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Introduction to Optical
Components
Introduction to Optical
Components

Roshan L. Aggarwal
Kambiz Alavi
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Aggarwal, R. L. (Roshan Lal), 1937- author. | Alavi, Kambiz, author.

Title: Introduction to optical components / Roshan L. Aggarwal and Kambiz
Alavi.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2018. | “A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a
member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa
plc.” | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017049572| ISBN 9780815392910 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9781351189514 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Optical instruments--Equipment and supplies. | Optical
materials.
Classification: LCC TS513 .A44 2018 | DDC 620.1/1295--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049572

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 Dedication

This book is dedicated to our parents (Chet Ram Aggarwal and

Lila Vati Aggarwal, and Seyed Mohammed Kazem Alavi and Bibi
Ozra Nadji Alavi), our spouses (Pushap Lata Aggarwal and Homa
Rahmani-Khezri Alavi), and our children (Rajesh Aggarwal and
Achal Aggarwal, and Maysa Alavi, Tara Alavi, and Kiana Alavi).
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. xiii
Authors ..................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 Lenses ...................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 1
1.2 Materials ....................................................................................4
1.3 Imaging......................................................................................5
1.4 Aberrations ................................................................................ 5
1.4.1 Chromatic Aberration ..................................................6
1.4.2 Spherical Aberration ....................................................6
1.4.3 Coma ............................................................................7
1.4.4 Astigmatism .................................................................8
1.4.5 Field Curvature........................................................... 10
1.4.6 Distortion.................................................................... 10
1.5 Magnifier ................................................................................. 11
1.6 Objectives ................................................................................ 12
1.7 Eyepieces ................................................................................. 12
1.8 Camera Lenses ........................................................................ 13
1.8.1 Fixed Focal Length Camera Lenses........................... 14
1.8.2 Zoom Lenses .............................................................. 14
1.8.3 Telephoto Lenses ........................................................ 15
1.8.4 Cell Phone Camera Lenses......................................... 15
1.9 Other Lenses ............................................................................ 15
1.10 Homework Problems ............................................................... 15

Chapter 2 Mirrors ............................................................................................... 19

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 19
2.2 Plane Mirrors........................................................................... 22
2.3 Spherical Mirrors ....................................................................26
2.4 Parabolic Mirrors ....................................................................28
2.5 Hyperbolic Mirrors.................................................................. 30
2.6 Ellipsoidal Mirrors .................................................................. 32
2.7 Mirror Aberrations .................................................................. 33
2.8 Homework Problems ............................................................... 33

Chapter 3 Diffraction Gratings ........................................................................... 35

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 35
3.2 Ruled Gratings ......................................................................... 37

vii
viii Contents

3.3 Holographic Gratings ..............................................................40

3.4 Multilayer Dielectric Gratings ................................................. 41
3.5 Homework Problems ............................................................... 42

Chapter 4 Polarizers ............................................................................................ 43

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 43
4.2 Birefringent Linear Polarizers .................................................44
4.2.1 Nicol Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer .........................44
4.2.2 Glan-Thompson Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer ........ 45
4.2.3 Glan-Taylor Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer ............... 45
4.2.4 Wollaston Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer ..................46
4.2.5 Rochon Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer...................... 47
4.2.6 Senarmont Calcite Prism Linear Polarizer ................ 47
4.3 Dichroic Linear Polarizers ...................................................... 48
4.3.1 HN Polaroid Sheet Linear Polarizers ......................... 48
4.3.2 HR Polaroid Sheet Linear Polarizers ......................... 48
4.3.3 Polarcor Glass Linear Polarizer ................................. 49
4.4 Reflective Linear Polarizers .................................................... 49
4.4.1 Brewster Window Polarizer ....................................... 49
4.4.2 Brewster Pile-of-Plates Linear Polarizer .................... 50
4.4.3 Wire-Grid Linear Polarizer ........................................ 51
4.5 Circular Polarizers ................................................................... 51
4.5.1 Fresnel Rhomb Circular Polarizer.............................. 51
4.5.2 Quarter-Wave Plate Circular Polarizer ....................... 53
4.6 Jones Matrix Algebra .............................................................. 53
4.7 Homework Problems ............................................................... 55

Chapter 5 Optical Windows ................................................................................ 57

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 57
5.2 UV Windows ........................................................................... 59
5.3 VIS and NIR Windows............................................................ 61
5.4 IR Windows ............................................................................. 65
5.5 AR Coating Materials ............................................................. 68
5.6 Homework Problems ............................................................... 69

Chapter 6 Optical Filters ..................................................................................... 71

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 71
6.2 Colored Glass Filters ............................................................... 71
6.3 Dielectric Filters ...................................................................... 75
6.4 Neutral Density Filters ............................................................ 83
Contents ix

6.5 Raman Filters ..........................................................................84

6.6 Homework Problems ............................................................... 86

Chapter 7 Beamsplitters ...................................................................................... 89

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 89
7.2 Plate Beamsplitters .................................................................. 89
7.2.1 Non-Polarizing Beamsplitters ....................................90
7.2.2 Dichroic Beamsplitters ............................................... 93
7.2.3 Polka Dot Beamsplitters............................................. 95
7.3 Cube Beamsplitters .................................................................96
7.3.1 Non-Polarizing Cube Beamsplitters...........................96
7.3.2 Polarizing Cube Beamsplitters...................................97
7.4 Pellicle Beamsplitters ..............................................................97
7.5 Homework Problems ............................................................... 98

Chapter 8 Light Sources.................................................................................... 101

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 101
8.2 Thermal Sources.................................................................... 101
8.3 Gas-Discharge Lamps ........................................................... 103
8.4 Light-Emitting Diodes ........................................................... 104
8.5 Lasers..................................................................................... 107
8.5.1 Diode Lasers............................................................. 108
8.5.2 Quantum Well Lasers ............................................... 108
8.5.3 Gas Lasers ................................................................ 108
8.5.4 Optically Pumped Solid-State Lasers ...................... 112
8.5.5 Dye Lasers ................................................................ 113
8.5.6 Chemical and Metal-Vapor Lasers ........................... 114
8.5.7 Fiber Lasers .............................................................. 115
8.6 Homework Problems ............................................................. 115

Chapter 9 Light Detectors ................................................................................. 117

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 117
9.2 Thermal Detectors ................................................................. 117
9.2.1 Bolometers................................................................ 117
9.2.2 Thermocouples ......................................................... 119
9.2.3 Pyroelectric Detectors .............................................. 119
9.3 Photon Detectors ................................................................... 119
9.3.1 Photoconductive Detectors ....................................... 120
9.3.2 Photovoltaic Detectors.............................................. 121
9.3.3 Avalanche Photodiodes ............................................ 122
x Contents

9.3.4 Photomultiplier Tubes............................................... 123

9.3.5 Silicon Photomultipliers ........................................... 124
9.4 Photodetector Noise............................................................... 125
9.5 Homework Problems ............................................................. 125

Appendix ............................................................................................................... 127

References ............................................................................................................. 173
Index ...................................................................................................................... 175
Preface
This book is intended to provide readers with a brief introduction to optical compo-
nents. Material in this book will prepare readers for dealing with optical components
in the area of optics and optical technology. The sources for the material in this book
are several books on optics as well as information available from several vendors
and others as acknowledged in the references at the end of the book. There are three
outstanding features of this book: (1) It is relatively short; (2) The equations in this
book are given without proof in order to keep the book short; (3) Numerous tables
are given providing useful optical parameters for a large number of optical materi-
als, making this book useful for optical design engineers. Additionally, this book
includes an appendix with the solutions to homework problems. There are several
books with optical components in their title. The most relevant are authored by Kai
Chang: (1) Handbook of Microwave and Optical Components, Volume 3: Optical
Components (1990); and (2) Handbook of Optical Components and Engineering
(2003). However, there are no textbooks on optical components. The technical level
of this book is equivalent to an undergraduate course in optics and optical tech-
nology curriculum. The students are required to have some familiarity with optics.
Also, practitioners in optics and optical technology can use this book.

xi
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Marc Bernstein for giving his approval to write this book. We thank
Dr. William Herzog and Dr. Mordechai Rothschild for discussions regarding this
work. We thank Dr. Antonio Sanchez-Rubio and Dr. Marion Reine for their com-
ments on this work. We thank Peter O’Brien for providing data on high-reflection
(HR) coatings, and cold and hot mirrors. We thank Dr. Alan DeCew for provid-
ing information regarding the Hubble Space Telescope. We thank Applied Physics
Letters, Hamamatsu, Nature, RP Photonics, and Wiley-VCH for permission to repro-
duce Figures 8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 8.6, 9.4, and 9.5. We thank Edmund Optics, First Sensor,
ISP Optics, Melles Griot, Newport Corporation, Nikon, Perkin-Elmer Corporation,
Schott Advanced Optics, Semrock, Sustainable Supply, Thorlabs, Vision Tech
Systems, and Wikipedia for the use of their online data. We thank Casey Reed and
Tara Alavi for drafting many of the figures.

xiii
Authors
Roshan L. Aggarwal retired from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
Cambridge, Massachusetts, effective April 1, 2016 after 51 years of service. He is
currently working as Part-Time Flexible Technical Staff in Chemical, Microsystem,
and Nanoscale Technologies (Group 81) at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Previously, he
was Technical Staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory for 30 years (1986–2016); Senior
Research Scientist, MIT Physics Department for 12 years (1975–1987); Associate
Director, MIT Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory for 7 years (1977–1984);
and Technical Staff, MIT Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory for 12 years
(1965–1977).

