = −(4 + k) and c = 9
∴ D = (k − 2)(k + 10)
Recall that D ≥ 0 if the given equation is to have real roots
(k − 2)(k + 10) ≥ 0.
Two cases arise:
Case 1. Either (k − 2) ≥ 0 and (k + 10) ≥ 0 this implies that k ≥ 2 and
k ≥ −10, the solution in this case is k ≥ 2, see also Figure 1, or
Case 2. Either (k − 2) ≤ 0 and (k + 10) ≤ 0 this implies that k ≤ 2 and
k ≤ −10, the solution in this case is k ≤ −10, see also Figure 2,
From Cases 1 and Case 2 we obtain k ≤ −10 or k ≥ 2.
Figure: 1
Figure: 2
Example
Show that equation x 2 − 2ax + 3a2 + b 2 = 0 cannot have real roots if a
and b are real numbers.
Solution.
Given x 2 − 2ax + 3a2 + b 2 = 0, th discriminant is
D = e 2 − 4fg
where e = −2a, f = 1 and g = 3a2 + b 2 . Using the values of e, f and g
in D to obtain
D = −4(2a2 + b 2 ).
Since a2 ≥ 0 for all a ∈ R and b 2 ≥ 0 for all b ∈ R if follows that
2a2 + b 2 ≥ 0 for all a, b ∈ R.
∴ D = −4(2a2 + b 2 ) ≤ 0 ∀ a, b ∈ R.
Thus equation x 2 − 2ax + 3a2 + b 2 = 0 cannot have real roots.
Example
Show that, if the line y = mx + c is to meet the curve y 2 = 4x at two
distinct points, then mc < 1. State the condition for the line to be a
tangent to the curve.
Solution.
If the line meets the curve, the
y 2 = (mx + c)2 = 4x.
The x−coordinate of the points of intersection of these two lines will be
the roots of
(mx + c)2 = 4x ⇒ m2 x 2 + 2(mc − 2)x + c 2 = 0.
To get the two distinct real roots D > 0, i.e.,
D = 4(mc − 2)2 − 4m2 c 2 = 16(1 − mc) > 0 ⇒ mc < 1, as required.
If the line is to be a tangent, the roots of the quadratic must be equal i.e.,
D = 16(1 − mc) = 0 ⇒ mc = 1.
Exercises
Find solution to the following questions:
1. For what value of k does the equation kx 2 + (k + 1)x + k = 0 have
equal roots?
2. Find the value of m which will make the line y = mx − 1 a tangent
tp the curve y 2 = 6x;
3. Show that the condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to
the ellipse b 2 x 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 is c 2 = a2 m2 + b 2 ;
4. Given that a, b and c are real numbers, prove that the roots of the
equation (x − a)(x − b) = c 2 are real. State the condition for the
roots to be equal;
5. Show that the roots of the equation
x 2 + 2x = (2a + 2b + 1)(2a + 2b − 1) are integers if a and b are
integers; and
6. Show that the roots of the equation x 2 − 2x = (b − c)2 − 1 are
irrational if b and c are rational.
The quadratic function and nature of roots
This section presents nature of roots and the values of the quadratic
function
y = ax 2 + bx + c (3)
as x takes on different values. Be informed that for large positive
and large negative values of x, the dominant part in the rhs is ax 2 ,
since x 2 ≥ 0 for all x, it follows that y has the same sign as a for
large positive or large negative value of x. Equation (3) can be
recast in the form
The quadratic function and nature of roots
b c
y = a x2 + x +
a a
2
1 b b2
Add and subtract the coefficient of x and square it i.e., = 2,
2 2a 4a
inside the bracket of the last equation, we obtain
2 2
b2 b2
b c b b − 4ac
y = a x2 + x + 2 + − 2 = a x + −
a 4a a 4a 2a 4a2
2 √ 2 2
b b − 4ac
=a x+ − .
