Part

General Science &

Technology C

Chapter 1 General Science & Technology Class VI

1. Science in Everyday Life

2. Things Around Us

3. Separation of Substances
4. Measurement

5. Changes Around Us
6. Motion, Force and Machines

7. The Living World

8. Structures and Functions of the Living Body

9. Air
10. Water

Chapter 2 General Science & Technology Class VII

1. States of Matter

2. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

3. Heat Energy
4. Transfer of Heat

5. Light and Shadows

6. Mirrors and Reflection of Light

7. Sound
Chapter 3 General Science & Technology Class X

1. Energy

2. Fuels

3. The Sun and Nuclear Energy

4. Nutrition
5. Space Exploration
 Chapter

General Science & Technology

Class VI 1

1. Science in Everyday Life

Science helps us to acquire knowledge about new things and

happenings around us. Rapid development and improvement
have come about through science and its various applications.
Following are few a scientists with their remarkable discover ¬
ies:

Chief Scientists Work

Nagarjuna Indian mathematician; inven-
tor of the digit zero
Edward Jenner Discovered the world’s first
vaccine and numerous meth¬
ods to cure diseases
Alexander Fleming Discovered world’s first antibi¬
otic - penicillin - which cured
various bacterial infections.
 Madame Curie Discovered radium and
polonium
Antonie Van Leeuwen- Invented the microscope, an
hoek instrument, useful for study¬
ing various types of germs, ex¬
amining the blood and so on.
Louis Pasteur Discovered methods of pre¬
serving milk, jam, etc., and
pasteurisation
Jagadish Chandra Bose Studied the sensitivity of
plants in detail

Other Modern Scientists: Sir C. V Raman, S Ramanujan, S.

N. Bose, M. N. Saha, D.N. Wadia, B. Sahni, P. Maheshwari, G.
N. Ramachandran, T.R. Sheshadri, Homi Bhabha and Vikram
Sarabhai.

2 . Things Around Us

All the objects are made up of one or more materials. Materials

may be classified in two categories:
(1) Naturally occurring materials
(2) Man-made materials

NATURALLY OCCURRING MATERIALS

• Examples are coal, wood, rocks, minerals, water, gold, petro¬

leum, etc.

MAN- MADE MATERIALS

• Examples are glass, plastic, fertiliser, paper, stainless steel, etc.

The entire universe is made up of matter. All materials and
substances are made up of matter. Anything that we can see,
touch, smell or taste is matter.

Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter.

Matter can exist in three different states, i.e., solid, liquid and
gaseous.
(1) Solid - Example: wood
( 2) Liquid - Example: water
( 3) Gas - Example: oxygen

By changing the temperature, the state of the matter can be

changed. Some forms of matter can be changed from one state
to another and reverted to the original state.
The process of changing a solid into a liquid by heating is called
melting. The melting ofa substance takes place at a fixed tem¬
perature. This temperature is called the melting point of that
substance.
Ice melts at 0 °C. Ice on melting forms water. On boiling water,
forms steam, which is a gaseous state. Most of the liquids keep
on changing slowly into vapours at all temperatures. This
process is called evaporation.
On continued heating, the temperature of a liquid rises and
starts boiling at a fixed temperature. This temperature is called
the boiling point ofthe liquid. Water boils at 100 °C.
The process of changing vapour or a gas into a liquid by cooling
is called condensation. For example, when water boils in a ves¬
sel, water droplets are formed due to cooling of steam on the lid
and get converted into water.
The process of changing a liquid into a solid on cooling is called
freezing, as water on cooling turns into ice.
 Water
(Liquid)

Evaporation Ice
(Gases ) ( Solid )

Water
(Liquid )

Gold, copper, iron and silver change into liquid and gaseous
states at high temperatures.
Materials are classified based on their state, their solubility in
water, their behaviour towards a magnet, their density with re¬
spect to water, their transparency or opaqueness, etc.
Things around us seem to be of an endless variety. Many objects
and materials are made up of only a few basic units (building
blocks ). There are naturally occurring basic units on the Earth.
These basic units are called elements. A few more elements
have also been prepared by scientists. Now there are more than
110 known elements. These elements are said to be the build ¬
ing blocks of materials like the brick, which are the building
blocks of a building.
Some of the common elements are hydrogen, helium, carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur, zinc, bromine, silver, tin, iodine, gold and
mercury. Most of the common materials are made up of one or
more than one of these elements.
Only a few elements occur in a free form in nature, for example,
oxygen, nitrogen and gold. Most of the materials around us are
in combinations of two or more elements,
For example:
Water: Oxygen + Hydrogen
Sugar: Carbon + Hydrogen + Oxygen
Common Salt: Sodium + Chlorine

[ Oxygen )

, Oxygen )
Sugar
/ Carbon/ Vir - r/ ^
Water
'* [ Hydrogen )
'

Substances that are a combination oftwo or more elements are

called compounds.
The elements found in the largest quantities on Earth are
silicon and oxygen. Many man-made and natural materials
contain compounds of these two elements. Some examples are
sand, bricks, glass, concrete, clay and granite.

Each element has its own special properties. Therefore,

elements are classified mainly in two categories, which are as
follows:

Elements
I
Metals
Example : Iron, Copper, Silver, Gold,
-I
Non metals
F. xample: Carbon, Sulphur,
Aluminium etc. Hydrogen, Oxygen etc
Properties : Properties
A Metals arc good conductors of heat and
electricity. That is, they allow heat and
-
A Non metals can be solids,
liquids or gases.
electricity to pass through them.
*- Metals have lustre.
-
*• They are generally solid.
= at normal temperatures.
/ Mercury is the only metal, which is aliquid

When two or more substances (elements or/and compounds)

are mixed together in a way that they do not lose their own
properties, they form a mixture.
All elements and compounds are made of fine particles. For
example, kerosene is made of fine particles of kerosene. Chalk
is made of fine particles of chalk. Thus, a compound is made of
fine particles of the same kind. These are the smallest particles
one can see. If these particles could be broken further into
even smaller particles, then one would finally get the smallest
possible particle of a compound. This smallest particle cannot
be seen but it still has the properties of the compound. This is
called the molecule of the compound.

Water is a commonly used compound. It is possible to break the

molecules of water. Water breaks into hydrogen and oxygen.
Both have different properties. They are unlike the original sub¬
stance, water.
Hydrogen gas is made of molecules of hydrogen. Oxygen gas is
made of molecules of oxygen. A molecule of hydrogen can be
split further into two particles. The smallest possible particle of
hydrogen is called an atom.An atom does not exist alone. Simi¬
larly, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen.
A molecule formed from the same kind of atoms is called a
molecule of an element. For example, two atoms of hydrogen
combine to form a molecule of the element hydrogen. A mole¬
cule which consists of atoms of two or more different elements
are called molecule of a compound. For example, an atom of
chlorine combines with an atom of hydrogen to form a mole¬
cule of the compound - hydrogen chloride.