Kambiz Alavi is currently a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department,

University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas. He served 9 years as Associate
Chairman (2008–2017). He was a Research Scientist at Siemens Corporate Research
at Princeton, New Jersey (1983–1988) and a Postdoctoral Member of Technical Staff
at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey (1981–1983). He served as
Site Director of NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center (CEMDAS)
at UTA (1995–1997). During 2001–2003 he was a Department Manager in Integrated
Optoelectronics, Advanced Systems and Technology, BAE Systems, Nashua, New
Hampshire. He earned SB, SM, and PhD degrees in Physics from MIT. His research
was conducted at MIT Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory.

xv
 1 Lenses

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The earliest known lenses date back to 750 BC, and were made from polished
crystal, often quartz. One such example of an ancient lens in the collection of the
British Museum (#90959) was ground and polished with one plane surface and one
slightly convex surface. Lenses are commonly used as magnifiers for viewing small
objects. Lenses are also used in optical systems such as binoculars, cameras, eye-
glasses, microscopes, telescopes, and other optical systems. For additional informa-
tion on lenses, the following books are recommended: Fowles (1975); Hecht and
Zajac (1974); Jenkins and White (1976).
There are six types of lenses: biconvex, plano-convex, positive meniscus, negative
meniscus, plano-concave, and biconcave, as shown in Figure 1.1.
We now consider a biconvex lens of refractive index n, diameter D, focal length f,
front focal length f F, and back focal length f B located in a medium of refractive index
of 1.0 (vacuum or air). Figure 1.2 shows a thick lens with radii of curvature R1 and R2
for the two lens surfaces, and center thickness tC.
The optical axis of the lens (C2C1) intersects the two surfaces of the lens at points
V1 and V2. V1V2 is equal to tC. C1 and C2 denote the centers of curvature of the two
lens surfaces. V1C1 is equal to R1. V2C2 is equal to R2. F1 and F2 denote the front and
back focal points of the lens. H1 and H2 denote the primary and secondary principal
planes, respectively. An object ray, propagating parallel to the optical axis to the
right, is considered to continue through the lens up to the principal plane H2 and
then passes through the back focal point F2. The distance F1H1 or H2F2 is equal to
the focal length f. The distance F1V1 is equal to the front focal length f F. The distance
V2F2 is equal to the back focal length f B. The distances V1H1 and V2H2 are given by
(Fowles 1975).

 n −1 
V1 H1 = δ1 = − ftC   (1.1)
 nR2 

 n −1 
V2 H2 = δ2 = − ftC   (1.2)
 nR1 

Distances V1C1, V2C2, V1H1, V2H2, F1H1, and H2F2 are positive if they point to the
right, and negative if they point to the left. As shown in Figure 1.2, R1 is positive, R2 is
negative, δ1 is positive, and δ2 is negative. The edge thickness of the lens is given by

D2  1 1 
t E ≈ tC − − (1.3)
8  R1 R2 

1
2 Introduction to Optical Components

Biconvex Plano- Positive Negative Plano- Biconcave

convex meniscus meniscus concave

FIGURE 1.1 Six types of lenses.

R1 R2

Optical axis

C2 F1 V1 H1 H2 V2 F2 C1

tC

FIGURE 1.2 Thick lens with center thickness tC.

In the paraxial approximation, focal length f is given by

1 1 1 ( n − 1) tC 
= ( n − 1)  − +  (1.4)
f  R1 R2 nR1R2 

Front focal length f F is given by

fF = f − δ1 (1.5)

Back focal length f B is given by

f B = f + δ2 (1.6)

Effective focal length of a combination of two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2
separated by a distance d is given by

1 1 1 d
= + − (1.7)
f f1 f 2 f1 f 2
Lenses 3

Back focal length for this combination of the two lenses is given by

 d
f B = f 1 −  (1.8)
 f1 

Location of the f lens on the left-hand side of the f2 lens is given by

d
L ff2 = f (1.9)
f1

Figure 1.3 shows a plane parallel beam of light incident upon a biconvex lens.
All the light rays pass through the focal spot and then diverge. The diameter of the
focal spot is determined by the diffraction of light and the quality of the lens. For a
perfect lens, the back focal spot F2 consists of a bright spot known as the Airy disc,
which is surrounded by rings. Eight-four percent of the light goes into the Airy disc
and 16% into the rings. The diameter of the Airy disc is equal to 1.22f λ/D, where
λ is the wavelength of light and D is the diameter of the lens. For an f/1.0 perfect
lens (f# = f/D), the diameter of Airy disc is equal to 0.61 μm for λ equal to 0.5 μm.
Because of the aberrations of the lens, the size of the focal spot for a real lens is
larger than that for the perfect lens.
Figure 1.4 shows a plane parallel beam of light incident upon a biconcave lens. In
this case, the light rays diverge upon exiting the lens and appear to be coming from
a virtual focal spot, which is located on the left-hand side of the lens.

H1 H2

Optical
axis F1 F2

FIGURE 1.3 Plane parallel beam incident upon a biconvex lens.

H1 H2

Optical axis
F1

FIGURE 1.4 Plane parallel beam incident upon a biconcave lens.

4 Introduction to Optical Components

1.2 MATERIALS
The optical properties of a material are determined by the values of its optical con-
stants n and κ, where n is the refractive index and κ is the extinction coefficient.
The absorption coefficient α is given by
4πκ
α= (1.10)
λ
A lens material should have negligible value of α (<1 × 10−6/μm). Table 1.1 lists
wavelengths for negligible values of α for some materials.
Dispersion of n is given by the Sellmeier equation

B1λ 2 B2λ 2 B3λ 2

n2 ( λ ) = 1 + + + (1.11)
λ 2 − λ12 λ 2 − λ 22 λ 2 − λ 32
where B1, B2, B3, λ12, λ22, and λ32 are the Sellmeier coefficients. Equation 1.11 is not
valid in regions where λ2 is close to λ12, λ22, and λ32. The Sellmeier coefficients are
given in Table 1.2 for FS (Refractive Index 2017), BK7 (Refractive Index 2017), CaF2
(Tatian 1984), BaF2 (Tatian 1984), and Ge (Tatian 1984).
Values of n for FS, BK, CaF2, and BaF2 at 0.55 μm are 1.46, 1.52, 1.43, and 1.47
respectively. The value of n for Ge at 3.0 μm is 4.05.
Reflection loss R on each surface of a lens with negligible absorption is given by
2
 n −1 
R=  (1.12)
 n +1 

TABLE 1.1
Wavelengths for Negligible Values of α
Material FS BK7 CaF2 BaF2 Ge
Wavelengths 0.2–2.5 μm 0.4–2.5 μm 0.2–7 μm 0.2–9 μm 3–10 μm
Spectral region UV, VIS, NIR VIS, NIR UV, VIS, NIR, IR UV, VIS, NIR, IR IR

Note: UV, VIS, NIR, and IR denote ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared, and infrared, respectively.

TABLE 1.2
Sellmeier Coefficients for FS, BK7, CaF2, BaF2, and Ge
Material B1 B2 B3 λ12 (μm2) λ22 (μm2) λ32 (μm2)
FS 0.696166 0.407943 0.897479 0.004679 0.013512 97.93400
BK7 1.039612 0.231792 1.010470 0.006001 0.020018 103.5607
CaF2 0.337601 0.701105 3.847815 0.000000 0.008775 1200.2
BaF2 1.006307 0.143786 3.788478 0.000057 0.017520 2131.8
Ge 14.75875 0.235256 −24.8823 0.188619 1.593803 1695204
Lenses 5

The values of R for FS, BK7, CaF2, and BaF2 at 0.55 μm are 3.5%, 4.3%, 4.3%, and
5.3%, respectively. The value of R for Ge at 3.0 μm is 36%. Lenses are antireflection
(AR) coated to reduce the reflection loss. The AR coatings are usually broadband
coatings. The AR coatings for specific wavelengths have a lower value of R than
those for the broadband coatings.

1.3 IMAGING
Lenses are used for imaging applications. The image of an object, located at a dis-
tance so from a lens of focal length f, as shown in Figure 1.5, is obtained at a distance
si given by

1 1 1
= − (1.13)
si f so

Object and image distances are measured from the principal planes H1 and H2,
respectively. Image distance si is positive if the image is to the right of the lens.
Magnification M of the image is given by

li s
M= =− i (1.14)
lo so

where li and lo are the lengths of the image and object, respectively. An image of an
object formed by a lens, or combination of lenses, can be obtained by tracing the rays
from the object through the lens (or lenses) using Snell’s law. There are commercial
software programs, such as Zemax, available for ray tracing.

1.4 ABERRATIONS
An object’s image may not be a scaled replica of itself due to aberrations of the
lens. There is chromatic aberration and five monochromatic aberrations, which are
discussed in the following sections. Strehl ratio is a measure of the quality of the
image. The Strehl ratio has a value between 0 and 1; an unaberrated image has a
Strehl ratio of 1.

Object

l0
F2 Image
F1 li

so si

FIGURE 1.5 Image of an object formed by a lens.

