Japanese Psychological Research doi: 10.1111/jpr.

12312
2022, Volume 64, No. 1, 1–11

Emotional Abuse Questionnaire (EAQ): A New Scale for

Measuring Emotional Abuse and Psychological
Maltreatment1

VAHID MOMTAZ2,* Islamic Azad University

MARIANI MANSOR2, MANSOR ABU TALIB2 and ROJANAH B. T. KAHAR2 University Putra
Malaysia

TAHEREH MOMTAZ International Islamic University of Malaysia

Abstract: Emotional abuse is the core of all other kinds of child abuses and maltreat-
ments. The significant and serious outcomes of other kinds of abuses are often due
to the emotional aspects. Moreover, emotional abuse has several forms, and each form
may lead to different adverse outcomes for children and adolescents. Unfortunately,
there is not a comprehensive instrument to assess all categories of emotional abuse.
A 30-item self-report questionnaire was developed for ages 12 years and older. The
sample included 328 students aged 12 to 19 years selected randomly from students
referred to different student counseling centers. Exploratory factor analysis categorized
the scale into six subscales. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that all items were
fitted with the subscales significantly. Content and concurrent validity demonstrated
good validity and reliability for each subscale. Overall reliability was also significantly
acceptable.
Key words: emotional abuse, maltreatment, child abuse, questionnaire.

Emotional abuse is the core of, and is comorbid are cautioned by different mental health organi-
with, all types of child abuse, including physical zations and media to avoid punishing their chil-
or sexual abuse and neglect of children (Spertus, dren physically, and to protect them from sexual
Yehuda, Wong, Halligan, & Seremetis, 2003). It abuse. Nevertheless, most parents and caregivers
is suggested that the adverse outcomes of all are not aware of emotional abuse and its serious
forms of abuse mostly result from the emotional averse outcomes (Al-Shail, Hassan, Aldowaish, &
aspects (Kent & Waller, 2000). Nowadays people Kattan, 2012; Hart & Glaser, 2011; Palusci &

*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to: Vahid Momtaz, Department of Social Sciences,
Islamic Azad University – Branch Jahrom, Fras 7414785318, Iran. (E-mail: [email protected])
1
This questionnaire was approved as a part of Vahid Momtaz’s PhD thesis at University Putra Malaysia.
2
The researchers appreciate Fars Organization of Education for their coordination obtaining permission for the
researchers to collect data from their psychology clinics. The authors are especially grateful to the Fars Educa-
tion Organization clinic managers for their coordination with the researchers.

© 2020 Japanese Psychological Association. Published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
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2 V. Momtaz, M. Mansor, M. A. Talib, R. B. T. Kahar, and T. Momtaz