All elements are made up of only one kind of atoms. All atoms
of an element are identical and alike. But the atoms of copper
are different from those of aluminium. All molecules of water
are identical and alike. But the molecules of sugar are different
from those of water.
The molecules in all the three states of matter are similar, but
they still differ in their states. The reasons are as follows:
 Reasons for differences in the three states of matter

i J
In solids the molecules
, In liquids , the molecules In gases , the molecules are
are closely packed. Their are not packed as closely at a greater distance from
positions are almost fixed as m solids. one another as compared
to solids and liquids.
They have the least They have more freedom They are free to move
freedom of movement to move around their around then place.
from their positions. position in comparison
to solids.
Due to the above solids Due to above reason Due to above reason the
retain their shape Their liquids change their shape gases therefore neither
, ,

volume does not change easily. have a fixed shape nor

fixed volume. They take
the volume of the container
they are kept in
States of all three types of molecules

(J(J > (JCJ c 0 1

0
30
°
Solid Molecules
o c v c: o o
Liouid Molecules Gas Molecules

3 . Separation of Substances

• A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more

substances in which their individual identities are retained.
The components, whether two or more, can be separated . For
example, separating small pieces of stone from wheat and rice,
peeling off the skin of a banana before eating it, separating
cream from milk, etc.

• Separation of mixtures into their constituents is often neces¬

sary for several reasons. These are as follows:
To remove undesirable substances

To remove harmful substances

 To obtain a pure sample of a substance
To obtain useful components

METHODS OF SEPARATION

• Winnowing: Winnowing is a simple method of cleaning food

materials from a mixture. It separates the grains from the husk
because one particle is lighter than the other. Farmers thresh
wheat or paddy to loosen the grains from the chaff. This mix¬
ture is made to fall from a height. The breeze blows away the
chaff, while the grains fall almost vertically. The chaff forms a
separate heap at a little distanc away from the heap of grains.
• Hand picking: If the mixture comprises solids of different
colours, shape or sizes, it can be separated by hand picking.
For example, picking stone pebbles from rice, pulses, wheat
or other food grains. This method is normally used when the
quantity of impurities as well as the material to be cleaned is
small in quantity.
Sieving: Sieving is possible only when the particles of a
mixture are of different sizes. This method is used specially
for purifying the mixtures of food materials from undesirable
materials.
• Separation with magnet: Magnets attract iron. Thus, good
quality magnets are used to separate iron from a mixture.
• Sedimentation and Decantation: Insoluble solids, i.e., solids
that do not dissolve in a liquid can be separated from it by pro¬
cesses like sedimentation and decantation.
(a) Sedimentation is the process of settling down of an insol¬
uble solid in a liquid at the bottom of a container.
(b) Decantation is the process of separating out the clear
liquid on the top without disturbing the sediment. This
process is only done after sedimentation.
 For example, a mixture of sand and water is left for a
while. The sand settles down and forms a layer at the
bottom, this is sedimentation. And when clear water is
poured into another vessel without disturbing the sand at
the bottom, it is called decantation.

.
'
V

Sand Sod mnnt

Sediment
Pure water

If a solid is soluble in water or two liquids are miscible (or

soluble into each other ) then, the process of sedimentation
cannot be used for separation. Mixture of water and sugar
and mixture ofkerosene oil and petrol represent a solid solu¬
ble in water and two miscible liquids, respectively.
Two immiscible (or insoluble) liquids like a mixture of
water and kerosene oil can be separated by decantation and
by using a separating funnel. This method of separation is
based on the property of the mixture that one constituent is
heavier (water is heavier than kerosene oil) than the other.
In the separating mixture, kerosene oil forms the upper
layer of opening the stop-cock, water will drain off and only
a small quantity of the mixture remains unseparated.
 Loading: Sometimes the insoluble particles in a liquid are very
fine and cannot be removed by decantation. These particles can
be made heavier so that they sediment quickly. The process of
sedimentation of insoluble fine particles by making them heav ¬

ier is called loading. The particles are made heavier by using

alum - a solid which is soluble in water. The alum particles load
the fine particles due to which they form a sediment easily and
the liquid can then be cleaned.

Mbd «1 Clean Water

= ==
Mm BB
M4
-
£
Alum Particle
mmm
Sediment

• Centrifugation: The method of separating lighter and heavier

particles from a liquid by rotating the liquid in a machine is
called centrifugation. Cream is separated from milk by cen¬
trifugation. As cream is lighter it separates and floats on the top
of the milk.
• Filtration: The act of passing a liquid through a filter or a piece
of equipment to remove undissolved substances is known as
filtration. For example, tea leaves are separated from tea using
this process.
• Evaporation: The process of converting a liquid into its vapour
form is called evaporation. In this process, heat is used. The liq¬
uid containing soluble solids is heated for a sufficient time. As a
result, the liquid component evaporates leaving the solid com ¬
ponent behind. For example, salt is obtained from sea water by
evaporation.
Sublimation: It is the process of separating those substances
from a mixture which convert directly into the gaseous form
on heating. The gaseous form of the substance is cooled to ob¬
tain the pure solid like camphor, ammonium chloride, iodine,
etc.
Crystallisation: The process of crystallisation is used to obtain
a pure sample of a soluble solid substance from a solution.
For this, a large quantity of the substance is dissolved in a hot
liquid. The solution is then filtered to remove insoluble impuri¬
ties. On cooling, crystals of the pure solid are formed.

Distillation: Distillation is a process of obtaining a pure liquid

from a solution. In the process of distillation, the solution is
heated to vaporise the liquid. The vapours of the liquid are
cooled to get the pure liquid. This process is also used to sepa ¬
rate two liquids that Eire miscible (soluble) and boil at different
temperatures. For example, alcohol boils at 80° C and water
boils at 100°C. If a mixture of alcohol and water is heated, alco¬
hol boils first and distills over. The water is left behind.

Water

4. Measurement

Measurement is one of the most useful processes in science

and in our daily life. Without actual measurements, we cannot
make correct judgements about a given object. It is not always
easy to find out the length, area, volume or mass of different
objects just by looking at them.
For the sake of uniformity, scientists all over the world have
accepted certain standard units for measuring different quan¬
tities. For example,

Quantity Standard Unit

Length Metre
Mass Kilogramme
Time Second

• Standard unit of - Metre

length

• Meaning of - Metre can be used as a unit to

length measure the length of a room,
the height of a tree or a build ¬
ing or length and breadth of a
playground.

• Short form of -m
standard unit metre

• Other standard - 10 millimetres (mm) = 1 cen ¬

units timetre (cm) 100 cm = 1 metre ( m)

1000 m = 1 kilometre ( km)

• Standard unit of - Metre2

area

• Meaning of area - Area is the measure of surface of

an object

• Short form of - m2
standard unit
 • Another unit of - 1 acre = 100 m2
standard unit 1 hectare = 100 acre = 1000 m2

. Standard unit of - Metre3 or cubic metre

volume

• Meaning of - The space occupied by an object

volume is called its volume. The space
available in a container is called
its capacity. In fact, the capacity of
a container is its inner volume.

• Short form of ' m3

standard unit

• Other standard - Whenthe object is small, instead

unjts of considering m 3 as aunit, we
may consider cm3 or dm3 as
a unit. These are read as cubic
centimetre and cubic decimetre,
respectively.