6 Introduction to Optical Components

1.4.1 ChromatiC aberration

Focal length of a lens depends on the wavelength λ due to the variation of n with λ.
An image of an object with polychromatic light will consist of a series of images, one
for each λ. This image defect is called chromatic aberration. The fractional change
in the focal length over the spectral bandwidth Δλ is given by

∆f ∆n
=− (1.15)
f n −1

where Δn is the change in n over the spectral bandwidth Δλ. A combination of two
lenses of different materials in contact with each other could result in a lens of
zero chromatic aberration. Such a lens is called an achromatic doublet. The focal
lengths of the two lenses of an achromatic doublet of focal length f are given by
(Fowles 1975)

 ∆ 
f1 = f 1 − 1  (1.16)
 ∆2 

 ∆ 
f 2 = f 1 − 2  (1.17)
 ∆1 

where

1 dn1
∆1 = (1.18)
( n1 − 1) dλ

1 dn2
∆2 = (1.19)
( n2 − 1) dλ

It is also possible to design an achromatic doublet using two lenses of the same
material of focal lengths f1 and f2 separated by a distance d. It can be shown that an
achromatic doublet is obtained if d is given by (Jenkins and White 1976)

1
d= ( f1 + f2 ) (1.20)
2

1.4.2 SpheriCal aberration

Focal length of a lens is a function of the distance h of the object rays from the opti-
cal axis. Normally, the focal length of a lens is specified for values of h, which are
much smaller than the focal length, that is, in the paraxial approximation. For large
values of h, the paraxial approximation is not valid. Consequently, the image of an
on-axis object is degraded if the diameter of the lens is not much smaller than its
focal length. This image defect is known as spherical aberration. The magnitude of
Lenses 7

the spherical aberration depends on the shape of the lens. The shape factor is given
by (Jenkins and White 1976)

R2 + R1
q= (1.21)
R2 − R1

We use the third-order theory where

θ3
sin θ = θ − (1.22)
6
Longitudinal spherical aberration (LSA) for a collimated ray incident upon the lens
of focal length f at height h from the optical axis is given by

h2 n+2 2 n3 
LSA ≅  q − 4( n + 1)q + (3n + 2)( n − 1) +  (1.23)
8 fn( n − 1)  n − 1 n −1

Value of q for the minimum spherical aberration is obtained from Equation 1.23 as

2( n2 − 1)
qmin = (1.24)
n+2

Value of qmin for n = 1.5 is 0.71, which is close to the value of 1.0 for q for a plano-
convex lens with the first surface being convex. Spherical aberration may be further
reduced using aspherized lens surfaces.

1.4.3 Coma
Coma derives its name from the pear-shaped comet-like appearance of the image of
an off-axis point object located at a very large distance compared to the focal length
of the lens. Assuming that the lens is free of spherical aberration, rays in the vicin-
ity of the central ray form a sharp point image at A in the focal plane. On the other
hand, rays from zones of increasing h form an image on a circle of increasing radius,
as shown in Figure 1.6.
Radius of a comatic circle is given by (Jenkins and White 1976)

jh3  3(2n + 1) 3( n + 1) 
Cs = 3 
p+ q (1.25)
f  4n 4n( n − 1) 

where:
j is the distance of the sharp point image A from the optical axis
h is the radius of the incident rays on the lens
p is the position factor defined by

2f 2f
p= −1 = 1−
so si (1.26)
8 Introduction to Optical Components

j
Optical
axis

Image plane

FIGURE 1.6 Coma-shaped image formed by a lens.

A lens will be free from comatic aberration for a distant off-axis point object, which
corresponds to the value of −1 for p, if shape factor q is given by

(2n + 1)( n − 1)
q= (1.27)
n +1
Value of q is 0.80 for n = 1.5. This shows that a lens designed for no coma will have
spherical aberration close to its minimum.

1.4.4 aStigmatiSm
Astigmatism is a monochromatic third-order aberration, which arises when a point
object lies an appreciable distance from the optical axis of the lens. An astigmatic
lens produces two line images of an off-axis point object. One of these line images
lies in the tangential plane, which contains the optical axis and the point object. The
other line image lies in the sagittal plane, which is perpendicular to the tangential
plane, as shown in Figure 1.7. The tangential image plane is closer to the lens than
the sagittal image plane.

Tangential T
plane
y
ef ra
Chi
Object Optical axis
F2

FIGURE 1.7 Two line images of an off-axis point object formed by an astigmatic lens.
Lenses 9

S
T
Ch
ief
ray

Optical
axis F2

y
ef ra
Chi

FIGURE 1.8 Tangential and sagittal image planes for an off-axis point object.

Figure 1.8 shows that the separation between the tangential and sagittal image
planes increases with the distance of the point object from the optical axis. The two
image surfaces coincide for paraxial rays. The astigmatism is approximately propor-
tional to the focal length of the lens as given below:

( si ) S − ( si )T ≈ f sin 2 φ (1.28)

where:
(si)S and (si)T are the image distances in the sagittal and tangential planes, respec-
tively, and
ϕ is the angle of incidence of the chief ray measured at the point of incidence on
the lens.

Astigmatism does not depend upon the shape of the lens. This is in contrast to spheri-
cal aberration and coma, both of which depend upon the shape of the lens. A second
form of astigmatism occurs when the optical system is not symmetric about the opti-
cal axis. This may be due to manufacturing errors in the surfaces of the lens.
Astigmatism is well illustrated by looking at the image of a spoked wheel with
its center located on the optical axis and in a plane perpendicular to the optical axis
(parallel to the plane of the lens), as shown in Figure 1.9 (Jenkins and White 1976).

Object Tangential Sagittal

focal plane focal plane

FIGURE 1.9 Astigmatic images of a spoked wheel formed by a lens.

10 Introduction to Optical Components

Rim is in focus in the tangential T image plane while spokes are in focus in the
sagittal image plane p. S. An off-axis point object is imaged in the sagittal focus as a
line parallel to the spokes. An off-axis point object is imaged in the tangential plane
as a line parallel to the rim. That is why the spokes of the wheel are in focus in the
sagittal plane and the rim is in focus in the tangential plane.

1.4.5 Field Curvature

Field curvature is an aberration that is related to astigmatism, but it can also exist in
a system that does not suffer from astigmatism. An optical system or a lens free of
spherical aberration, coma, and astigmatism will provide a one-to-one correspon-
dence between points on the object and image surfaces. However, a planar object
normal to the optical axis is imaged approximately as a plane only in the paraxial
approximation. In general, the image surface would be curved. This image defect
is known as Petzval field curvature after the Hungarian mathematician Joseph Max
Petzval. The Petzval surface for a single lens is given by

x2
∆z = (1.29)
2nf
where:
z is the coordinate along the optical axis of the lens
x is the coordinate in the image plane

The Petzval surface does not depend upon the shape of the lens. For a two-lens sys-
tem, the Petzval surface can be made planar if
n1 f1 + n2 f 2 = 0 (1.30)
where:
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices
f1 and f2 are the focal lengths of the two lenses

Let us consider the case of two lenses separated by a distance d. If n1 = n2 and f1 = −f2
then Equation 1.30 is valid. In this case, the Petzval surface for the combination of the
two lenses will be planar and the combination will have a finite positive focal length
given by

f12
f = (1.31)
d

1.4.6 diStortion
In the absence of spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, and field curvature, each
point on a planar object would be sharply focused on a planar image plane. However,
the image would be distorted if the transverse magnification MT were not uniform
over the entire field of view. There are two forms of distortion: (1) barrel distortion,
which results when the magnification decreases toward the edges of the field of view;
and (2) pincushion distortion, which results when the magnification increases toward
Lenses 11

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.10 (a) Object, (b) pincushion distortion, and (c) barrel distortion.

the edges of the field of view. The increase (decrease) of magnification for pincush-
ion (barrel) distortion varies quadratically with radial distance. These two forms of
distortion are shown in Figure 1.10 for a wire screen.

1.5 MAGNIFIER
A magnifier is a positive lens, which provides a magnified image of an object on the
retina of the eye rather than that obtained with the unaided eye. The angular mag-
nification of the magnifier is the ratio of the angle θ′ subtended by the image to the
angle θ subtended by the object. The magnification of the magnifier is specified by
(Jenkins and White 1976)
θ′ 25 25
M= = +1 ≈ (1.32)
θ f f

This is illustrated in Figure 1.11.

Eye
Object
lens
θ Axis
25 cm Retina

li Eye
θ′ lens
Axis
s0 < f
Magnifier Retina

25 cm

FIGURE 1.11 Angles θ and θ′ subtended by the object at the unaided eye and that of the
image of the magnifier.
12 Introduction to Optical Components

Here 25 cm is the standard near point, which is called the distance of most dis-
tinct vision, and f is the focal length of the magnifier in units of cm. A magnifier with
a focal length of 2.5 cm is marked 10x and another with a focal length of 5 cm will
be marked 5x.

1.6 OBJECTIVES
Objective lenses are used to collect light from the object and then focus the light
to form a real image. Objective lenses are used in cameras, microscopes, and tele-
scopes. The microscope objective has a very short focal length. The magnification
of the microscope objective typically ranges from 4x to 100x. The telescope objec-
tive has a relatively large focal length (several inches to tens of inches). The light
collection of the telescope objective is proportional to the square of the diameter
of the objective. The world’s largest refracting telescope is located at the Yerkes
Observatory in Wisconsin Bay, Wisconsin, US. The diameter and focal length of the
Yerkes objective are 1.02 m and 19.4 m, respectively.

1.7 EYEPIECES
An eyepiece is used to magnify the image created by the objective lens in a micro-
scope, telescope, or other optical devices such as binoculars. The eyepiece is so
named because it is close to the eye in the optical device. The eyepiece can be a
single lens, but usually consists of several lenses to reduce the aberrations of the
image. Also, the component lenses of the eyepiece are AR-coated to improve its
transmittance. The angular magnification of the eyepiece is specified in the same
way as for the magnifier. The overall magnification of a microscope MM is a product
of the linear magnification MO of the objective and angular magnification of the
eyepiece ME. Hence MM is given by

M M = MO M E (1.33)

Assuming values of 100 for MO and 10 for ME, the value of MM will be equal to 1000,
which allows the observation of submicron-sized objects. The magnification MT of a
telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final image
and the angle subtended at the eye by the object itself. MT is given by

fO
MT = (1.34)
fE

where fO and f E are the focal lengths of the telescope objective and eyepiece, respec-
tively. A telescope with an objective of 5 m focal length and an eyepiece of 5 cm
focal length will have a magnification of 100.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
five thousand three hundred canons, and we asked what revenues
they had. He said that they were very little for so many; and we
said, since the revenues are so small, why were there so many
canons. He told us that at the beginning of that church there were
not many, but that afterwards they had increased, because all the
sons of canons, and as many as descended from them, remained
canons, and the fathers each taught their sons, and so they had
been increased in number, and that this happened in the King’s
churches, and that frequently Prester John diminished them, when
he set up a church in a new country, and sent to fetch canons from
these churches, as he had ordered two hundred canons to be taken
away to the church of Machan Celace,[106] and that in this valley
there were eight churches, and there would be in them fully four
thousand canons, and that the Prester took canons from here for the
new churches, and also for the churches at court, because otherwise
they would eat one another up.

