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Zambezia (2003), XXX (i)
Equal Opportunities in Educational
Management in Institutions of Higher
Learning: An Agenda for Gender
LINDA CHIPUNZA
Department of Linguistics, University of Zimbabwe
Abstract
Tlie article discusses the issue of gender disparities witliin education which have
been long standing in many parts of the world. The discussion centres on the need
for educational management boards to balance the selection and ranking of
administrative-cum-inanagerial staff bif practising non discrimination and by
ensuring equal riglits in the appropriate steps to liiglter positions of management,
based on the notion of meritocracy and gender representation. Relevant examples
have been drawn from the Zimbalnuean context.
Concerns about gender disparities within education have been long standing
in many parts of the world (Davies 1990, Dorsey et al 1989, Gray 1989,
Shakeshaft 1887, Saint 1992). Major differences of status and position, have
divided men and women teachers throughout. Recently, the issue of equity
in educational administration has become of increasing concern to
educational policy makers, especially in developing countries. For example,
in a review of the national planning documents of a number of countries,
Davies (1990) found that inequality in the workplace was a key consideration
of their governments. As she noted, although most developing countries
refer to equality and egalitarianism in their policy documents, they have
done very little to fulfil these noble objectives. In Zimbabwe, for instance,
teaching has remained a male dominated profession, as shown by the fact
that at 2003, the 15% women secondary school heads in the country were
drawn from only 42% women secondary school teachers. The figures at
primary school level were even more disproportionate, with only 5% of the
school heads being female, drawn from a 50% female teaching force nation-
wide (Zimbabwe Government 1994).
Within the organisational structures and processes of the educational
institutions themselves, gender plays a much larger role than is often realised.
Indeed, until recently when women began to speak out loudly about their
concerns about being marginalised, gender issues in education in the
developing countries remained largely un-addressed and, therefore,
unresolved. Because of the growing agitation of the issues by women, it is
no longer possible for governments to ignore them. That the marginalisation
2 Equal Opportunities in Educational Management
of women in educational institutions requires urgent official attention is
shown in a recent United Nations report on the status of the world's
women in educational organisations, which notes that women are poorly
represented among policymakers and decision takers. Not surprisingly,
women are increasingly dissatisfied with just the opportunity to work and
have begun to demand representation at the highest levels of decision-
making structures in education.
Meanwhile, society encourages men and women to behave in specific
ways according to its norms and regards any deviance as inappropriate
and unacceptable although, according to Gray (1989: 39), it is quite natural
to be fully androgynous. Consequently, there is resentment when roles
commonly held to be appropriate to one sex are assumed by members of
another. This is especially true in education where some school headship
positions are considered appropriate for one sex rather than the other. For
instance, it is normally assumed that nursery, infant, and primary schools
should have women heads, and secondary schools (including even all girls-
schools) and Further Education Colleges 'should' have men heads. In
Zimbabwe, for instance, only three of the country's 15 Teacher Education
Colleges were headed by women as at 2003. Significantly, two of the three
colleges had male Deputy Heads.
Meanwhile, there were barely any women in the top administrative
structures of the country's 10 Polytechnics and 9 Universities, except for
one woman who was a deputy head of a technical college. Of the country's
9 universities, only one, a Distance Education /Open University, was headed
by a woman but only in an acting position. Even among full time academic
staff in Further Education Colleges, women were in the minority. At the
country's largest and oldest university, the University of Zimbabwe, for
example, out of an academic staff complement of around 1 200 in 2003, only
120 were women and, out of these, only 20 held management positions, as
documented below:
Position Number of Positions No. of Women in Office
Vice Chancellor 1 0
Pro-Vice Chancellor 1 0
Registrar 1 0
Executive Deans 11 2
Departmental Chairpersons 74 10
Directors of Centres/Institutes 15 5
Deans of Students 1 0
Chaplain 1 0
Wardens of Residences 11 1
L. Chipunza 3
As is clear from the above, women are very poorly represented in the
decision making administrative structures of the University of Zimbabwe.