The volume of liquids like milk, kerosene and petrol is mea ¬

sured in litres or millilitres (ml)
1 litre (1) = 0.001 cubic metre
1000 ml = 1 litre (1)
1 ml = 1 cm3

Standard unit of mass - Kilogramme

Meaning of mass - The mass is the measure of the quantity of
matter in an object.
Short form of standard unit - kg
Other standard units (small mass) - Gram and milligram
100 gram (g) = 0.1 kilogramme
1000 milligram (mg) = 1 gram
(large quantities) - 100 kg = 100000 grams/1 quintal
10 quintals = 1 tonne
Temperature is measured in degree Celsius. It is written as
°. A thermometer has two standard markings. To make the
standard markings on a thermometer, two fixed points are
required.
(i) Lower fixed point: It is the temperature of melting ice.
(ii) Upper fixed point: It is the temperature of steam of boiling
water.
The clinical thermometer used by doctors does not have the
markings from 0°C to 100°C. It cannot, therefore, be used to
measure the temperature of ice or boiling water. It can measure
only a short range of temperatures from about 35 °C to 42 °C.
It is graduated likewise because the temperature of the human
body does not vary beyond these temperatures. The tempera ¬
ture of a normal human body is 37°C.
The standard unit of time all over the world is second. Time for
longer events is expressed in larger units. The larger units of
time are minute, hour and day.
60 seconds (s) = 1 minute (min)
60 minutes (min) = 1 hour (h)
24 hours = 1 day

Months and years are also units of time to express longer time
intervals.

5 . Changes Around Us

From morning till night, we observe many changes around us.

For example, sudden change in the weather, rainfall, flowering
of plants, germination of seeds, ripening offruits, (hying of
clothes, change of day into night, melting of ice, evaporation
of water, burning of fuels, cooking of rice, formation of curd
from milk, rusting of iron, burning of fireworks, etc. Based on
the these examples, changes can be classified in the following
ways:
(i) Slow and fast changes
(ii) Desirable and undesirable changes
(iii) Periodic and nonperiodic changes
(iv) Reversible and irreversible changes
( v) Physical and chemical changes

(i) Slow and fast changes: Slow changes take place over days,
months oryears. For example, rusting of iron nails, germi ¬

nation of seeds, ripening of fruits, etc.

Fast changes occur within a short span of time. For exam¬
ple, spinning of a top, burning of a matchstick, curdling of
milk by adding lemon juice, etc.
(ii) Desirable and undesirable changes: The changes that are
beneficial or desirable for us are called desirable changes.
For example formation of curd from milk, formation of
manure from cow dung and dead plants. But there are
some changes that may be undesirable or harmful. These
are called undesirable changes. For example- the burning
of a factory, flooding of a river, rotting of food stuff, etc.
A change may be desirable at one time but undesirable
at some other time. For example, the burning of a fuel
(wood, coal) to produce heat is a desirable change. How¬
ever, burning is an undesirable change, when a house or
a factory is burnt.
A change may be desirable for someone and undesir¬
able for others. The cutting of trees may be desirable for
someone who needs wood but undesirable for others
because it disturbs the balance in nature.
(iii) Periodic and non periodic changes: Changes that occur
again and again after a fixed interval of time and their
recurrence can be predicted such changes are called pe¬
riodic changes. For example- winter, summer, autumn,
spring and rainy seasons recur each year, the waxing and
waning of the moon nights recur each month, generation
of high and low tides in the sea, etc. Changes that do not
repeatthemselves at regular intervals of time and cannot
be predicted are called nonperiodic changes. For example,
train accidents, the occurrence of earthquakes, landslides,
sneezing, etc.
(iv) Reversible and irreversible changes: If a change canbe
reversed, it is called a reversible change. For example, ice
changes into water on heating whereas on cooling water
changes back to ice. Similarly, when we put a weight on a
rubber band or a spring, it stretches; but when we remove
the weight, it comes back to its original shape.
If a change cannot be reversed, it is called irreversible
change. For example, when coal is burnt, it changes into
ash and smoke and we cannot get back coal from ash and
smoke. Ageing, changing of milk into curd are some other
examples.
(v) Physical and chemical changes

Changes in which the size or shape of the object

changes but the substances ofwhich they are made
remainthe same and no new substances are formed
are called physical changes. For example breaking a
wooden stick, cutting or tearing a piece of paper, break¬
ing a piece of chalk and breaking a glass tumbler. In all
these cases, size or shape of the objects change. How¬
ever these are still wood, paper, chalk and glass.
A change in which new substances are formed is called a chemical
change. For example, when paper burns, carbon dioxide, water
vapour and ash are produced. None of them have properties of
paper.
The same substance may undergo a physical as well
as a chemical changes depending upon the conditions.
The tearing of a sheet of paper in different pieces is a
physical change, whereas burning it a chemical change.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS

• A change may be classified in more than one type. For example,

formation of curd is a desirable, chemical, slow and irreversible
change.
• Some changes can be controlled (they can be sped up, slowed
down or prevented). For example, we can slow down or prevent
spoiling of food.
• There are some changes which cannotbe controlled. For exam ¬
ple, changes of day and night, the phases of the moon, tides in
the sea and change of the seasons, etc.

6 . Motion , Force and Machines

MOTION

• When an object changes its position with time as compared to a

stationary object, it is said to be in motion.
• In science, motions are classified as follows: (i) linear motion,
(ii) random motion, (iii) circular motion, (iv) oscillatory
motion.
(i) Linear motion: A bullet fired from a rifle, a boy sliding
down a slope or a ball rolling on the ground or moving
 along a line are examples of linear motion.
Note: In a linear motion, an object may move along a
straight line or a curved line.
(ii) Random motion: The motion of a fly, of a player on a
football ground, or of a child at home are not along a fixed
path. They keep on changing directions. Such motions are
called random motions.
(iii) Circular motion: The moon moves around the Earth. The
Earth moves round the sun. A bull moves around a central
pole. These objects move along a circular path. Such mo¬
tions are called circular motions.
(iv) Oscillatory motion: If a hanging object is taken to one
side and then released, it starts moving like a swing. Such
to-and-fro motion is called oscillatory motion.

SPEED

The speed of an object can be calculated by using the relation:

Total distance travelled

Speed
Time taken

Example : If a train travels 120 km in 3 hours, its speed per

hour will be

Speed = 40 kilometre hour

• The standard unit of distance is metre and the standard unit of

time is second. Therefore, the unit of speed is metre /second or
m /s or ms 1.
'

• For convenience, the speed of some objects is expressed in

metres/minute. Cheetah is a fast animal. It can move at a speed
of 1,700 metres/ minute.
FORCE

• The push or pull applied on an object is called force. The direc¬

tion in which the object is pushed or pulled is called the direc¬
tion of force.