Cap. lviii.—Ofthe mountain in which they put the sons of the Prester
John, and how they stoned us near it.
The above mentioned valley reaches to the mountain where they
put the sons of the Prester John. These are like banished men; as it
was revealed to King Abraham, before spoken of, to whom the
angels for forty years administered bread and wine for the
sacrament, that all his sons should be shut up in a mountain, and
that none should remain except the first born, the heir, and that this
should be done for ever to all the sons of the Prester of the country,
and his successors: because if this was not so done there would be
great difficulty in the country, on account of its greatness, and they
would rise up and seize parts of it, and would not obey the heir, and
would kill him. He being frightened at such a revelation, and
reflecting where such a mountain could be found, it was again told
him in revelation to order his country to be searched, and to look at
the highest mountains, and that mountain on which they saw wild
goats on the rocks, looking as if they were going to fall below, was
the mountain on which the princes were to be shut up. He ordered it
to be done as it had been revealed to him, and they found this
mountain, which stands above this valley, to be the one which the
revelation mentioned, round the foot of which a man has to go a
journey of two days; and it is of this kind: a rock cut like a wall,
straight from the top to the bottom; a man going at the foot of it
and looking upwards, it seems that the sky rests upon it. They say
that it has three entrances or gates, in three places, and no more; I
saw one of these here in this country, and I saw it in this manner.
We were going from the sea to the court, and a young man, a
servant of the Prester, whom they call a calacem, was guiding us,
and he did not know the country well; and we wished to lodge in a
town, and they would not receive us; this belonged to a sister of
Prester John. The night had not yet advanced much, and he began
travelling, telling us to follow him, and that he would get us
lodgings. And because he travelled fast on a mule, and on a small
path, I told one Lopo da Gama to ride in sight of the calacem, and
that I would keep him in sight, and the ambassador and the other
people would ride in sight of me. And the night closed in when we
were quite a league from the road towards the mountain of the
princes, and there came forth from all the villages so many people
throwing stones at us, that they were near killing us, and they made
us disperse in three or four directions. The ambassador had
remained in the rear, and he turned back, and others who were
about in the middle of the party started off in another direction; and
some one there was who dismounted from his mule and fled in
panic.[107] Lopo da Gama and I could not turn back, so we went
forward and reached another town, which was still better prepared,
on account of the noise which they heard behind in the other towns.
Here many stones rained upon us, and the darkness was like having
no eyes. In order that they might not throw stones at me by hearing
the mule’s steps, I dismounted and gave the mule to my slave. God
was pleased that an honourable man came up to me, and asked me
who I was. I told him that I was a gaxia neguz, that is to say, a
king’s stranger. This man was very tall, and I say honourable,
because he treated me well; and he took my head under his arm, for
I did not reach any higher, and so he conducted me like the bellows
of a bagpipe player, saying, Atefra, atefra, which means “Do not be
afraid, do not be afraid.” He took me with the mule and the slave,
until he brought me into a vegetable garden which surrounded his
house. Inside this garden he had a quantity of poles stuck up one
against another, and in the midst of these poles he had a clean
resting place like a hut, into which he put me. As it seemed to me
that I was in safety, I ordered a light to be lit; and when they saw
the light they rained stones on the hut, and when I put out the light
the stone throwing ceased. The host, as soon as he left me,
returned at the noise, and then remained an hour without coming.
Whilst he was away, Lopo da Gama heard me, and broke through
the bushes,[108] and came to me. On this the host came and said,
“Be quiet, do not be afraid,” and ordered a candle to be lit, and to
kill two fowls; and he gave us bread and wine and a hospitable
welcome, according to his power. Next day, in the morning, the host
took me by the hand and led me to his house, as far as a game of
ball, where there were many trees of an inferior kind, and very thick,
by which it was concealed as by a wall; and between them was a
door, which was locked; and before this door was an ascent to the
cliff. This host said to me: “Look here; if any of you were to pass
inside this door, there would be nothing for it but to cut off his feet
and his hands, and put out his eyes, and leave him lying there; and
you must not put the blame on those who would do this, neither
would you be in fault, but those who brought you hither: we, if we
did not do this, we should pay with our lives, because we are the
guardians of this door.” Lopo da Gama, I, and the calacem then at
once mounted and rode down to the road, which was below us, a
good league off, and we found that none of our party had passed
by; and vespers were over, and yet we had not come together.
 Cap. lix.—Of the greatness of the mountain in which they put the sons
of Prester John, and of its guards, and how his kingdoms are
inherited.
The manner they have of shutting up these sons of the kings.
Until this King David Prester John, all had five or six wives, and they
had sons of them or of most of them. By the death of the Prester,
the eldest born inherited; others say that he who appeared to the
Prester the most apt, and of most judgment, inherited: others say
that he inherited who had the most adherents. Of this matter I will
say what I know by hearing it from many. The King Alexander, the
uncle of this David, died without a son, and he had daughters, and
they went to the mountain and brought out from it Nahu his brother,
who was father of this David. This Nahu brought with him from the
mountain a legitimate son, who was, they say, a handsome youth,
and a good gentleman, but of a strong temper. After that Nahu was
in the kingdoms, he had other wives, of whom he had sons and
daughters, and at his death they wished to make king that eldest
son who had come from the mountain with his father; and some
said that he was strong in temper, and would ill-treat the people.
Others said that he could not inherit because he had been born as in
captivity, and outside of the inheritance. So they set up as king this
David who now reigns, and who at that time was a boy of eleven
years of age. The Abima Martos told me that he and the Queen
Helena made him king, because they had all the great men in their
hands. Thus it appears to me, that beyond primogeniture, adherence
enters into the question. Other sons of Nahu, who were infants,
remained with the eldest who had come from the mountain with his
father, and they took them all back to the said mountain, and so
they do with all the sons of the Prester from the time of that King
Abraham until now. They say that this mountain is cold and
extensive, and they also say that the top of it is round, and that it
takes fifteen days to go round it;[109] and it seems to me that may
be so, because on this side, where our road lay, we travelled at the
foot of it for two days; and so it reaches to the kingdoms of Amara
and of Bogrimidi, which is on the Nile, and a long way from here.
They say that there are on the top of this mountain yet other
mountains which are very high and contain valleys: and they say
that there is a valley there between two very steep mountains, and
that it is by no means possible to get out of it, because it is closed
by two gates, and that in this valley they place those who are
nearest to the king, that is to say, those who are still of his own
blood, and who have been there a short time, because they keep
them with more precaution. Those who are sons of sons, and
grandsons, and already almost forgotten are not so much watched
over. Withal, this mountain is generally guarded by great guards,
and great captains; and a quarter of the people who usually live at
the court are of the guards of this mountain and their captains.
These captains and guards of the mountain who are at court, lodge
apart by themselves, and no one approaches them, nor do they go
near others, so that no one may have an opportunity of learning the
secrets of the mountain. And when they approach the door of the
Prester, and he has to receive a message or speak to them, they
make all the people go away, and all other affairs cease whilst they
are speaking of this.