Ondersma, 2012). Unfortunately, some people children and adolescents. This seems to be a
may even use some types of emotional abuse, consequence of considering child abuse as a sin-
such as overexpectation and control, as advanced gle concept without measuring each type com-
upbringing methods. Despite this, most investiga- prehensively and separately. Emotional abuse
tions on child abuse have focused on physical and is a very broad, complex, and multidimensional
sexual abuse. They have considered emotional concept that requires more specific attention.
abuse as a part of other types of abuse Most of the current measurements for the abuse
(Simmel & Shpiegel, 2013). Consequently, emo- and trauma of children and adolescents have
tional abuse has not received as much attention been developed to assess all types of abuse at
as other forms of abuse (Egeland, 2009; the same time, such as the Child Abuse and
Fernandopulle & Fernando, 2003; Festinger & Trauma Scale (Sanders & Becker-Lausen,
Baker, 2010; Wright, Crawford, & Del, 2009). 1995) and the Child Trauma Questionnaire
This study attempted to address this gap by devel- (Bernstein & Fink, 1998). Consequently, there
oping a new comprehensive scale to assess all are only a few items about emotional abuse
forms of emotional child abuse. (Brassard, Hart, & Hardy, 1993; Engels &
Limited attention to emotional abuse is Moisan, 1994).
largely due to the lack of a unique definition Furthermore, emotional abuse is not a con-
for this concept. Different researchers have cept to describe a special type of behavior but
suggested various definitions for “emotional covers a variety of behaviors. For categorizing
abuse” based on two approaches: caregivers’ emotional abuse, several researchers and orga-
behaviors and outcomes of abusive behaviors nizations have divided emotional abuse into dif-
(Hamarman, Pope, & Czaja, 2002; Hornor, ferent behaviors with different terminology. For
2012; Trickett, Mennen, Kim, & Sang, 2009). instance, based on information from the Amer-
Consequently, the variety of definitions has led ican Professional Society on the Abuse of Chil-
researchers to use different terminologies, like dren, Allen (2008) suggested different
“emotional abuse,” “psychological categories of emotional abuse, such as spurning,
maltreatment,” “psychological abuse,” and aggressive rejection, degradation, corrupting
“verbal abuse” (Glaser, 2002; O’Hagan, 1995). and exploiting, isolating, neglecting of child’s
In this article, the term “emotional abuse,” health and educational needs, and terrorizing.
based on caregivers’ abusive behavior, is used. He advised that each type of abuse may lead
In the present study, Hornor’s (2012) definition children and adolescents toward different out-
is used. According to Hornor, psychological comes. For example, he states that while terror-
abuse is a repetitive pattern of interaction izing is connected with anxiety and
between one or more caregivers and the child psychosomatic pain, ignoring by caregivers
that causes emotional and psychological dam- may result in depression and borderline person-
age to the child. ality disorder. Wright et al. (2009) also catego-
Another important reason why less attention rized emotional abuse as “commission types”
has been paid to emotional abuse is the lack of a (verbal abuse, spurning, terrorizing, and isolat-
strong and comprehensive measurement instru- ing) and “omission types” (ignoring, unre-
ment on this subject. This issue not only leads to sponsive behavior toward child’s needs, and
diverse and sometimes completely different sta- being unavailable). Furthermore, the Public
tistics on emotional abuse (Trickett et al., 2009), Health Agency of Canada specified two main
but also contributes to a shortage of research on categories of emotional abuse: neglectful tactics
this subject. Although there are some studies and deliberate tactics (Doherty & Berglund,
that have led to development of questionnaires 2015). Denying emotional responsiveness, dis-
specified to emotional abuse, all of them were counting, ignoring, denying or forgetting, mini-
targeted to assess adults (Postmus, Stylianou, & mizing or trivializing, lack of control, and
McMahon, 2015; Shepard & Campbell, 1992; rejecting are types of neglectful tactics; and
Zink, Klesges, Levin, & Putnam, 2007), not accusing/blaming, overcontrol and inconsistent

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Questionnaire on child abuse 3

control, criticizing behavior and ridiculing traits, (60.40%; age range, 12–19 years; Mage =
degrading, harassing and overexpectation, ter- 15.67 years, SD = 1.49 years) and 130 males
rorizing, and isolating are types of deliberate (39.60%; age range, 14–18 years; Mage =
tactics. 16.21 years, SD = 1.18 years).
Even though all the existing instruments con-
sider emotional abuse as a general concept Measures
(Trickett et al., 2009), it is recognized that emo- To prepare the questionnaire, different steps
tional abuse covers a variety of issues and cate- were utilized. For the first step, we considered
gories, and each category results in different all types of categorizations of emotional abuse.
consequences for children and adolescents The present study is based on the Wright et al.
(Grassi-Oliveira & Stein, 2008). Hence, this (2009) approach and Glaser’s (2011) categoriza-
study aimed to develop a questionnaire to assess tion of emotional abuse. Wright et al. divided
different types of emotional abuse for children emotional abuse into the abovementioned
and adolescents. omission and commission categories. Glaser,
on the other hand, categorized psychological
abuse according to caregivers’ misbehaviors,
and divided it into five categories:
Methods
(a) emotional neglect, unavailability, and
Respondents unresponsiveness; (b) hostile, denigrating,
The targeted population for this study was rejecting, or blaming interaction toward the
children and adolescents who had potentially child; (c) developmental overexpectation and
been exposed to emotional abuse. The rate inappropriate or inconsistent expectation from
of child abuse is significantly higher among the child, unstable discipline, and conflicting
families experiencing vulnerabilities and prob- and confusing interaction with the child;
lems (Levey et al., 2017; Pasalich, Cyr, Zheng, (d) use of the child for caregivers’ needs, terror-
McMahon, & Speiker, 2016). Therefore, the izing, exploiting, and emotional black points (i.
respondents in this research were selected e., forcing the child to follow orders by exploi-
from students who were referred to student ting their weaknesses or revealing their secrets);
counseling centers and who were identified and (e) isolating or prohibiting the child from
as having family problems by the psycholo- having adequate interactions with peers by
gists and counselors in Fars Province, Iran. overcontrol. Considering these categorizations,
There are 12 student counseling and psycho- we prepared some items representative of each
logical service centers that belong to the edu- type of abusive behavior. Importantly, each cat-
cational ministry in Fars Province. From egory covers different abusive behaviors and we
those, four centers were selected randomly. tried to cover all those behaviors in that cate-
According to examinations of the files of stu- gory. The questions were prepared to assess
dents who had been referred to these centers (a) verbal abuse (degrading, humiliating, nomi-
within the previous 3 years, there were 1,325 nating, ridiculing, criticizing), (b) emotional
students who had been identified as having rejection, (c) overcontrol, (d) unstable control,
family problems and 400 of them were (e) lack of control, (f) isolating, (g) over-
selected randomly. The ethics statement was expectation, and (h) terrorizing (corrupting
obtained from the Ministry of Education. Invi- and exploiting, using the child for caregivers’
tation letters for participating in the study needs, and emotional black points). However,
along with an ethics letter about confidential- statistical methods that were used in this study
ity of personal information and parents’/care- extracted six categories out of eight. The catego-
givers’ permission were sent to these ries “Overcontrol” and “Isolating” merged
students. Finally, 328 students participated in together as “Overcontrol,” and “Unstable con-
the study (age range, 12–19 years; Mage = trol” and “Lack of Control” merged together
15.42 years, SD = 1.49 years), 198 females as “Insufficient control” (Table 1).