The question that arises is why this is so.
A number of explanations have been put forward. For instance, Subbarao
et al (1994) have argued that one of the reasons why women are under-
represented in top positions in educational institutions is that fewer women
than men apply for top administrative jobs. This claim is open to debate as
even in countries where centralised posting is the norm, as in Britain and
France, the same gender imbalances still hold (Shakeshaft 1989). The other
reason is that many women have to leave work to have children and,
therefore, essentially, are seen as renouncing their interest in a career.
Lastly, they maintain that, because women bear the bulk of domestic
responsibilities, it has generally been felt that they could not cope with the
added responsibilities that would be expected of them as managers and
decision-makers. Such attitudes have tended to limit women's participation
in positions of power and authority, particularly in conservative societies,
such as Zimbabwe, that are deeply rooted in traditional cultures (Saint
1992).
In Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa, the marginalisation of
women has its roots in the school system itself that has, traditionally,
treated the boy child differently to the girl child. Moreover, unequal access
to secondary education in much of sub-Saharan Africa and, indeed, the rest
of the developing world has severely disadvantaged women in their efforts
to achieve professional advancement. In addition, according to Shakeshaft
(1989), the girl child is further disadvantaged by the educational system's
inability to cater for their special needs in the curriculum, to enable them to
build self-confidence and to raise their career aspirations.
Equal Opportunities: A Dream or a Possibility?
In Zimbabwe, as in many other developing and developed countries, there
are no longer any legal barriers to equality in the teaching profession.
Before independence in 1980, black women came fourth in a hierarchy in
educational employment privileges in which white, Asian, coloured and
black male counterparts enjoyed better employment terms over white,
Asian and coloured female counterparts, and black male counterparts,
respectively. At independence, the incoming Zimbabwe government
immediately established policies to redress these inequalities. Obviously,
not enough was done, as recent demands by women for equal opportunities
in the educational sector, reflected in the Commission of Inquiry into
Education and Training Report (1999: 173), reveal. The problem that
continues to challenge policy-makers in Zimbabwe and elsewhere is how to
develop an education service that is free from bias, stereotyping, and
discrimination in the face of deeply ingrained cultural and religious attitudes.
4 Equal Opportunities in Educational Management
It also stands to reason that men are not about to give up their privileges
for the sake of high sounding ideals. Where there is a semblance of equal
opportunity, as dictated by either affirmative action or the quota system,
men continue to assume greater responsibility for the things that matter. In
Zimbabwe, for instance, national educational policies, including issues
relating to the curriculum and examinations, continue to be determined by
men, while women are normally assigned to counselling, hospitality, and
support services which are 'more in keeping with their feminine nature'
(Davies 1990). Such allocations can only lead to a spiral of under-evaluation
where women are not afforded a chance to demonstrate administrative
competence and where men's 'natural' leadership ability is given
prominence. Thus, according to Cockburn (1991), educational management
remains, in men's minds, a male hierarchy with women in it. Happily for
men, the status quo where men continue to hold onto their positions is
retained.
Where this has been allowed to erode slightly, for example in the
secondary schools in Zimbabwe, it has only been assisted by the fact that
recruitment and promotion decisions are always made two or three steps
above the grade at which the appointment is to be made. It is these 'bigger'
men, whose own positions are not threatened who, if necessity compels
them, will make the decision to appoint some women colleagues to
influential positions. This perhaps explains why in Zimbabwe, in the Higher
Education Management Structure, there are very few women occupying
any meaningful positions. For example, according to the figures issued by
the National Council for the Ministry of Higher Education and Technology
2000, the Minister of Higher Education, his Deputy and two of the four
Under-Secretaries for Higher Education are men. There is, at 2003, no
woman Regional or Deputy Regional Director of Education. Of the three
Directors of Higher Education, only one is a woman; of the Eight Deputy
Directors of Higher Education, only one is a woman; and of all the officers
holding administrative positions at Head Office, only 7% are women. Thus,
it appears, the equality policy agenda stated in the Commission of Inquiry
into Higher Education and Training Report (1999: 137), which states that
"Zimbabwe . . . upholds equity in the enjoyment of rights to both men and
women including participation in education" might be a hollow claim on
the part of the authorities.