• The effect of force can bring three kinds of changes-

(i) Change in speed
(ii) Change in direction
(iii) Change in shape
(i) Change in speed: If a force is applied in the direction of
motion of the object, its speed increases and if the force is
applied in the direction opposite to the direction of motion
of the object, its speed decreases.
For example: Hitting (applying force) a glass marble in
motion with another marble from behind increases the
speed of the moving marble. However, when the moving
marble is hit (applied force) with another marble from
the opposite direction, the speed of the moving marble
decreases.
(ii) Change in direction: Force can change the direction of
motion of a moving object.
For example: During a game of cricket, if a moving ball is
hit by a bat, the direction of the ball changes; the smoke
rising from an agarbatti changes its direction if we gently
blow air on it.
(iii) Change in shape: When a force is applied on an object, it
may undergo a change in shape.
For example: The shape of dough changes on applying
force, the shape of sponge changes on pressing, the shape
of an iron strip changes on hammering.
Types of forces

(i) Muscular force

(ii) Magnetic force
(iii) Electrostatic force
(iv) Gravitational force

( v) Frictional force
(i) Muscular force: The force exerted by the muscles is called
muscular force. Both animals and human beings exert mus¬
cular force to do work.
(ii) Magnetic force: The force exerted by a magnet is called mag ¬

netic force. If a magnet is brought near small objects madeof

iron like nails or pins, the magnet pulls them towards it. It
means that the magnet has applied a force on these objects.
(iii) Electrostatic force: The force exerted by an electrostatic
charge is called electrostatic force. For example, take a piece of
paper and tear it into tiny pieces. Place them over a notebook.
Now take a plastic ball point pen. Rub the body of the pen
with your dry hair for about a minute. Bring it near these tiny
pieces of paper. They appear to move towards the pen. This
is due to the force exerted by electrostatic charge acquired by
the pen.
(iv) Gravitational force: Ifaball or a stone is released from some
height, it falls on the ground. The Earth pulls them down.
This pull of the Earth is a force called force of gravity. The
Earth exerts this force on all objects. As Earth exerts a force on
the bodies, all bodies exert a force on each other also. The force
exerted by the bodies that possess mass is called gravitational
force.
(v) Frictional force: If a ball is rolled on the floor, it stops after
some time. This is because when the ball moves, a force acts
 on it which opposes its motion. This force is called frictional
force. It acts between two surfaces in this examination (the
ball and the floor) that are in contact.
Note: If a ball is rolled with a similar force on a cemented floor
and then on a kaccha floor, the ball rolling on the cemented
floor will travel a larger distance than the ball rolling on the
kachcha floor as the cemented floor is smooth and the fric ¬
tional former force between it and the ball is less. Since the
kachcha floor is rough, the frictional force between the floor
and the ball is greater. Thus, the frictional force depends on
the smoothness ofthe surfaces in contact with each other.

Disadvantages and Advantages of Friction

• Disadvantages of Friction: When you step on a banana peel, you

might slip because the banana peel reduces friction between
the foot and the floor. Due to friction between the sole of a shoe
and the floor, the shoe wears out. Machines that rub together
wear out due to friction.
• Advantages ofFriction: Without friction between a pencil or a
pen and paper, writing and drawing would not be possible. It
would be impossible to cut wood without frictionbetween saw
and a tree. The burning of a matchstick would not be possible
without friction.

MACHINES

• Withthe use of machines, our work becomes easier and faster.

In situations where a greater force is required we can do more
work with the help of machines to perform by applying less
force.

• Generally, machines are of two kinds:

(i) Simple machines
(ii) Complex machines
(i) Simple Machines: A knife, a screw, a pair of tongs, a pulley
are some examples of simple machines.
(ii) Complex machines: Complex machines are made up ofa
large number of simple machines. Abicycle, a sewing ma ¬
chine, a tractor are some examples of complex machines.

7 . The Living World

There is a variety of living organisms around us. Each one of

them possesses a definite shape, size, structure and a colour
pattern. Similarly, things like living places (water and land),
home (nests, holes of trees), food habits, etc., give each organ ¬

ism a different identity.

Each kind of organism has many individuals. There are differ ¬
ences and similarities among the individuals of a kind based on
which they can be recognised.

The individuals of a kind have a similarity in their body parts

and their functioning. They eat the same kind of food and live
in the same habitat. They cooperate among themselves for
reproduction. Such a group of similar individuals is known as
species. Each species has a name.
Each plant and animal has a scientific name consisting in two
words. These scientific names help us in identifying each type
of plant or animal and the group to which it belongs. When
they are written, the first letter of the first word (group name)
is always written as a capital letter, but the first letter of the
second word (individual name) is written as a small letter.
-
Example Scientific names and their writing pattern
Note: Although in different languages the plants and the ani-
mals may be called by different names, their scientific names
are the same all over the world.

Indian Tiger Panthera tigris

Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus
Man Homo sapiens
Mango Manifera indica

Living organisms are very different in shape, size, habitat, food

habits and behaviour. They breathe in different ways and move
around in different ways. They even have different ways of
growing and reproducing themselves. All have different names
but despite all these differences, they all have one most impor ¬
tant thing in common - they are all living.
The living organisms share some features with the non-living
objects. All living and non-living objects are made of matter.
They all have mass and occupy space. But life is the process
seen only in living objects in the form of growth, movement,
feeding or eating, sensitivity, respiration, excretion and repro¬
duction.
The world of living organisms canbe divided into two groups:
(i) plants and (ii) animals.

An important difference between plants and animals is the

way they obtain their food. Most animals, being able to move
around, obtain food by looking for and going after it. How¬
ever, most plants are fixed. They manufacture their own food.
The process by which they manufacture their food is called
photosynthesis.
Plants and animals reproduce themselves. They produce one or
more individuals of their own kind. Plants reproduce mainly
through seeds or spores. Certain plants reproduce through
leaves, for example, Bryophyllum. Some also reproduce
 through stems, like ginger, potato.
Animals reproduce by laying eggs or by giving birth to babies.
• Both plants and animals can respond to changes in their
surroundings. These changes, which they respond to, are called
stimuli.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

• Plants canbe classified into different groups based on certain

characters. There are two main groups - (i) flowering plants and
(ii) non-flowering plants.

(i) Flowering plants: These plants have roots, stems, leaves,

flowers and fruits.
(ii) Non-flowering Plants: These plants do not bear flowers.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

• Animals can be classified based on certain characteristics. All

the animals can be separated into two main groups: (i) verte¬
brates and (ii) invertebrates.
(i) Vertebrates: Animals with a backbone are called verte¬
brates. For example: lion, frog, dog, cow, etc.
Note: Inside the body of some animals, there is a bony
skeleton. The backbone is a part of the skeleton. It is made
up of several small bones called vertebrae.
(ii) Invertebrates: The animals that have neither a backbone
nor a bony skeleton are called invertebrates. For example,
earthworm, oyster, amoeba.

8. Structures and Functions of the Living Body

All animals and plants have different organs to perform various
functions. Each part of the body of an animal or plant is different
in structure. The organs, however, function in coordination with
one another.

SPECIFIC PARTS OF PLANTS

• Plants have two main systems: (i) the root system

(ii) the shoot system

The Root System

The root system grows mainly underground. Root systems are of

two types:

(i) Tap root system

(ii) Fibrous root system

(i) Tap root system: It is a main root and grows vertically down
into the soil. The tap root gives out branches. For example, pea,
neem, mango.