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4 V. Momtaz, M. Mansor, M. A. Talib, R. B. T. Kahar, and T. Momtaz

Table 1 Emotional Abuse Questionnaire subscales specification and definition

Subscale Definition

Verbal Abuse Happens when individuals are harassed verbally, and may be seen in different types, such
as:
Belittling: Verbal behaviors of caregivers by which the child feels inferior and worthless
(degrading, minimizing).
Humiliating: Shaming the child and humiliating him/her for each unacceptable speech or
behavior or for every failing in his/her activities (shaming).
Nominating: Naming the child faultily and contemptuously.
Criticizing: Criticizing all of the child’s behavior as faulty or wrong.
Ridiculing: Belittling or criticizing the child in a ridiculing manner.
Emotional Failing or refusing to accept the child and to prepare a warm and loving environment for the
Rejection child (ignoring, rejecting, coldness, cruelty, and emotional unresponsiveness).
Overcontrol Isolating: Prohibiting the child from communicating with his/her social group and preventing
him/her from obtaining social experiences or making friendships.
Dominating: Depriving the child of reasonable autonomy to decide on their desires or
activities.
Insufficient Lack of control: Failing to control the child’s behavior and performance.
Control Inconsistent control: Sometimes very obsessive about what the child may do, whereas
other times paying no attention to them at all (contradictory control).
Overexpectation Expectations beyond the child’s abilities (abusive expectation, high demanding).
Terrorizing Using the child for the caregivers’ needs: Forcing the child to satisfy caregivers’ needs by
threatening them. (Following orders and buying cigarettes are some samples of this
abusive behavior.)
Emotional black point: Forcing the child to follow orders by exploiting their weaknesses or
revealing their secrets.
Corrupting: Encouraging and forcing the child to participate in antisocial and illegal
demeanors (exploiting).

As Rattray and Jones (2007) declared, a PhDs of English language translated it back to
questionnaire should follow parsimony rule Persian separately.
by which the items should be adequate and
as brief as possible. This means that the num-
ber of items should cover all concepts that
are supposed to be assessed, but should not
Results
be so long as to produce exhaustion and avoid-
ance in respondents. To follow the parsimony The validity of the EAQ was determined with
rule in the present study, we attempted to pro- two methods. The first method was content
vide the items that are representative of all validity in which the questionnaire and the pur-
types of caregivers’ emotional abuse behav- pose of study with the brief literature on child
iors. Hence, 30 self-report items were pre- emotional abuse was sent to one professional
pared for students aged 12 years and older with a PhD in psychology, one professional with
and named the Emotional Abuse Question- a PhD in counseling, and one professional with
naire (EAQ). a PhD in sociology (who has published a book
The items were written in Persian language on the social behavior of adolescents and youth)
and scored on a 5-point Likert scale from from several universities in Iran, as subject mat-
0 (never) to 4 (always). The present translation ter expert raters (SMEs; Lawshe, 1975). Their
was applied by the translation of the question- opinions about the necessity of each item were
naire into English by three professionals with gathered to estimate the content validity ratio
PhDs in English language and then three other (CVR). The formula that Lawshe (1975)