Male Attitudes and Reactions
The statement that 'a master should not serve under a mistress' (Oram in
Acher (1989), continues to hold true in educational management, for attempts
in Zimbabwe to introduce equal opportunities for all have met with
resistance from men. What this shows is that women should not expect
men to relinquish their privileged positions voluntarily. As Oram (1989)
L. Chipunza 5
notes, often, men resent women's advances. This resentment manifests
itself in a number of forms. For instance, women have found some of their
male subordinate unwilling to accept their authority, with some, suddenly
becoming awkward, or worse still, creating undercurrents that undermine
the authority of women in positions of management. Very successful women
are often made targets of hostile comments. When a successful woman
makes a mistake, fails, or has a setback, Phillips (1987) remarks that there is
much celebration.
Men, it has also been observed, readily refer to the highest ranking
women as 'tokens', supposing that they are in their position, not because
they are competent, but because they are 'equity flagships' (Cockburn 1991:
66). Often, it has been charged that successful women got to where they are
by 'fluttering their eyelashes' at male superiors (Spencer et nl 1987: 43). Such
attitudes are indeed a cause for concern and efforts must be made to weed
them out.
A Case for Women
Gender considerations in school management should be taken more seriously
as the selection of one head over another may have far-reaching implications
for both the school and children, whether male or female. One such
consideration should be the need for gender balance in management. If all
children are to be taught in an environment and atmosphere that encourages
them to grow up and develop in what Gray (1989) calls 'that common
psychological androgyny that all children share ...,' then the policies of
management must reflect the pluralistic composition of society.
In fact, the gender perspective allows us to take a more creative view of
tin management role, for, if schools are to be viewed as 'nurturing'
in-titutions (Gray 1989), where children receive support, understanding,
and encouragement, then they require a form of management that is gender
balanced. Davii -1 I iW0) suggests why a more feminine style of management
may be more appropriate for schools. She claims that feminine styles of
management, which more often than not include gentility, nurturing, and
understanding qualities, are more accepting of differences than male styles.
Female styles, it is further argued, are also more tolerant of deviance, thus
allowing room for personal growth and the natural development of children.
Cockburn (1991) argues further in favour of women in managerial positions
by stating that women are especially competent, diligent, industrious, and
practical and would therefore make better managers because, ironically,
their experience of running households, a role that has previously often
been seen as standing in the way of many a woman's career, is actually an
asset in terms of managerial skills.
Another point made in favour of women is that it is in the interest of girls
for women to hold high office in educational institutions. It is also in the
6 Equal Opportunities in Educational Management
interest o\ balanced education as a whole for both sexes to manage education.
Recent studies in Uganda, Nigeria, and Swaziland on specific institutional
initiatives for women in education appear to have produced a positive
impact on women's participation at all levels.
More to the point, gender analysis within educational management theory
or practice should not be about identifying fundamental sex differences in
administration. It should not be about providing females access to male
dominated or male defined occupational hierarchies, either. A nation's best
potential minds, regardless of gender, should be given the opportunity for
full development. The argument should, in fact, be about identifying what
both male and female administrators can bring to education. The argument
should really be about a management ethos that is not based on gender, but
on the total individual and his/her potential. For management in education,
as indeed anywhere else, has nothing to do with the sex of the incumbent,
but the capabilities and characteristics of the individual, male or female. To
take the argument even further, women should not be made to feel that
they are fighting to join a predominantly male hierarchy. The issue here is
that of an ill-suited educational management framework that acts to exclude
women from decision-making. It is this structure, contends Davies (1990:
78), that all concerned must turn their attention to and not 'attempt to
change women into surrogate men'.