(ii) Fibrous root system: Some plants do not have a main root.
They have many fibre-like roots are called fibrous roots. These
roots spread out in the soil and give firm support to the plant. For
example, wheat, grass, maize and millet.
Advantages of the root system: As roots grow normally under¬
ground, they fix the plant to the ground. They absorb the mineral
salts and water from the ground, which are needed for the plant
to grow. Roots also help hold the soil together. They save the soil
frombeing blown off or washed away.
The Shoot System

The shoot system grows above the ground. It consists of the main
stem, branches and leaves.
(i) The stem: The stem holds the plant upright. The stem is the
strongest part of a tree and is known as the trunk. Most trunks
are observed with bark. The bark protects the inner part of the
tree. The stems of some plants are weak. They cannot stand
erect. Stems carry water from the roots to the leaves and flow¬
ers. They also carry food from the leaves to other parts of the
plant. They hold the leaves in such a way that the leaves get
plenty of light from the sun.
(ii) The leaves: Leaves are important parts of plants. They
manufacture food for the plants. They are greenbecause they
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. To manufacture
food, the green leaves need sunlight, air and water. The
process of making food in the presence of sunlight is called
photosynthesis.
(iii) Flowers and fruits: In a flower, the green leaflike parts in
the outermost circle are called sepals. Towards the centre of
a flower many little stalks with swollen tops are present and
called stamens. The swollen tops are called anthers. They
contain a powdery substance called pollen. The stamen is
the male part of a flower. In the centre ofthe flower, there is
a flesh-shaped organ called the carpel. The carpel is the fe¬
male part of a flower. The little swollen portion at the base is
called the ovary. The ovary contains egg-like structures called
ovules. Pollen are transferred to the carpel in a process called
pollination. This is done by insects, wind and water. Even¬
tually, the ovules of the flower turn into seeds and the ovary
into fruits.
• Seeds: A seed contains a baby plant and food for the new plant.
Corn, peas and beans are seeds.

SPECIFIC PARTS OF ANIMALS

All animals, including human beings, have definite organs and

systems to carry out various functions. The main systems are: (i)
digestive system (ii) respiratory system (iii) circulatory system
(iv) nervous system (v) urinary system and (vi) reproductory
system.
(i) Digestive system: When we eat food, is broken down into
smaller particles. Then these particles get changed into
absorbable forms in the body. This process is called digestion.
The digested food is absorbed and used in the body. The
unabsorbed portion is removed from the body as faeces. There
are several organs that are involved in carrying out these pro ¬

cesses. These are the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small in¬

testine, large intestine, anus, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.
Mouth: The mouth contains tongue, teeth and salivary
glands. Digestion of food starts in the mouth as soon as
saliva mixes with the food. Saliva is secreted by the salivary
glands. The mixing of saliva with the food takes place when
the food is chewed by the teeth. The food is chewed by the
teeth. Most adults have 32 teeth.
There are four types of teeth in our mouth -
(i) incisors - for biting the food
(ii) canines - for cutting and tearing the food
(iii) premolars - for grinding the food
(iv) molars - to grind the food also.
The tongue has many functions. It helps in mixing the saliva with
the food swallowing the food and experiencing the taste. It is also
essential for speaking.
 Oesophagus: It acts as a passage or a tube which takes the
food from the mouth to the stomach.
Stomach: The stomach is like a bag. Food is churned in the
stomach and turned into a semisolid paste. The stomach
helps in digesting food. The food goes to the small intestine
from here.
Small intestine: It is arranged in the form of a coil in our
belly. Digestion of food also takes place here. This intestine
also absorbs the digested food.
(ii) Respiratory system: Living organisms need oxygen. Oxygen
helps break down the absorbed food in our body to release
energy required for our life. The process is known as respira ¬

tion. Carbon dioxide is formed as a waste during the process.

Breathing is an important part of respiration. We breathe in
air rich in oxygen. When this air reaches the lungs, oxygen
enters the blood. Carbon dioxide and water vapour from the
blood are released into the lungs. These are removed from the
lungs with the air we breathe out. The main organs of breath¬
ing are - nostrils, passages in the nose, trachea, bronchi and
the lungs. Together, they are known as the respiratory system.
Note: The muscles of the chest and diaphragm help in the
process of breathing in and breathing out.
(iii) Circulatory system: It supplies blood to all the organs of the
body. The heart, blood and the blood vessels are its main com ¬
ponents. The blood vessels are of three types- (a) arteries (b)
veins (c) capillaries. Numerous greenish-blue lines just below
the skin are the veins. Veins are very easily visible. They carry
blood from all the organs of the body to the heart. Arteries lie
a little deeper under the skin, so they are not easily visible.
These carry blood from the heart to all parts of the body. A
network of capillaries forms the connection between the ar ¬
teries and the veins.
(iv) Nervous system: There are special sense organs that are sen ¬
sitive to light (eyes), sound (ears), gaseous chemicals ( nose),
liquid chemicals (tongue), heat, cold and touch (skin).
The sensations are carried from these sense organs through
the nerves to the brain or spinal cord. On receiving a message,
the body’s reaction to the changes is decided by the brain.
The brain then sends out commands to different parts of the
body for action, again through nerves. The main organs of the
nervous system are - the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves.
These organs help in coordinating all the functions of the
body. This system helps the other systems to work together.
Note : The brain is located inside the skull. The spinal cord
runs inside the bony structure of the backbone, while the
nerves are distributed all over the body.
(v) Urinary system: The urinary system collects the liquid
wastes and helps the body get rid of them. It comprises
two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder and the urethra. The
function of the kidneys is to filter the wastes from the blood,
producing a yellowish liquid called urine. The ureters convey
urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Where it gets stored. It
is passed out from the body through the urethra.
(vi) Reproductive system: All living organisms have the capacity
to produce their offsprings which have characteristics similar
to them. This process of producing individuals of one’s own
kind is called reproduction. If there is no reproduction, all life
on the Earth would come to an end. Both males and females
are required for reproduction.
• Other systems: There are several other systems that perform
major functions. The muscular system helps in movement
and locomotion. The movement of the internal organs like the
heart, the limbs and the digestive system is all due to muscles.
The skin helps in protection of the body. It also has sense or-
gans and sweat glands.
The skeletal system consists of the skull, the backbone, and the
limb bones. The skeletonprotects the inner body parts. It also
helps in movement and in making the body rigid.

9. Air

Air is everywhere around us. No living being can survive with¬

out air.
The air covers the whole Earth. This cover of air is called the
atmosphere. We live within the atmosphere. It extends over
hundreds ofkilometres. Up to a height of 16 km, we find clouds,
rain and snow. As we go up in the atmosphere, there is less and
less air. Jet planes usually fly above the clouds.
Air is matter. It occupies space and has mass. It has no colour
and we can see through it. It fills all the space available to it.
Air is a mixture of several gases. Nearly fourth- fifths (4/ 5) of it
is nitrogen. About one-fifth (1/ 5) of it is oxygen. Air also has a
small amount of carbon dioxide, argon, helium, water vapour
and dust particles.
At higher altitudes, air is thin and under the water, the
available oxygen is less. Thus, breathing becomes difficult.
Therefore, mountaineers and divers carry cylinders containing
oxygen with them. Oxygen is also supplied to the patients who
suffer from breathing difficulties.
Oxygen is used by living organisms for respiration. During
respiration, oxygenbreaks down the food to release energy.
During this process, carbon dioxide and water vapour are pro¬
duced and released.
Carbon dioxide along with water is used by the green plants
in the presence of sunlight to make their food. This process is
 called photosynthesis. During this process, oxygen is released.
In nature, the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide is thus,
maintained.