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Questionnaire on child abuse 5

n e− N2 to Hayton, Allen, and Scarpello (2004), each

suggested for CVR is N , where n_e = number
2 item that has a factor loading of more than 0.4
of SME panelists who indicated the item as can be considered as an item that belongs to that
“essential” and N = the total number of SME category. All items in the subscales have good
panelists. CVR values are ranged between +1 factor loading. Although eight categories were
and −1; if the value for an item is positive, it included at the first level, EFA extracted just
indicates that a minimum of half of the SMEs six factors and integrated Lack of Control
evaluated the item as crucial. (Items 6, 16, and 26) and Unstable Control
Only one of the panelists did not mark Items (Items 8 and 18) into one category, which was
9, 10, 11, 18, 26, and 27 as essential. So, the named Insufficient Control. Also, Overcontrol
results for all items are +1, except for the (Items 5, 15, 25, and 30) and Isolating (Items
abovementioned items, for which the CVR is 4, 14, and 23) were integrated into one category
+0.33, equally. Moreover, the mean of the named Overcontrol (Table 2).
CVR for all items, which could be used as a The eigenvalues for the factors explained
gauge of complete test content validity, 61% of cumulative variance. The adequacy of
was +0.87. sample size that was estimated by Kaiser–
The second method of validating was concur- Meyer–Olkin of sampling adequacy (KMO;
rent validity in which the new questionnaire .89) and Bartlett’s test (chi-square 2,891.56,
should be correlated positively and significantly df = 435, p < .001) showed that the sample size
with one of the approved questionnaires. Since had enough efficiency. The KMO was signifi-
there was no comprehensive emotional abuse cant at p ≤ .001.
questionnaire, the emotional abuse section of Item analyzing was applied for all categories.
the Child Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Bern- Meanwhile, as it is supposed that each type of
stein & Fink, 1998) was completed by students emotional abuse has a unique outcome and it
along with the EAQ. Bernstein and Fink might be different from the other types, inter-
(1998) reported high reliability and validity for scale item analysis was used for each subscale
their whole questionnaire as well as for each cat- separately (Table 3). According to the results
egory of the CTQ. Since the purpose of this of item analysis, none of the items needed to
study was to develop an emotional abuse mea- be deleted, because the Cronbach coefficient
surement, the emotional abuse part of the of the total questionnaire, as well as the inter-
CTQ was applied for concurrent validity. The scale Cronbach coefficient, did not increase if
result showed their correlation at 0.87, which is items were deleted.
significantly high and acceptable. The reliability Finally, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
of the questionnaire was evaluated by was held on to assess the relevancy of the
Cronbach’s α and it was .93. items with their scales via AMOS SPSS 20.
Maximum likelihood extraction model of The weight of each factor in its proposed
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was utilized scale is presented in Figure 1. As it appeared
to determine the questionnaire’s subscales. from the model, all items had a loading effect
However, as Kootstra (2004) declared, it is too of more than .50 except for Item 16, which
difficult to extract and name categories based had .49. The CMIN/df (χ2/df) = 2.42, good-
on factor extraction of EFA. He debated that ness-of-fit index = .84, comparative fit index
to confirm the categories, the factor rotation = .94, Tucker–Lewis index = .93, and root-
loading is essential. To rotate the loading, at first mean-square error of approximation = .07
the oblimin method of extraction was utilized in demonstrate that the model was fitted ade-
which it is assumed that the categories are corre- quately. Although the goodness-of-fit index
lated with each other. The correlations between should be more than .90, according to
the subscales were not significant. Hence, the Albright and Park (2009), if just three indica-
varimax method from orthogonal rotation for tors out of these five are fitted, the model fit is
uncorrelated factors was conducted. According acceptable (Figure 1).