Strategies for Change
In the meantime, however, while men might want to ponder over a system
which has, for long, allowed them more and better opportunities than
women, women, on their part, would do well to rally behind one another
and struggle to 'tip the hurdles' (Gunter 1992: 19) in their favour and alter
the social contracts that have for so long held them back. Thus, the new
agenda for change can only be 're-written by women in their own hand'
(Cockburn 1991: 63) and it is only they who can ensure that the fight for
equal rights moves from being a mere addendum to oratory, by the powers
that be, to reality.
Strategies for genuine opportunities, and not the mere inclusion of females
in decision making, ought to be considered seriously under three main
categories, namely, positive discrimination or forceful legislation, training,
and institutional development. In the first category, apart from the legislation
and the quota system that are already in operation in most developing
countries, women, together with other concerned parties, need to guard
against a more sinister discrimination which seeks to discriminate one
woman against another. An example of this would be where, during an
interview, women are subjected to discriminatory questions related to their
gender, for instance, questions related to marital status, the likelihood of
L. Chipunza. 7
maternity, and ages of their children. Women need to be aware that they
can and should register their objection during interviews, regardless of the
fact that they may prejudice their chances because a registered objection
adds weight to the women's campaign to be taken seriously.
The second area to tackle is that of training. Efforts should be directed at
both the women themselves and selection boards. Davies (1990) and Dorsey,
Gaidzanwa and Mupawose (1989) suggest that women should be
encouraged to attend professional development courses, which are extremely
useful for their struggle. In the past, women have felt unable to attend
because training is, more often than not, conducted away from work places,
thus, they missed out on the benefits of professional development training,
including confidence building and self-socialisation aspects, which help
develop a feeling of power and confidence in the training participants.
As for the selection boards, re-orientation in the form of the type of
questions asked at an interview, the composition of the interviewing panels,
and a re-assessment of the idea of career profiles needs to be carried out,
particularly since, for a number of reasons beyond their control, most
women do not have unbroken service records. Already on the continent,
efforts to expand the number of women managers in African universities
have received support from a recent initiative coordinated by the Association
of Commonwealth Universities and the Commonwealth Secretariat. The
initiative seeks to provide a range of professional training and support
services to women occupying administrative positions in Commonwealth
universities. As this small group of women is assisted in their professional
advancement, it is hoped that they will be able to dismantle the various
barriers that now impede women's access to managerial positions within
higher education institutions (World Bank Papers 1994).
The third strategy for genuine equal opportunities in educational
administration derives from within the institutions of higher learning
themselves. Mckenna (1992) suggests that women should be encouraged to
become more assertive and refuse to accept their subordination as inevitable.
Both Cockburn (1991) and Spendiff (1992) remind women not to expect
men to relinquish their privileged position voluntarily, but for them to,
where possible, assume an extra-ordinary degree of responsibility and
initiative so that it becomes impossible not to notice their talent. For the
present, it is lamentable that women everywhere have to work twice as
hard as their male counterparts in order to achieve the same level of
recognition. This is all the more reason why women professionals should
invest their energy in combating these in-built disadvantages that they
have to face in the field of education administration and elsewhere.
Colleges and universities could also be asked to produce an action plan
in relation to gender equality. This would compel the relevant authorities
to confront the gender issue more than they do currently. Yet another
8 Equal Opportunities in Educational Management
obvious strategy for change is raising the people's awareness of gender
issues and the need to strive for gender equality in all sectors of life. The cry
for equal opportunities must, therefore, be taken beyond the college walls
and staffing offices, to the <=od^ty at large.
Finally, ensuring that all educational institutions take steps to promote
equal opportunities will strengthen the chances of developing an educational
system that is free from bias and gender discrimination.
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