AIR IS USEFUL TO HUMAN BEINGS

• Air is required by human beings for respiration.

• Air is necessary for burning. A chulha, sigri or kerosene stove
burn only when sufficient air is available.
Vehicles such as bicycles, few kinds of carts, scooters, cars,
trucks and aeroplanes have tyres filled with compressed air.
Such tyres make transport smooth and easier.
• Balls used for playing and balloons can be used only when they
are inflated with air.
• Compressed air is used in machines for digging, mining and
breaking stones. It is also used for lifting liquid substances
from a mine.
• Compressed air is used in the brake systems of trains.
• Air helps in drying agricultural products such as grains, pulses,
dry fruits and wet clothes.
• People feel cool in summer under a fan which circulates air.
This helps in rapid evaporation of sweat.
• Air helps in the movement of sail boats, gliders, parachutes and
aircraft. Birds, bats and insects fly in the air.
• Air makes a windmill move. A windmill is used to draw water
from tube wells and to operate flour mills. Along the coast,
windmills are used to generate electricity.

10. Water
Water is the most common and important substance around
us. It is essential for almost every task we perform on a daily
basis as well as for agriculture and industries.

All animals and plants need water. The human body has about
70 per cent water by weight. Similarly the elephants and plants
have 80 per cent and 60 per cent water by weight respectively.
Animals drink water from ponds, streams and rivers. Plants
take in water from the soil through their roots. From the roots,
it goes to different parts of the plant. The plant uses this water
for its life processes. It also loses water continuously from the
tiny openings in the leaves. The process is called transpiration.
Seeds cannot germinate without water. Water helps animals in
releasing heat which maintains their body temperatures.
A villager in India uses about 12 litres of water every day. In
-
cities, aperson uses 50 2 ,000 litres of water every day. With
the rising living standards, the requirement of water has also
increased.
Large amounts of water are consumed in agricultural activities.
Many industries such as paper, rayon, petroleum refining, fer ¬
tiliser, dye, drug and chemical industries require large quanti¬
ties of water.

In some countries, people use water to warm their houses. It

is used to keep things cool.A car radiator is filled with water to
keep the engine cool.
Pure water is colourless, odourless, tasteless and transparent.
Small quantities of dissolved salts and gases give a pleasant
taste to water. Water from the wells, tube wells and taps have
dissolved substances in it.
The largest amount of water on Earth is in oceans. The oceans
cover more than two-thirds ( 2 / 3) surface area of the Earth. Sea¬
water is salty and cannot be used at home and in agriculture.
 So, we depend upon other sources of water like springs, rivers,
lakes, ponds, wells, rain, snow and underground water. Water
obtained from these sources is not always fit for drinking and
cooking purposes. Many impurities and germs may be present
in it.
Various methods are used to make this impure water fit for
drinking. People in cities get pure water from taps. This impure
water travels a long way to reach the taps. In many cases, water
is first pumped from a source, such as a river or lake, and col¬
lected in a reservoir. Then it goes to the waterworks where it is
cleaned. Here, it is filtered through layers of gravel and sand.
The dirt stays behind in the sand, then water is treated with
some chemicals like chlorine to kill the germs. The clean water
is supplied through main pipes to different parts of the city.
Smaller pipes take the water to each house.
At places where tap water is not available, people draw out
water from rivers, lakes, springs and wells. Water from these
sources should be made fit for use by boiling, filtering and
treating it with some chemicals such as potassium perman¬
ganate.

Water containing large amounts of dissolved salts is called

saline water.

WATER CYCLE IN NATURE

• The sun provides the heat energy to the water in oceans, ponds,
lakes and rivers leading to its evaporation into the air continu-
 ously. The radiating heat warms up the air closer to the surface
of the Earth. This makes the warm air lighter. Therefore the air
containing watervapour rises. Temperature decreases with in ¬
creasing height inthe atmosphere.
• Minute water droplets are formed when the water vapour cools
at higher altitudes. These water droplets form clouds. Minute
water droplets form drops of water which may fall as precipi¬
tation. Water droplets freeze into snow particles when the air
cools further. These particles join together to form snowflakes
which falls as snow in colder regions.
• At some places during winter, snow falls. When it melts, water
flows into streams and rivers. Many of these rivers fall into the
ocean. Most of the water falling in the form of rain also reaches
the sea through streams and rivers.
• A part of the rainwater evaporates. A part of it is absorbed by
the soil and goes underground. Water on the land is utilised by
living things, including human beings, which also comes back
to nature through various life processes. The water cycle occurs
in nature all the time.

HARD AND SOFT WATER

• When water does not form lather with soap easily due to
presence of some types of salts dissolved in it, it is called hard
water. Water which forms good lather with soap easily is called
soft water.
• The presence of calcium chloride and magnesium chloride in
water makes it hard.
• The hardness of water can be removed by boiling it or treating
it with chemicals such as washing soda.
Note: Hard water is suitable for drinking but not for washing
clothes because dirt cannot be removed easily in it.
 Chapter

General Science & Technology

Class VII 2

1. States of Matter

We see a variety of objects around us. Generally, all objects are

classified into three categories:
(i) Solids (stone, wood, iron, etc.)

(ii) Liquids ( water, oil, milk, etc.)

(iii) Gases (oxygen, air, vapour, etc.)

Water can exist in all the three forms - solid, liquid, gas.

Solids and liquids have surfaces but gases do not have surfaces.

Liquids need a container to keep it; otherwise, they tend to flow.

On the other hand, solids can be heaped anywhere.

All matters is made up of tiny particles called molecules. Mole¬

cules are constantly moving about. The higher the temperature,
the greater is their motion. Also, when two molecules come
closer they tend to stick together because there is a weak force of
attraction between them.
• The movement of molecules in solids, liquids and gases has
been described:
Solids: In a solid, the intermolecular forces are so strong that mole¬
cules cannot slip away. They are kept together in order and are not
allowed to move much.
This makes it clear why solids melt on heating and liquids turn
into gases when heated. Also, when a gas is cooled, its molecules
slow down and eventually condense into a liquid.
Liquids: In a liquid, the molecular motions are not enough to over¬
come the force of attraction between the molecules. This is why,
the molecules tend to stay together and have a condensed form.
However, these forces are not strong enough to prevent the liquid
from flowing.
Gases: In a gas, molecules are moving fast. They overcome the
molecular force of attraction and move in all directions. This is
why, a gas keeps expanding until it fills all the space available.