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6 V. Momtaz, M. Mansor, M. A. Talib, R. B. T. Kahar, and T. Momtaz

Table 2 Rotated factor matrix

Verbal Insufficient Emotional
Items Abuse Overcontrol Terrorizing Control Rejection Overexpectation

2 .90 −.09 −.03 .05 .02 −.01

11 .90 −.04 −.07 .07 .06 .02
1 .87 −.06 .02 .05 −.07 .03
3 .87 −.02 −.02 .03 −.04 −.01
17 .86 −.11 .04 .03 .02 −.03
21 .84 −.02 .05 −.01 .02 −.05
12 .80 −.18 .02 .03 −.06 −.06
7 .79 −.08 −.03 .04 .08 −.02
4 −.09 .94 −.04 −.04 −.09 −.08
14 −.11 .93 .02 −.05 −.07 −.08
23 −.09 .91 −.06 −.01 −.14 −.11
30 −.09 .77 .15 .09 .10 .07
5 −.03 .73 .03 .05 .05 .07
15 −.04 .71 .11 .06 .10 .10
25 −.11 .70 .14 .03 .07 .05
29 −.01 .02 .92 .05 −.02 −.01
24 −.03 .05 .90 .11 −.02 .03
10 .01 .09 .79 .08 .03 .10
20 .01 .14 .73 .13 .03 .08
8 .01 .12 .01 .91 .02 −.05
18 .08 .13 −.04 .89 .04 .04
6 .02 .03 .06 .66 .04 .02
26 .03 .01 .13 .63 .07 −.03
16 .06 −.12 .16 .50 −.00 −.05
22 −.00 .01 −.01 .05 .94 .03
28 .03 .03 .03 .07 .92 .02
13 .00 .02 .01 .05 .90 −.05
19 .01 .05 .07 −.01 −.03 .86
9 −.05 .01 .05 −.05 .05 .82
27 −.04 −.01 .06 −.01 −.03 .78

Note. Extraction method: maximum likelihood. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalization. Kaiser–
Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy = .862, Approx. chi-square = 8,786.40, df = 435, p < .001.

Discussion targeted to assess isolating behaviors and Items

5, 15, 25, and 30 were prepared to assess domi-
The aim of this study was to develop a compre- nating behaviors, EFA merged them to become
hensive instrument to measure all aspects of one category named Overcontrol. This seems
emotional abuse of children and adolescents. reasonable as dominating and isolating can be
Reliability scores are quite acceptable by two considered as behavioral demonstrations of
methods. According to data from the item anal- overcontrol. This procedure happened for Lack
ysis, no items needed to be deleted and all items of Control (Items 8 and 18) and Inconsistent
in both the total questionnaire and the inter- (Unstable) Control (Items 6, 16, and 26) as well.
scale analysis were valuable. At first, we pro- It means that while we considered these two
posed Isolating and Dominating as different concepts as different subjects, EFA put them
categories, according to some previous cate- in a one category named Insufficient Control.
gorizations. However, the EFA did not support Interestingly, CFA demonstrated a good model
this idea and we integrated these categories con- fit for these categorizations also, while if we con-
sequently. Although Items 4, 14, and 23 were sider them as the separate categories, the model

© Japanese Psychological Association 2022.

 Table 3 Item statistics and analyzing of Emotional Abuse Questionnaire
Item Item inter- Inter-scale Cronbach’s
correlation scale Cronbach’s α α for each
Subscale Item M SD with total items correlation if item deleted subscale

Verbal Abuse 1. Those around me get in a fight with me. 2.1 1.0 .59 .63 .85 .87
2. Those around me have rebuked me while talking to 1.8 1.2 .58 .75 .84
me or communicating with me since my childhood.
3. Those around me did not or do not take my words seriously. 1.97 1.20 .60 .64 .85
7. When I make a mistake, I get blamed. 2.15 1.17 .53 .52 .87
11. Since my childhood, I have been treated in such a way 2.30 1.29 .53 .69 .85
that I feel devalued.
12. Those around me used to call me bad names or they still do. 1.60 1.3 .52 .52 .87
17. Those around me ridiculed or still ridicule my deeds and words. 2.35 1.20 .40 .65 .85
21. Whatever I do, people nag at me. 2.25 1.20 .49 .61 .86

Questionnaire on child abuse

Emotional 13. Those around me did not or do not take my comments and 2.58 1.41 .43 .61 .78 .81
Rejection suggestions into consideration.
22. Those around me are being cold to me. .87 1.23 .45 .69 .69
28. Those around me reject my feelings toward them. 1.90 1.23 .64 .66 .73
Overcontrol 4. My parents or one of my family members used to forbid me 1.55 1.19 .44 .64 .71 .83
from having relationships with my friends or they still do.
14. Those around me used to ban me from participating in social 1.98 1.19 .60 .66 .69
groups or they still do (sport clubs, art clubs, etc.).
23. Those around me believe I should not have a relationship with 1.87 1.20 .61 .60 .75
anyone except my relatives.
5. Those around me used to strongly take me under their control 1.87 1.19 .68 .57 .83
© Japanese Psychological Association 2022.

or they still do.