Cap. lx.—Of the punishment that was given to a friar, and also to
some guards, for a message which he brought from some princes
to the Prester; and how a brother of the Prester and his uncle
fled, and of the manner in which they dealt with them.
With regard to the matter of these princes, I saw this: they
brought here a friar who was about thirty years old, and with him
quite two hundred men. They said that this friar had brought a letter
to the Prester John from one of the princes of the mountain, and
these two hundred men were guards of the same mountain. They
flogged this friar every two days, and they also flogged these men,
distributing them in two parties. On the day they flogged the friar,
they flogged half of the guards, and they always began with the
friar, then all the others were always in sight of one another, and
each time they put questions to the friar, who gave him that letter,
for whom, and if he had brought more letters, and what monastery
he belonged to, and where he had become a friar, and where he had
been ordained for mass? The wretched friar said that it was sixteen
years since he had come out of the mountain, and that they had
then given him that letter, and that he had never returned there, nor
had dared to give the letter except now; that sin had caught him
(and this might be the truth, because in this country they are not
accustomed to put in a letter the year, nor the month, nor the day).
To the guards they did not put any other question, except how had
they let this friar get out. The manner of flogging is this: they throw
the man on his stomach, and fasten his hands to two stakes, and a
rope to both feet, and two men both pulling at the rope; there are
also two as executioners to strike one at one side and the other at
the other; and they do not always strike the flogged man, many
blows fall on the ground, because if they hit him every time, he
would die there, so severe is the flogging, and of this company I saw
a man taken away from the flogging, and before they could cover
him with a cloth he died. Immediately they informed the Prester
John of it, because these justices are done before his tents, and he
ordered the dead man to be taken back to where he had been
flogged, and those who were to be flogged afterwards he ordered to
put their heads on the feet of the dead man. This justice lasted two
weeks, for this regularity of flogging the friar every two days never
ceased, and half the guards after him; except Saturdays and
Sundays, on which days justice was not done. It was the common
fame and report through all the court that this friar had brought
letters to the Portuguese from the princes of the mountain that we
might take them out of it, and we were innocent of this, and I
believe the friar was in the same case.
But in the days and time that we were there, a brother of the
Prester John, a youth (as they said) of sixteen years of age, fled
from the mountain, and came to the house of his mother, a queen,
who had been wife of Prester John, and on account of the pain of
death that here falls on whoever takes in a prince from the
mountain, the mother would not take in her son, but had him
arrested and taken to Prester John.[110] They said that he asked his
brother why he fled, and that he answered that he was dying of
hunger, and that he had not come except for the purpose of relating
this to him, since no one would bring this message to him. They said
that the Prester John dressed him richly, and gave him much gold,
and silk stuffs, and ordered him to return to the mountain. They also
said generally in this court that he only fled in order to go away with
the Portuguese. With regard to this individual who thus fled and was
sent back to the mountain, when we, and this ambassador who is
going to Portugal, were at Lalibela, where the rock churches are,
and he was going to take possession of the lordship of Abrigima,
which Prester John gave him, there came that way a calacem with
many people, and he brought as a prisoner this brother of the
Prester; and he and his mule were covered with dark cloths, so that
nothing of him appeared, and the mule only showed its eyes and
ears. The messengers said that this man had run away in the habits
of a friar in company with a friar, and that this friar, his companion,
had discovered him the day on which they left the lands of Prester
John, and had caused him to be arrested, and so the friar himself
brought him a prisoner. They did not allow any person to approach
or speak to this brother of Prester John, except two men, who went
close to the mule. Everybody said that he would die, or that they
would put out his eyes. I do not know what became of him. Of
another we heard say (and he is still alive) that he had attempted to
fly from the mountain, and that in order to get away he had made
himself into a bush, that is, covered himself with many boughs; and
some cultivators who were at their tillage saw the said bush move,
and went to see what it was, and finding a man they took him
prisoner, and the guards, as soon as they had him in their power, put
out his eyes. They say that he is still alive, and that he is an uncle of
this Prester John. They relate that there are in this mountain a great
multitude of these people, and they call them Ifflaquitas, or sons of
this Israel, or sons of David, like the Prester John, because all are of
one race and blood. There are in this country (as they say) many
churches, monasteries, priests, and friars.[111]
 Cap. lxi.—In what estimation the relations of the Prester are held, and
of the different method which this David wishes to pursue with
his sons, and of the great provisions applied to the mountain.
In this country Prester John has no relation of his own, because
those on the mother’s side are not held or reckoned or named as
relations; and those on the father’s side are shut up and held to be
dead, and although they marry and have children, as they say that
they have an infinite number of sons and daughters, yet none of
them ever comes out of the mountain, except, as has been
mentioned before, if the Prester dies without an heir, then they bring
out from it his nearest relation, and the most fit and proper. It is said
that some women go out to be married outside, and they are not
held to be relations, nor daughters nor sisters of the Prester,
although they are so: they are honoured so long as their father or
brother lives, and as soon as these die they are like any other ladies.
I saw, and we all saw, at the court, a lady who was daughter of an
uncle of this Prester, and although she still went about with an
umbrella,[112] she was much neglected. We knew a son of hers who
was as ill-treated as any servant, so that in a short time his lineage
died and remained without any mention of being related to the king.
This King David Prester who now reigns, had at our departure two
sons; they said that he gave them large settled estates or
dotations[113] of large revenues assigned to them. They showed to
me in what part one of them had extensive lands. But the general
voice was that as soon as the father should close his eyes, and that
one of them should be made king, that the others would go to the
mountain like their predecessors, without taking anything with them
except their bodies. I also heard say that the third part of the
expenses of the Prester were made for these princes and Ifflaquitas,
and that this Prester dealt better with them than his predecessor
had ever done; and that, beside the large revenues which were
appropriated to them, he sent them much gold and silks and other
fine cloths, and much salt, which in these kingdoms is current as
money. And when we arrived and gave him much pepper, we
learned for certain that he sent them the half of it; and he sent word
to them to rejoice that the King of Portugal, his father, had ordered a
visit to be paid to him, and had sent him that pepper. We also knew
for certain, and by seeing it in many parts, that Prester John has in
most of his kingdoms large tillages and lands, like the King’s
lands[114] in our parts. These lands, or king’s patrimony, are
ploughed and sown by his slaves, with his own oxen. These have
their provisions and clothes from the king, and they are more free
than any other people, and they are married, and they proceed
originally[115] from slaves, and they intermarry. Of all the tillage that
is near the mountain, most of it goes there, and the rest to
monasteries, churches, poor people, and principally to poor and old
gentlemen who once have held lordships and no longer hold them:
and he twice ordered some of this bread to be given to us
Portuguese, that is to say, once in Aquaxumo five hundred loads,
and another time another five hundred in Aquate, and of this tillage
he has nothing for himself, neither is any of it sold, and all is spent
and given, as has been said.

Cap. lxii.—Ofthe end of the kingdom of Angote, and beginning of the

kingdom of Amara[116], and of a lake and the things there are in
it, and how the friar wished to take the ambassador to a
mountain, and how we went to Acel, and of its abundance.

We return to our journey and road[117]. We went along the

mountains and by a river, and above it a very pretty country, with
much millet and other grains of the country, and yet they had not
wheat. There was much population on the skirts of the mountains on
either side of the river, and coming to the end of the valley, we left
the river, and began to find a country of thickets and stones: not
mountainous, but of small valleys, and other lands of much wheat,
barley, and the other vegetables which the country produces. Here
the kingdom of Augote ends, and the kingdom of Amara begins.
Here towards the East, and in the kingdom of Amara, there is a
great lake where we halted, and this lake or lagoon is quite three
leagues long, and more than a league wide. This lake has in the
middle a small island, on which is a monastery of St. Stephen with
many friars. This monastery has many lemons, oranges, and citrons.
They go to and from this monastery with a boat of reeds, with four
large calabashes,[118] because they do not know how to build boats.
These which I call reeds are bulrushes[119] with which they make
mats in Portugal. This boat or ferrying is conducted in this manner:
they take four pieces of wood and place them around those
bulrushes, which are well arranged, and other four planks upon the
bulrushes at right angles to the others, and they separate them well,
and at each corner they place a great calabash, and so pass over on
it. This lake does not run except in winter with the excess of water:
they say that it pours out at two ends. There are in this lake very
large animals which they call in this country gomaras;[120] they say
that they are sea horses. There is also a fish, properly a conger, and
it is very large. It has the ugliest head that could be described, and
formed like a large toad, and the skin on its head looks like the skin
of dog-fish:[121] the body is very smooth like the conger, and it is
the fattest and most savoury fish that could be found in the world.
This lake has large villages all round, and all of them come down to
the water. It is said that there are round this lake fifteen Shumats or
captaincies, all within a space of two or three leagues. There are
around good lands of wheat and barley. Of these lakes we saw many
in this country, and this is the largest I saw.
From here we travelled quite four leagues through bushes and
muddy places, a country of much millet, and well watered. At the
end of the journey and much overtired, the friar wished to take the
ambassador to some very high mountains to halt and sleep. The
ambassador answered him, that he had not come to go all round
countries, but to travel by straight roads; and that with regard to
food, that he brought enough to buy it, either with gold or silver, or
pepper, and cloths of the King of Portugal, which his captain-major
had given us, and that on the roads where we halted outside the
towns they brought us provisions, if he, the friar, did not take them
by force from those that brought them, and from fear of him they
did not bring them. We remained on the road halted in the open air,
and the friar with his men went up the mountain; and at midnight
he sent us bread and wine. Friday we set out from the place where
we slept thus, and the friar did not come nor any message from him,
nor people for the baggage, When we had gone the distance of a
league, a servant of the friar reached us, and said that we should
not go beyond the first town which was a good one for halting at
Saturday and Sunday: and this we did. As soon as we arrived at this
first town, and saw that it was good, we did not wish to pass it. This
town is named the Acel; it is situated on a small hill between two
rivers and is good land, there were here many millet fields, and all
other grain crops and wheat. It is a very good town, and they hold a
great fair in it. Beyond one of the rivers there is a large town of
Moors, rich with great trade of slaves, silks and all other kinds of
merchandise. It is like the town of Manadeley in the territory of
Tigrimahom. The Moors of this place also say that they pay to the
Prester very heavy tribute like the others. Here there is great
intercourse between the Christians and Moors, because the
Christians and Christian women carry water to the Moors and wash
their clothes. The Christian women go to the town of the Moors,
which is separate and alone, from which we formed a bad opinion.
We stayed Saturday and Sunday in a field at the foot of the town,
where our people were all night with their lances, keeping off the
tigers which fought with us energetically, that is to say, with the
mules, and our people did not sleep all night. Here there were
disputes between Jorge d’Abreu and the ambassador about a very
small matter.
On Monday we travelled over flat country between mountains
which were very populous and much cultivated, for a distance of two
leagues. We ascended a very high mountain without cliffs or stones
or bushes, all taken advantage of for tillage; and on the summit of
this mountain we passed our midday rest, separated from one
another, on account of the quarrels which had taken place in Acel, at
the foot of some small bushes. From this place one could see much
land at a great distance; there sat down with me ten or twelve
respectable men, and the interpreter, was with us, and the talk was
about the height of this mountain on which we were, and of the
many countries we saw. They showed me the mountain where the
princes were, and which I have mentioned before; it seemed to be
three or four leagues from here: its scarped rock, like that further
back, ran to such a length towards the Nile, that we could not sight
the end of it. And the mountain where we were was so high that
that of the princes seemed to be commanded by it. Here they
related to me more fully the numerous guards and restrictions over
these princes, and the great abundance they had of provisions and
clothes. And because from here one could discern a very extensive
view as far as the eyes could see towards the West, I asked what
countries went in that direction, and if they all belonged to Prester
John. They told me that for a month’s journey in that direction were
the dominions of the Prester; after that, one entered mountains and
deserts, and after them very wretched people, very black and very
bad. In his opinion, these lasted for a distance of fifteen days’
journey, and when these were finished, there appeared white Moors
of the kingdom of Tunis. (And I am not surprised, because it is from
Tunis that the Kafilas come to Cairo and to this country of the
Prester.) They bring white burnooses, but not good ones, and other
merchandise. They also told me that on this mountain was divided
the country of the millet from that of the wheat, and that further on
we should not find more millet, but wheat and barley.