2. Elements , Compounds and Mixtures

Matter canbe classified into elements, compounds and mix ¬

tures. These, in turn, are made of small particles such as mole¬

cules and atoms.
Elements: When a substance is made of only one kind of atoms,
it is called an element. For example, copper, gold, silver, iron,
are all elements. Similarly, oxygen is a gaseous element made
of oxygen molecules and each oxygen molecule is made of two
oxygen atoms. Hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine are other examples
of gaseous elements.
Compounds: When two or more atoms combine in a fixed ratio,
they produce compounds. They can be broken down into the
elements from which they are made. Water is an example of a
 compound. Each water molecule is made of two atoms of hydro¬
gen and one atom of oxygen. Thus on analysing water, we find
two different types of atoms, those of hydrogen and oxygen.
Sugar is yet another example of a compound. A molecule of
sugar is made of 12 atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen and
11 atoms of oxygen. Each compound contains its constituent
elements in a fixed proportion.
Note: Properties of a compound are different from the proper ¬
ties of its constituent elements. For example, hydrogen burns,
oxygen supports burning and both are gases but water is a liq¬
uid and it puts off fire.
• Mixtures: Many substances we come across in our daily lives
are neither pure elements nor compounds; they are mixtures.
A mixture could contain several elements and compounds. For
example, air is a mixture of several gases. It contains elements
such as nitrogen, oxygen and compounds such as carbon diox¬
ide and water vapour. It also contains some other gases and dust
particles.

SYMBOLS AND FORMULAE

Till date, more than a hundred chemical elements are known to

man. All the matter in the entire universe is made from them.
These elements include metals like zinc, copper, silver, gold,
iron, sodium, potassium others, and non-metals like carbon,
silicon, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and iodine. Most
of them occur on the Earth in various amounts. Ninety per cent
by mass of the Earth’s crust is composed of only five elements -
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron and calcium.
• When referring to these elements and their many compounds,
it would be very inconvenient to use their full names all the
time. Thus scientists use symbols and groups of symbols as
 ‘chemical shorthand’ to represent elements, compounds and
chemical reactions conveniently and accurately.
• Each element is symbolised by a single letter or two letters of
the English alphabet. In most cases, the first letter of the name
of an element is taken as a symbol and is written in capitals. For
example, H stands for hydrogen, S for sulphur, O for oxygen and
C for carbon.

• In some cases, two or more elements have names beginning

with the same letter. To avoid confusion, more letters from an
element’s name are added to its symbol. For example, Cl is used
for chlorine, Ca for calcium, Co for cobalt, Cr for chromium. In
such symbols, only the first letter is written in capitals.
• Symbols of some elements have been derived from their Latin
names.
For example:

Element Latin Name Symbol

Sodium Natrium Na
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag

The molecules of an element or of a compound can be denoted

by a group of atomic symbols. This grouping is known as the
chemical formula of the molecule. For example, oxygen exists in
groups of two atoms called molecules. The number of atoms in a
single molecule of an element is known as atomicity.

Molecules of Some Common Elements

Element Formula Atomicity
Hydrogen H2 2
 Oxygen O2 2
Sulphur S8 8
Phosphorus P4 4
Nitrogen N2 2

• The molecules of a compound consist of the atoms of its

constituting elements in a definite proportion. This means the
composition of a compound is fixed. The atoms are present in
a molecule of a compound in whole numbers. For example, one
atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine makes one molecule
of hydrogen chloride. So, a molecule of hydrogen chloride canbe
represented as HjClj or HC1. The number of atoms present in a
molecule is represented as a subscript written after the symbol
of an element.
Note: Usually one (1) is not written in subscript, since it is
obvious. For example, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen make one molecule of water. Thus, a molecule of water
can be represented as H 2Ot or H 2Q.

.
Foimul it of Some Common Compounds

Compound Formula Constituting Number of Atoms of

Clements Each Element C ombinlng
Together to Form One Molecule
of the C ompound
(1) Carbon cos Carbon (C). 1
dioxide Oxygen (O) 2
(2) Sugar Carbon (C), 12
Hydrogen (H). 22
Oxygen (O) 11
(3) Ammonia NHj Nitrogen (N), 1
Hydrogen (H) 3
(4) Sulphuric H,SO, Hydrogen (H), 2
acid .
Sulphur (S) 1
Oxygen (O) 4
(5) Nitric acid HNOj Hydrogen (H) 1
Nitrogen (N) 1
Oxygen (O) 3

• To represent a certain number of atoms or molecules of a given

element or a compound, the appropriate way is
 2 HC1 -> Denotes two molecules of hydrogen chloride
2 C> 2 -» Denotes two molecules of oxygen
When iron (Fe) and sulphur (S) are heated, they combine to
form a new substance called iron sulphide (FeS). It is an exam ¬
ple of a chemical reaction and can be represented by chemical
equations:

Iron + Sulphur » Iron Sulphide

w <s> *«S)
(

Note: Substances taking part in a chemical reaction are called re¬

actants. In the above reaction, iron and sulphur are reactants. The
reactants are placed on the left side of a chemical equation. The
chemicals formed in a reaction are known as products, i.e., iron
sulphide is the product in the above reaction. Products are placed
on the right side of a chemical equation.
• A chemical equation is balanced so that the total number of
atoms of each element is identical on both sides. The balancing
of an equation represents the fact that atoms are neither cre¬
ated nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. They are only
rearranged.

3. Heat Energy

• Energy is the ability to do work. When an object has the ability

to do work, it is said that it has energy.
• Heat is a form of energy and has the ability to do work.
• Heat energy can also be converted to other forms. For example:

When charcoal (coal ofwood) is burnt, it emits light. In this

way, heat energy produces light.
The heat energy in a firecracker produces both sound and
light.
 In a hot air balloon, the hot gases are lighter than the
surrounding air. They rise and are capable of lifting heavy
masses. Here heat energy is used to produce mechanical
energy.
A steam engine converts heat energy into mechanical en ¬

ergy and powers the train.

• Other forms of energy can also be converted to heat energy. For
example,
The heat (heat energy) produced from the mechanical en¬
ergy by rubbing palms vigorously against each other canbe
felt easily.
When a candle burns in air, chemical energy is converted
into heat energy.
In an electric bulb, electrical energy is converted into light
and heat.

EFFECTS OF HEAT

• When an object is heated, many changes take place. For

example,
The object may expand in size.
It may change its state (ice changes into water on heating).

Heat can also speed up chemical reactions.

Heat can even kill.

In fact, we boil milk and drinking water to kill harmful bac¬

teria. So, heat may kill germs.

HOTNESS AND TEMPERATURE

• The hotness or coldness of an object can be measured from the

temperature of that object, i.e., the degree of hotness of an object
is called its temperature.
• We can compare the temperature of two objects and decide
which is higher by using our sense of touch. But we do this only
if their heat is bearable to us.
• Even if the heat of the two objects is bearable, touching them
might not give a very reliable estimate of their temperatures.
Similarly, we cannot rely on our sense of touch to measure the
temperature of a sick man.

AMOUNT OF HEAT

• We can measure the amount of heat from the change in temper¬

ature that it produces in an object.
• The unit of heat is called Celsius.
• One calorie is the amount of heat that can raise the temperature
of 1 gram of water by 1°C. This means that when a calorie of
heat is supplied to 1 gram of water, its temperature will rise by
1°C.

• Sometimes, we also use kilocalorie to measure the amount of

heat. One kilocalorie is equal to 1000 calories. That is, 1 kilocalo¬
rie can raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1° C.

• The energy content of food is measured in kilocalories.