15. Those around me did not or do not allow me to decide about 1.61 1.37 .38 .72 .76
my daily chores.
25. Those around me did not or do not allow me to decide about 1.69 1.20 .66 .68 .77
my field of study.
30. Those around me did not or do not allow me to choose my 2.38 1.27 .59 .67 .79
personal things based on my own taste and style.
Insufficient Control 6. Those around me did not or do not care about what I did or 2.37 1.39 .45 .60 .68 .75
what I do.
16. Those around me did not or do not have any control or 1.25 1.20 .54 .51 .71
supervision on my relationships or what I do.
2.01 1.26 .61 .41 .75

7
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 Table 3 Continued
© Japanese Psychological Association 2022.

8
Item Item inter- Inter-scale Cronbach’s
correlation scale Cronbach’s α α for each
Subscale Item M SD with total items correlation if item deleted subscale

26. Those around me kept or keep themselves busy and I was not
or am not one of their concerns.
8. The behaviors of those around me are unpredictable. 1.89 1.17 .60 .47 .73

V. Momtaz, M. Mansor, M. A. Talib, R. B. T. Kahar, and T. Momtaz

18. Those around me are sometimes very obsessive about what 2.03 1.29 .50 .61 .68
I do, whereas other times do not pay attention to me at all; their
twofold behaviors have left me confused.
Overexpectation 9. Those around me used to expect me to gain results beyond my .63 1.01 .34 .60 .69 .77
abilities in my studies or they still do.
19. Those around me used to expect me to behave beyond my 1.76 1.23 .65 .65 .62
potential or they still do.
27. I have a feeling that I cannot fulfill my family’s expectations. 1.57 1.35 .54 .56 .74
Terrorizing 10. Since childhood, I was forced to do things that are not 2.16 1.19 .47 .66 .81 .84
acceptable by society (like buying cigarettes).
20. Since childhood, I was forced to do things I did not want to, 1.97 1.26 .65 .60 .84
otherwise those around me threatened to reveal my weak points in
front of others.
24. Those around me have led me to do immoral things since .60 1.04 .35 .74 .78
childhood.
29. Those around me have led me to mischief since childhood. 1.97 1.20 .64 .75 .77

Note. Cronbach’s α if item deleted for all items = 0.93.

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Questionnaire on child abuse 9

fit is not obtained. It is noticeable that just Item the least acceptable factor loading according to
16 in the Insufficient Control category with .39 Pituch and Stevens (2012). The factor loading
factor loading in EFA is less than .4, which is for this item in CFA is .49 and less than the

e8 Q1 .76

e7 Q2 .88
.90 .87
e6 Q3 .75
.86

e5 Q7 .64 .86
.90 Verbal
e4 Q11 .88 .81

.87
e3 Q12 .65

e2 Q17 .75 .93 .02

e1 Q21 .69

e11 Q13 .81

.90
.95
e10 Q22 .90 Reject -.18
.93
e9 Q28 .86

e18 Q4 .92 .08

-.07
.96
e17 Q5 .46
.67
.39 e16 Q14 .91 .96

.68
e15 Q15 .48 Control .10 .04
.94
.60 e14 Q23 .84
.88
.61 -.02
e13 Q25 .41 .70

e12 Q30 .50 0.8 .00

e23 Q6 .44
.66
.01
e22 Q8 .84 .92
-.05
.49
e21 Q16 .24 Insuf_Control
.90
e20 Q18 .80 .63

e19 Q26 .40 -.03

.04
e26 Q9 .67
.82
.88
e25 Q19 .77 Overexpectation .12
.79
e24 Q27 .62
.11
e30 Q10 .64
.80
e29 Q20 .55 .74
.92 Terror
e28 Q24 .84
.92

e27 Q29 .84

Relative Chi-Sq (d5) = 2.42, RMSEA (d .08) = .066, GFI (t .9) = .84, CFI (t .9) = .94, TLI (t .9) = .93

Figure 1 Standardized regression weights: (group number 1 – default model).

© Japanese Psychological Association 2022.

 14685884, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpr.12312, Wiley Online Library on [24/12/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 V. Momtaz, M. Mansor, M. A. Talib, R. B. T. Kahar, and T. Momtaz

threshold, which is .5. However, the shortage of References

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