Cap. lxiii.—How we came to another lake, and from there to the

church of Macham Celacem, and how they did not let us enter it.
Here we travelled for three leagues on level roads, always on this
mountain height, all through fields of wheat and thin barley. We met
with another lake like the former one, although not so large, and yet
it was about a league in length, and half a league in breadth. This
lake has a small stream flowing out of it, and no water entering it
except that from the hills when it rains. It seems to be of great
depth, surrounded by strong rushes. We went to sleep in a great
field of grass, where the mosquitoes were near killing us. These
fields are not taken advantage of except for pasture, as they are
rather marshy, and the people do not know how to draw off the
water at the feet of the mountains from the tilled lands. There were
many and large towns, and much tillage of wheat and barley. From
here we took our road through very large valleys, and yet they had
very poor cultivation of wheat and barley; some were yellow, as
though dying from the water, and others which were dying of
drought, and so we were confused with the perishing of these crops.
We began to enter here into a country where by day there was great
heat, and at night great cold. In this country ordinary men wear
round them a strip of ox-hide; these ordinary persons are nearly all
of them, and very few are the special ones: and the women likewise
wear a cloth a little bit bigger than that of the men, and here cover
what they can of what God has given them; the rest shows. The
women wear their hair in two parts or in two lengths; with the one
the hair comes down to the shoulders, with the other it is brought
over the ears to the top of the head. They say that these lands
belong to the Prester’s trumpeters. A little apart from the road there
is on the right hand side a large grove at the foot of a mountain, and
there there is a large church of many canons; it is said that it was
built by a king who lies there. Passing through great mountain
ranges this day, we went to sleep outside of all of them at the
entrance of some beautiful plains. On the 26th of September in the
morning we travelled through these plains a distance of a league;
we arrived at a very large church, which is named Macham[122]
Selasem which means the Trinity. We came later to this church with
the Prester John to transfer there the bones of his father. This
church is surrounded by two enclosures, one of a well built high
wall, and another of palisades of strong wood. This which is of
palisades is outside, and of the circumference of half a league. We
were going very joyfully to see this church which the friar vaunted
very much, and we slept here to carry out our desire, but we did not
see it because they did not let us enter, and it was in this way. When
we were a good crossbow shot from the stockade enclosure, there
came to us men in great haste telling us to dismount; this we did at
once, knowing that it is their custom to dismount when they are
near churches, and out of reverence for this which is a great one, it
appeared to us that they dismounted further off. Going on foot and
arriving close to the door of the wooden enclosure, there were there
a great many men who would not let us go in. Not only us, but also
the friar who brought us, for they put their hands on his breast,
saying that they had not leave to let us come in. It did not avail us
to say that we were Christians, the tumult was so great, that it
almost came to a fight. We went away from them, and mounted and
went our way: and when we were already a good way from the
church, they came running after us, asking us to turn back, and that
they would let us enter, as they now had got leave. Then we did not
choose to turn back, so this time we did not see the church or its
construction. The plain in which this church stands and its situation
are as follows: its enclosures are on an open hill, and all round is a
plain; on one side it is a league in extent, in another direction the
plain extends two leagues, in another three, and in another direction
below, which is towards the south, four or five leagues: it is a
wonderful country, there is not a span that is not made use of, and
sown with all sorts of seed, except millet, which they have not got.
This plain has fresh crops all the year round, one gathered in and
another sown. At the back of this church runs a pretty river, open
and without any trees, and water comes from it to irrigate a great
part of the tilled lands. Other conduits of water descend from the
mountains, so that these fields are all irrigated. In these plains there
are many large houses standing apart, like farm houses, and there
are small villages, and in them churches, because, though there is a
king’s church, the cultivators are not deprived of churches.
 Cap. lxiv.—How the Presters endowed this kingdom with churches,
and how we went to the village of Abra, and from there to some
great dykes.
We continued our journey through these plains, which appeared
as I have described, and issuing from them, that is, from those we
had seen, we entered into others still wider, and yet not so well
provided with tillage: they appeared to be soaked with water like
marshes;[123] there are great pastures in them, and also great lakes,
and from them overflow the waters which make the marshes. There
are very many herds, both cows and sheep (there are no goats
here). There are very many villages distant from the road, and in all
of them churches. We travelled through these plains quite ten or
twelve leagues towards the East,[124] where they showed us a great
church, which they said was of St. George, in which lies the
grandfather of this Prester John (I will speak of it). When we were in
it they said that the former kings coming from the kingdoms of the
Barnagais and Tigrimahom, where their origin was, increasing their
dominions in these countries of the gentiles, and coming through the
kingdom of Angote to this kingdom of Amara, made a great stay and
residence in it. And they made in it a great establishment of
churches for their tombs, and endowed each one with large
revenues. To that church which King Nahu built, the father of this
Prester who now lives, he ended by giving as an endowment the
whole of this kingdom, without one span remaining which does not
belong to churches, and he ended by giving it to the church of
Macham Selasem, and he began and his son ended. These churches
of the kings do not prevent those of the cultivators, which are in
infinite number. A man may travel fully fifteen days through the
lands of Macham Selasem, and there is not in all this kingdom a
single monastery that we saw or heard speak of, after all the
number of them in the countries left behind, but all are churches of
canons, and those of the cultivators of priests. This kingdom now
has no lordship; it used to have its title, and it was Amara tafila,
which means King of Amara, like as also Xoa tafila means King of
Xoa. There was this lordship here until the remains of Nahu were
removed to the church of Macham Selacem, at which the Portuguese
were present; then the going and confirming the dotation to the
church was concluded, and the Prester set aside the Amara tafila
that there was till then, and gave the lordships to the churches, that
is to say, to the ancient ones as they had held them. As his father
had left them to this church of Macham Selasem, all the canons and
priests of these churches and of all the others of the other kingdoms
and lordships left behind, and further on, serve the Prester in all
services except in wars. And the administration of justice is all one,
both of canons and of priests and friars. So the friar who conducted
us bore himself with one and all, as to carrying our baggage, and so
they one and all obeyed him, (as has been said) and he ordered
priests and friars to be flogged. Going through these great plains,
when nothing else appeared in sight, it seemed to us that we were
now at sea[125] and out of the mountains. We came to stay Saturday
and Sunday, which was the last day of September, at a small village
of Our Lady, very poor and ill kept, close to which church towards
the east commence most wild mountains and deep fosses
descending to the greatest abysses men ever saw; nor could their
depth be believed, like as the mountains where the Israelites live are
scarped from the top, so are these. Below they are of great width, in
some places of four leagues, in others five, in others about three.
(This in our opinion.) They say that these dykes run to the Nile,
which is very far from here, and higher up we know well that they
reach the country of the Moors; they say that in the parts of the
Moors they are not so precipitous. At the bottom of these dykes
there are many dwellings and an infinite number of apes, hairy like
lions from the breast upwards.

Cap. lxv.—How we came to some gates and deep passes difficult to

travel, and we went up to the gates, at which the kingdom begins
which is named Xoa.
 On Monday the 1st of October 1520, we travelled on our road
through level country of lakes and large pastures for a distance of
three or four leagues, all along these dykes, and we went to sleep
near them where we had to cross these depths. Tuesday morning
we began to travel for half a league, and we arrived at some gates
on a rock which divided two valleys,[126] one to the right, the other
to the left hand, and so narrow near the gates that they might hold
one cart and no more; with small buttresses, between which the
gates shut and close from slope to slope. Going through this gate
one enters at once as into a deep valley, with shale[127] on either
side raised more than the height of a lance, as if the edge of the
sword had made this, these slopes, and this valley. The height of
these walls has a length of two games of quoits[128] of such
narrowness that a man cannot go on horseback, and the mules go
scraping the stirrups on both sides, and so steep that a man
descends with his hands and feet, and this seems to be made
artificially. Coming out of this narrow pass one travels through a
loophole[129] which is about four spans wide, and from one end to
the other these clefts are all shale; it is not to be believed, and I
would not have believed it, if I had not seen it: and if I had not seen
our mules and people pass, I would affirm that goats could not pass
there in security. So we set our mules going there as if one was
sending them to destruction, and we after them with hands and feet
down the rock, without there being any other road. This great
roughness lasts for a crossbow shot, and they call these here aqui
afagi, which means death of the asses. (Here they pay dues.) We
passed these gates many times, and we never passed them without
finding beasts and oxen dead, which had come from below upwards
and had not been able to get up the ascent. Leaving this pass, there
still remains quite two leagues of road sufficiently steep and rocky,
and difficult to travel over. In the middle of this descent there is a
rock hollowed out at the bottom, and water falls from the top of it
(there are always many beggars in this cave). Thus we descended
fully two leagues until reaching a great river which is named
Anecheta, which contains many fish and very large ones. From here
we travelled, ascending for quite a league, until reaching a passage
which sights another river, at which are other gates which now are
not used; and yet the gates are there still. Those who pass these
dykes and clefts come to sleep here, because they cannot go in one
day from one end to the other. At this halting place[130] the friar
who conducted us committed a great cruelty, as though he were not
a Christian, or had done it to Moors. Because a Xuum or captain of
some villages which are on a hill above the place where we were
resting, did not come up so quickly with the people who lived there,
he sent some men of his, and those who carried our baggage, to go
and destroy for them some great bean fields which they had by the
side of their houses. These men who went there brought to where
we were more than a moio[131] of beans, which were their
provisions in this country, because in these valleys they have nothing
except millet and beans. It was a pity to see such destruction; and
because we opposed him, he said that such was the justice of the
country, and also each day he ordered many of those who carried
our baggage to be flogged, and he took from them mules, cows, and
stuffs, saying that so should be treated whoever served ill.
On Tuesday the 2nd of October we took our road through many
steep rocks (as before) between which we passed very narrow and
bad paths, and dangerous passes; both on one side and on the
other scarped rock, a thing not to be credited. We reached the other
river, a good league from where we slept; this river is great, and is
named Gemaa; it also contains much fish. They say that both these
rivers join together and go to the river Nile. We began to travel and
ascend as great cliffs as we had descended the day before. In this
ascent there will be two leagues; at the end of it are other gates,
and another pass such as from aqui afagi. These gates are always
shut, and all who pass through them pay dues. Neither above nor
below is there any other way or passage. Outside of these gates we
went to sleep at a plain which is about half a league from the gates.
Already when there, nothing showed of the dykes, clefts, and cliffs
which we had traversed; on the contrary, all appeared to be a plain
on this side and on the further side, without there being anything in
the middle, and there were five long leagues from one set of gates
to the other. The kingdoms of Amara and Shoa are divided by these
gates and ravines. These gates are called Badabaxa, which means
new land. In these ravines and cliffs there are numerous tribes of
birds, and we could not determine where they breed, nor how they
could bring up their young without their fulling down from the rocks:
because whoever saw it would not judge otherwise than that it was
an impossible thing, according to its greatness.