2a 2a
Using difference of two squares inside the bracket that is,
p 2 − q 2 = (p − q)(p + q), we have
√ 2 √ 2
b b − 4ac b b − 4ac
y =a x+ − x+ +
2a 2a 2a 2a
√ √
2 2
−b + b − 4ac −b − b − 4ac
=a x− x−
2a 2a
∴ y = a(x − α)(x − β) (4)
where
√ √
b 2 − 4ac b 2 − 4ac
−b + −b −
α := and β :=
2a 2a
are the roots of equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Note that the roots of the equation (3) are the zeros of the function (i.e.,
if y = 0 in (3) the obtained values of x where the curve has intercepts
√ on
the x−axis). If D = b 2 − 4ac > 0 there two distinct values for D and
the equation will have tow different real roots. The curve cut the x−axis
at two different points, see for example Figure 3.
Figure: 3. Nature of roots: Two distinct real roots
b
Next, if D = 0 then x = − the curve touches the x−axis at the
2a
maximum point when a < 0 and at minimum point when a > 0, this is
presented in Figure 4.
Figure: 4. Nature of roots: Real equal roots
√
Finally, when D < 0, (or D is negative)there is no real value for D. the
function has no zeros the curve does not cut the x−axis. The equation
has complex or imaginary roots as shown in Figure 5.
Figure: 5. Nature of roots: Imaginary or complex roots
Theorem
The sign of y = ax 2 + bx + c is the same as the sign of a except for those
values of x which lie between the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Example
Show that x 2 + 4x + 13 > 0 for all values of x.
Solution.
The LHS of the inequality is
LHS = x 2 + 4x + 13 = x 2 + 4x + 4 + 13 − 4 add and subtract 4
(x + 2)2 + 32 .
Since (x + 2)2 ≥ 0 for all x, it follows that
LHS = x 2 + 4x + 13 = (x + 2)2 + 32 > 0
for all x.
Example
x 2 − 12
If x is real, show that can have no real values between 3 and 4.
2x − 7
Solution.
x 2 − 12
Let = y . Express this as quadratic in x, to find that
2x − 7
x 2 − 2yx + 7y − 12 = 0.
The discriminant is
D = 4y 2 − 4(7y − 12) = 4(y 2 − 7y + 12)
= 4(y − 3)(y − 4).
Since x is real, it follows that
D = 4(y − 3)(y − 4) ≥ 0.
Two cases arise from the last inequality:
(i) If both factors are positive, then y ≥ 3 and y ≥ 4 so that
y ≥ 4. (a)
(ii) If the two factors are negative, it follows that y ≤ 3 and y ≤ 4 so that
y ≤ 3. (b)
x 2 − 12
Inequalities in (a) and (b) are presented in Figure 6. By Figure 6
2x − 7
has no real values between 3 and 4.
Figure: 6
Example
(x − 2)2 + 16
If x is a real number, show that can take on any real
2(x + 2)
√ √
values which does not lie between −4(1 + 2) and 4( 2 − 1).
Solution.
(x − 2)2 + 16
Suppose that = y . Represent this equation as quadratic in
2(x + 2)
x, we find that
x 2 − (4 + 2y )x + 20 − 4y = 0.
The discriminant is
D = (4 + 2y )2 − 4(20 − 4y ) = 4(y 2 + 8y − 16)
√ 2
2
= 4 (y + 4) − ( 32)
√ √
= 4(y + 4 − 4 2)(y + 4 + 4 2).
Since x is a real number, D ≥ 0 so that
√ √
(y + 4 − 4 2)(y + 4 + 4 2) ≥ 0.
To preserves this inequality two √ cases arise: √
(i) If the
√ two factors (y + 4 − 4
√ 2) and (y + 4 + 4 2) are positive then
y ≥ 4( 2 − 1) and y ≥ −4( 2 + 1) so that
√
y ≥ 4( 2 − 1).
√ √
√ two factors (y + 4 −
(ii) If the √4 2) and (y + 4 + 4 2) are negative then
y ≤ 4( 2 − 1) and y ≤ −4( 2 + 1) so that
√
y ≤ −4( 2 + 1).
Figure
√ 7 verifies that x√cannot take any real number on the close interval
−4( 2 + 1) ≤ y ≤ 4( 2 − 1).
Figure: 7