Cap. lxvi.—How the Prester John went to the burial of Janes Ichee of
the monastery of Brilibanos, and of the election of another Ichee,
who was a Moor.
On Wednesday, the 3rd of October, we travelled through plains
not very far removed from the edge of the rocks and ravines, and
we went to sleep on the rock itself opposite the monastery which is
named Brilibanos.[132] I saw the Prester John go to this monastery
three times. The first was to the burial of the head[133] of the
monastery, who was named Janes, in our language Joannes, and the
title of his prelacy was Ichee.[134] This Ichee of this monastery is the
greatest prelate there is in these kingdoms, exclusive of the Abima
Marcos, who is over all. And the Prester also went in the month in
which they hold the funereal memorial which they call tescar.[135] He
also went there at the end of forty days after the death of the said
Ichee to choose and appoint another. They said that the deceased
was a holy man, and that in life he had worked miracles, and
therefore the Prester went to his burial and funereal memorial.
There was among us a Portuguese, a native of Lisbon, by name
Lazaro d’Andrade, who was a painter, and he lost his sight; the
Prester sent to tell him to go to the tomb of this deceased man, and
to wash with good faith, and that he would receive health: he went
there and returned as he went. He whom they made Ichee was also
held to be a man of holy life, and he had been a Moor. As he was
much my friend, he related to me all his life, and told me that when
he was in his sect he heard a revelation, which said to him: You are
not following the path; go to the Abima Marcos, who is head of the
priests of Ethiopia, and he will teach you another path. Then he
came to the Abima Marcos, and related to him what he had heard,
and the Abima Marcos had made him a Christian, and had taught
him, and held him as a son: and therefore the Prester took this friar
who had been a Moor for governor of this monastery, and he bears
the name of Jacob. This Jacob also acquired the Portuguese
language, and we both understood one another very well, and he
wrote in his own handwriting the Gloria of the Mass, and the Creed,
and Paternoster, and Ave Maria, and Apostles’ Creed, and the Salve
Regina, and he knew it in Latin as well as I did. He also wrote out
the Gospel of St. John, and all very well ornamented. This Jacob
now remained Ichee in this monastery. Ichee means prior or abbot,
and in the Tigray language, which is in the kingdoms of the
Barnagais and of Tigrimahom, they say Abba for the principal father;
and for the prior of the cloister who is below him, they say that
there was (as I have before written) in this language a prior of the
cloister who is called Gabez.[136] In the time when this happened, it
was not when we were travelling, but another time when the court
came here and stayed at a distance of a league and a half from the
said monastery in a very large plain, because the monastery lies in
the very deep ravine where we passed through the gates.
Returning to our journey; Thursday and Friday, we also travelled
through plains, and not at any distance from those ravines; and we
came to stop at some small houses almost under the ground. They
make them in that way on account of the winds; because it is all a
plain without any shelter, they also make the cattle folds
underground, that the cows may be sheltered from the wind. Here
there live dirty and ill clad people, they breed numerous cows,
mares, mules, and fowls. Around these hamlets were the strongest
and best crops of barley that we had yet seen, but there were few of
them. In the tilled fields, in many places they sow three or four
bushels[137] of seed in a tillage, and at the distance of a crossbow
shot from there a similar quantity, and so the land is divided,[138]
and all the villages had their sowed land scattered. There were not
as much as six alqueires of sowing for any one cultivator or
inhabitant, though the land is the best that could be mentioned,
because there is no one to put it to profit. There are many birds in
these plains, such as storks, wild ducks, water fowl, and birds of
many kinds, because there are many lagoons, and no one knows
how to catch them. This mountain is named Huaguida.

Cap. lxvii.—How we travelled for three days through plains, and of the
curing of infirmities and of the sight of the people.
Monday, the 9th of October, we travelled through plains like the
preceding ones, both of grass and tilled land, and we went to sleep
at a place named Anda. Here we ate barley bread very badly made.
So also we travelled on Tuesday through plains like those of the days
before, and we slept close to some small villages. On Wednesday we
now fell in with better land and tillage of wheat and barley, that is,
crops all the year round, one gathered and another sown. This
country is called Tabaguy; it is a very populous country, with large
towns and great breeding of all sorts of animals. There were in this
country many sick people, as of fevers, and all is left to nature, for
they do not apply any other remedy, only if they have a headache
they bleed the head itself: and if they have a stomach ache or pain
in the back or shoulders, they apply fire, as to the beasts. For fevers
they do not apply any remedy. On this Wednesday we had sight of
the tents and camp of the Prester John, and we went to sleep off
the road, as we were accustomed. On Thursday we travelled a short
distance, and also we travelled little on Friday, and went to stay
Saturday and Sunday at a small town which has a new church not
yet painted, because all are painted, but not with good work. This
church is named Auriata,[139] which means of the apostles, and they
said that it was a king’s church. The tents are about three or four
leagues from here, and from this town it is little more than half a
league to the church where the Abima Marcos was lodged. On this
Saturday and Sunday that we remained here there came to us three
mariners, who had fled from our fleet in the port of Masua, and the
friar who conducted us learning that the mariners had come to see
us, was in great ill humour at it, saying, that it was not the usage of
the country, when strange people came, for them to have
conversation with any one before speaking to the King; and with this
ill humour he returned to his tent and to his lodging. This same
Saturday the friar went to see the Abigima Marcos, and brought to
us from there a tray of raisins and a jar of very good grape wine. On
the following Sunday one of the said mariners came again to see us,
and because the friar had complained the day before of his coming,
the ambassador told the mariner to go first and speak to the friar,
and to tell him that he did not come for any bad purpose, but only
from the great friendship that he had always had with us. The friar
when he saw him ordered him to be seized and arrested, and they
wanted to put him in irons if the ambassador and we had not gone
to take him out of their hands, and with rough words, and above all
the said friar said very complainingly that we were not to speak to
any one until we had spoken to the Prester John, because such is
their custom when new people arrived.

Cap. lxviii.—How a great lord of title was given to us as a guard, and

of the tent which he sent us.
On Monday, the 17th of October, we set out, thinking that we
should this day reach the court and camp, because we had gone to
halt at a league from it. Then it seemed to us that they intended to
take us there next day very early. While we were in this hope, there
came to us a great lord, who is called by title Adugraz, which means
chief major domo, he said that he was come to protect us and give
us what we had need of. This gentleman told us to mount at once
and come with him. We got ready, as it appeared that he was going
to take us to the court: he took a turn backwards, not by the road
we had come by, but he turned with us round some hills and we
returned back more than a league, he telling us not to be in any ill
humour, as the Prester was coming in that direction where we were
going, and indeed six or seven horsemen were going in front of us
on very good horses, skirmishing and amusing themselves, and a
great many mules. They conducted us behind some hills, and the
gentleman lodged himself in his tent, and ordered us to be lodged
near him in our poor tent, such as we had brought for the journey,
and ordered us to be provided with all that was necessary, and we
were much put out of the way;[140] and the Prester was coming to
halt near where we were. On Wednesday in the morning they
brought us a large round tent, saying that the Prester John sent us
that tent, and that nobody had a tent such as that except him, and
the churches, and that his tent belonged to him when he was on a
journey. So we remained till Friday without knowing what we were
to do. The captain who guarded us and the friar warned us to look
well after our goods, as there were many thieves in the country, and
the Franks[141] who were in the country also told us so: they further
told us that there were agents and captains of thieves, and that they
paid dues of what they stole.

Cap. lxix.—How the ambassador, and we with him, were summoned by

order of the Prester, and of the order in which we went, and of
his state.
On Friday, the 20th of October, at the hour of tierce, the friar
came to us in great haste, for the Prester John had sent to call us,
and that we should bring what we had brought for him, and also all
our baggage, as he wished to see it. The ambassador ordered all
that to be loaded which the captain-major had sent for him, and no
more. We dressed ourselves and arranged ourselves very well, God
be praised; and many people came to accompany us. So we went in
order from the place we started from as far as a great entrance,
where we saw the tents pitched in a great plain, that is, certain
white tents, and, in front of the white ones, one very large red tent
pitched, which they say is set up for great feasts or receptions. In
front of these pitched tents were set up two rows of arches covered
with white and red cotton cloths, that is, an arch covered with red
and the next with white: not covered but rolled round the arch, like
a stole on the pole of a cross, and so these arches were continued to
the end; there may have been quite twenty arches in each row, and
in width and height they were like the small arches of a cloister. One
row may have been apart from the other about the distance of a
game of quoits.[142] There were many people collected together; so
many that they would exceed twenty thousand persons. All these
people were in a semicircle, and removed a good way off on each
side; the smartest people were standing much nearer to the arches.
Among these smarter people were many canons and church people
with caps like mitres, but with points upwards of coloured silk stuffs,
and some of them of scarlet cloth: and there were other people very
well dressed. In front of these well-dressed people were four horses,
that is, two on one side and two on the other, saddled and
caparisoned with rich brocade coverings; what armour-plating or
arms were underneath I do not know. These horses had diadems
high above their ears, they came down to the bits[143] of the bridle,
with large plumes on them. Below these were many other good
horses saddled but not arrayed like these four, and all the heads of
all of them were on a level, making a line like the people. Then, in a
line behind these horses (because the crowd was much and thick),
there were honourable men, who were not clothed except from the
waist downwards, with many thin white cotton cloths, and crowded,
standing one before the other.[144] It is the custom, before the King
and before the great lords who rule, to have men who carry whips of
a short stick and a long thong, and when they strike in the air they
make a great noise, and make the people stand off. Of these a
hundred walked before us, and with their noise a man could not be
heard. The people riding horses and mules, who came with us,
dismounted a long way off, and we still rode on a good distance, and
then dismounted at about a crossbow-shot from the tent, or the
distance of a game of mancal. Those who conducted us did us a
courtesy and we to them, for we had been already taught, and this
courtesy is to lower the right hand to the ground. In this space of a
crossbow-shot there came to us fully sixty men like courtiers or
mace-bearers, and they came half-running, because they are
accustomed so to run with all the messages of the Prester. These
came dressed in shirts and good silk cloths, and over their shoulders
or shoulder, and below, they were covered with grey skins with
much hair on them; it was said they were lion skins. These men
wore above the skins collars of gold badly wrought, and other jewels
and false stones, and rich pieces round their necks. They also wore
girdles of silk coloured ribands, in width and weaving like horse-
girths, except that they were long and had long fringes reaching to
the ground. These men came as many on one side as on the other,
and accompanied us as far as the first row of arches, for we did not
pass these. Before we arrived at these arches, there were four
captive lions where we had to pass, and in fact passed. These lions
were bound with great chains. In the middle of the field, in the
shade of these first arches, stood four honourable men, among
whom was one of the two greatest lords that are in the court of the
Prester, and who is called by title Betudete.[145] Of these there are
two, one serves on the right hand, the other on the left hand. They
said that he of the right hand was at war with the Moors, and he of
the left hand was this one here. The other three who stood here
were great men. Before these four we did as did those who
conducted us. On reaching them we remained a good while without
speaking to them, nor they to us. On this there came an old priest,
who they say is a relation and the confessor of the Prester, with a
cloak of white Indian cloth[146] of the fashion of a burnoose, and a
cap like those of the others who stood apart. The title of this man is
Cabeata, and he is the second person in these kingdoms. This priest
came out of the said tent which would yet be two casts of quoits
from the arches. Of the four men who were with us at the arches,
three went half way to receive him, and the Betudete, who was the
greatest lord of them, remained with us; and when the others came
up he also advanced three or four steps, and so all five came to us.
On reaching him, the Cabeata asked the ambassador what he
wanted and where he came from. The ambassador answered that
he came from India, and was bringing an embassage to the Prester
John, from the captain-major and governor of the Indies for the King
of Portugal. With this he returned to the Prester, and with these
questions, and ceremonious courtesies, he came three times. Twice
the ambassador answered him in the same manner, and the third
time he said, I do not know what to say of it. The Cabeata said: Say
what you want and I will tell it to the King. The ambassador replied
that he would not give his embassage except to his Highness, and
that he would not send to say anything except that he and his
company sent to kiss his hands, and that they gave great thanks to
God for having fulfilled their desires and having brought Christians
together with Christians, and for their being the first. With this
answer the Cabeata returned and came back directly with another
message, when the above-mentioned persons went to receive him
as before: and on reaching us he said that Prester John sent to say
that we should deliver to him what the great captain had sent him.
Then the ambassador asked us what he ought to do, and that each
of us should say whatever he thought of it. We all said that we
thought that he should give him what was sent. Then the
ambassador delivered it to him piece by piece, and, besides, four
bales of pepper which were for our own expenses. When it was
received it was all carried to the tents, and all afterwards brought
back to the arches where we were. And they came and stretched the
tent cloths which we had given on the arches, and so with the other
stuffs. Having set everything in sight of the people, they caused
silence to be made, and the chief justice of the court made a speech
in a very loud voice, declaring, piece by piece, all the things which
the captain-major had sent to the Prester John, and that all were to
give thanks to the Lord because Christians had come together with
Christians, and that if there were here any whom it grieved, that
they might weep, and any that rejoiced at it, that they might sing.
And the great crowd of people who were near by gave a great shout
as in praise of God, and it lasted a good while; and with that they
dismissed us. We went to lodge at the distance of a long gunshot
from the tents of the Prester, where they had already pitched the
tent which they had sent us, and there we remained and also the
goods which remained to us.

Cap. lxx.—Of the theft which was done to us when the baggage was
moved, and of the provisions which the Prester sent us, and of
the conversation the friar had with us.
When our baggage came and was brought we began to see by
experience the warning which was given us of thieves, because on
the road they had taken by force from a servant who attended us,
four tinned copper vessels, and other four of porcelain, and also
other small kitchen articles, and because the servant had attempted
to defend himself they had given him a great wound in one leg. The
ambassador ordered him to be taken care of (of these pieces none
appeared again). As soon as we were lodged the Prester John sent
us three great white loaves, and many jars of mead and a cow. The
messengers who brought this said that Prester John sent it, and that
they would give us immediately fifty cows and as many jars of wine.
The following Saturday, the 21st day, he sent us an infinite quantity
of bread and wine, and many dainties of meat of various kinds, and
very well arranged: and the same happened on Sunday, when,
among many other dainties, he sent us a calf whole in bread, that is
to say in a pie, so well dressed that we could not get tired of it. On
Monday the friar came to us to say that if the ambassador would
give all the pepper to the Prester John, that he would order food to
be given to him and to his company, as far as Masua. And they
ceased giving us food, neither did the fifty cows nor the jars of wine
come. In the meantime they prohibited all the Franks who were in
this country from speaking to any of us: and also they told us not to
go out of our tent, that such was the custom of all those who come
to this court, until they had had speech with the king not to go forth
from their tents. We well knew later that such was their custom, and
on account of this prohibition they kept prisoner a Portuguese,
nicknamed the Sheep, who came to speak to us on the road, and
one of the Franks, saying, that they came to tell us the things of the
court. This Sheep ran away one night with his chains from the
custody of a eunuch who guarded him, and came to our tent. Next
morning they came to fetch him, but the ambassador would not give
him up, but sent the factor and the interpreter to go and ask the
Betudete from him, why he ordered Portuguese to be put in irons,
and had them so ill-treated by slave eunuchs. The Betudete
answered, saying: who had bid us come here, that Matheus had not
been to Portugal by order of the Prester John, nor of Queen Helena;
and that if the slave had cast irons on the Portuguese, that the
Portuguese should in turn cast them on the slave, and that this was
the justice of the country.

Cap. lxxi.—How the Prester moved away with his court, and how the
friar told the ambassador to trade if he wished; and how the
ambassador went to the court.
On Tuesday, 24th of October, while we were hoping that they
would send to call us to speak to the Prester, he set out on a journey
with his court to the place he had come from, which might be a
distance of two leagues. The friar came, saying on his own part, that
if he wished to go to where the King had changed his quarters, that
we should buy mules on which to carry our goods; also telling the
ambassador that if he wished to buy and sell that he might do so.
The ambassador replied to him that they had not come to be
merchants, but they came to serve God and the Kings, and to bring
Christians together. Up to this time they had said that buying and
selling was a very bad thing, and this they were doing to prove the
intentions of our people. On the following Thursday the ambassador
ordered me and Joam Gonzalvez, the interpreter, to go to the court
and to speak to the Betudete and the Cabeata. We went and we told
him those things which had been said by the friar to the
ambassador, and the said friar went with us. We did not speak to the
Cabeata, and we spoke to the Betudete in this manner. First we said
that the friar had come to tell the ambassador to buy and sell, and
that they gave him licence for that, and that the ambassador was
much amazed at this, because neither he nor his father, nor his
mother, nor ancestors bought or sold, nor had such a business; and
the same was the case with the gentlemen and persons who came
with him, and who had never been so accustomed: and that the
ambassador and those that came with him were servants in the
house and court of the King of Portugal, and that they served the
Kings in honourable services and in wars, and not in merchandise;
and besides the friar had told him to give all the pepper that
remained to the Prester John, and that he would order food to be
given him as long as we remained and until we reached the port of
Masua, from which we had set out. And to this the ambassador said
that it was not the custom of the Portuguese to eat and drink at the
cost of the feeble and poor people, but to eat and drink, and pay
with gold and silver: and because money was not current in these
kingdoms, on that account the captain-major of the King of Portugal
had given him, besides much gold and silver, much pepper and
stuffs for their expenses, that of this pepper which he had brought
for his expenditure he had already given four bales to the Prester,
and the rest he kept for what has been said: and, besides, that the
friar had told him that if he wished to come to the court he should
buy mules for his baggage. With regard to this he sent to say that
for the present he did not require mules, nor to move from where he
now was, and that when he had to depart he would buy mules. To
this the Betudete answered that the Prester had already ordered ten
mules to be given, and had they not given them? We replied that we
had not seen any such mules, only that this friar had given in the
journey three tired mules to three men that came on foot. To the
other matters he gave us no answer, but spoke of things that were
irrelevant, as, for instance, whether the King of Portugal was
married, and how many wives he had, and how many fortresses he
had in India, with many other questions beside the purpose. We also
told the Betudete, on the part of the ambassador, that if the Prester
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