• The modern and generally accepted unit of heat energy is no
longer calorie, but thejoule. The joule is accepted internation¬
ally and is abbreviated as ‘J’-
Note : One calorie is equal to 4.184 joules.

MELTING POINT

• Substances exist in three forms or states - solid, liquid and gas.

When a solid substance like ice or wax is heated, it melts and
becomes liquid. This change of state occurs at a definite temper-
 ature. For example, ice melts attemperatures above 0°C and wax
melts at about 63°C.
• The temperature at which a substance changes its state from
solid to liquid is called its melting point.

BOILING POINT

• The temperature at which a substance changes its state from

liquid to gas is called its boiling point.

4. Transfer of Heat

When hot objects are kept away from a source of heat, they
cool down. For example, when milk is removed from a burning
stove, it starts cooling down. This is because the hot milk re¬
leases part of its heat energy to the surrounding air and cools
down. The surrounding air absorbs the heat from it and heats
up. Of course, the increase in temperature of the air is so less
that it can hardly be detected. But, if we dip a spoon in the milk,
we can quickly detect the rise in the temperature of the spoon.
This is called transfer of heat.
Heat from a hot body is transferred to a cold body in three differ¬
ent ways: (i) conduction (ii) convection (iii) radiation
(i) Conduction: In a solid, the molecules are closely packed.
When one end of the solid is heated, the molecules at that
end absorb the heat energy and begin to vibrate rapidly.
They, in turn, cause their neighbouring molecules to vi¬
brate. This process continues along the rod and energy is
transferred from the hotter part to the colder part. Such a
transfer of energy between different parts of an object or
from one object to another in contact, is called conduction.
There are two important conditions for heat to be con-
 ducted from one object to another. These are:
(a) The two objects should be in contact
(b) Their temperatures should be different
When we place the spoon in hot milk, all these conditions
are satisfied.
Note: Heat flows only from a hotter object to a colder one.
(ii) Convection: The process of hotterfluid moving and trans¬
ferring heat to the colder surroundings is called convection.
For example, on heating water in a container, water at the
bottom gets heated first. This warm water, being lighter
than the surrounding cool water, rises and the colder water
moves down, gets heated and rises again. This process
continues until all the water in the container is heated. The
heat is transferred from the hot water at the bottom of the
container to the cooler at the top by the actual movement
of the water molecules. This is called convection.
(iii) Radiation: This mode of transfer of heat does not need
any medium between the two bodies. The hot body emits
heat rays to its surroundings just as a bulb or a candle emits
lights rays. Therefore, this method of heat transfer is called
radiation. We receive heat from the sun by radiation. The
sun radiates heat rays in all directions which travel all the
way to all the planets in the solar system.
The amount of heat absorbedby abody depends on the dis¬
tance between it and the source ofthe radiation. The farther
the two are, the smaller the amount of heat is transferred.
The planets farther away from the sun receive less heat
radiation from the sun than the Earth does. They are colder
than the Earth.
Note : Besides distance, the colour of the body also affects
the amount of heat that a body can absorb by radiation. For
 example, black colour absorbs and emits radiation better
than the other colours.

5 . Light and Shadows

LIGHT

• Light is needed to see things. We may have eyesight, but we

cannot see anything without light. We need a source of light to
make objects visible to us.

SOURCE OF LIGHT

• An object that gives out light is called a source of light. These

sources of light can be categorised in two ways:
(i) Natural sources of light: Sun, moon, stars, glow-worms
are some examples of natural sources of light.
(ii) Artifical sources of light: Candle, oil lamp, gas lamp, torch,
electric bulb are some examples of artificial sources of light.

• Some light sources are brighter than the others. For example, a
candle is brighter than a firefly.
• The modern internationally accepted unit of brightness of a
source is lumen (1 watt is equal to about 700 lumen).
• Light from a source such as a candle or an electric bulb or the
sun spreads in all directions. It gets dimmer as we move away
from it. The brightness on given surface is measured in units of
‘lumen per unit area’.
• Sources of light can be categorised as hot and cold sources also.
For example, an electric bulb is a hot source while a tubelight
is a cold source of light. The reason for this difference is the
method by which light is produced by them. For example, the
electric bulb has a wire inside it called the filament. Unless the
 filament is heated to a high temperature, it will not glow. The
filament is heated by passing an electric current through it. A
hot filament which glows is said to be incandescent. A tubelight
does not use a filament but a different mechanism to glow.
Hence, it is a cold source.

• The only objects inthe sky whichare natural sources of light are
the sun and the stars. The moon is only a cold non-luminous
mirror for the sun’s light. It is a reflector of the sun’s light.

HOW LIGHT TRAVELS

Light travels in a straight line. To find out how light travels, let
us perform an activity. Take a lit candle and place it on a table.
Take a rubber tube and look through it at the flame. First, stretch
the tube straight and look. The flame canbe seen. Now bend the
tube and look through. The flame is not visible. This implies
that light always travels in a straight line.

SHADOWS

• Some materials allow light to pass through them completely,

some allow only partial light to pass through them and some do
not allow the passage of light at all. Based on this, materials are
categorised in three ways:
(i) Transparent materials
(ii) Translucent materials
(iii) Opaque materials
(i) Transparent materials: Those materials that allow light
to pass through them are called transparent materials. For
example, we can look at a lit candle through a clear glass
or some kinds of plastic sheets. These allow light to pass
through them.
 (ii) Translucent materials: Those materials that allow light
to pass through them only partially are called translucent
materials. For example, we can see some dim light when
we look at the candle through a sheet of butter paper. This
sheet of butter paper allows only partial passage of light
through it.
(iii) Opaque materials: Those materials that do not allow
light to pass through them are called opaque materials. For
example, if a notebook is placed between our eyes and a
candle flame, we will not be able to see even the blur of the
candle. It will stop the light of the candle flame from reach¬
ing our eyes.
• Shadows are produced when light is stopped by objects. An
opaque object casts a dark shadow, a translucent object a weak
one and a transparent object casts no shadow at all.
• Our shadow is very long in the morning when the sun rises.
Then, its length keeps decreasing till noon. Our shadow is the
shortest at noon. Its length again increases in the afternoon and
gets elongated just before sunset.

MAIN CONCLUSION ABOUT SHADOW FORMATION

• The shadow of an object is formed in the direction opposite to

the side of a light source.
• When the source of the light or the object moves, the shadow
also shifts accordingly.
• The length of the shadow formed by sunlight changes with
time. This is because the angle between the source, the object
and the ground changes.

THE ECLIPSES
We see shadows being cast on the ground every day. Similarly,
the Earth, the moon and the planets also cast their shadows in
space. However, we cannot see these shadows unless they fall on
some surface or object.
Sometimes, on a full moon day, the moon passes through the
shadow of the Earth. When this happens, we cannot see the
moon’s disc until it comes out of the Earth's shadow. A lunar
eclipse occurs in this way.
If the entire disc of the moon passes through the shadow, we
observe a total lunar eclipse. If only a part of it is covered by the
shadow, we call it a partial lunar eclipse.
On the new moon day, if the sun, the moon and the Earth are in
a straight line, the shadow of the moon can fall on the Earth. If
we are in this shadow, we will not be able to see that part of the
solar disc, which is covered by the moon. That is what happens
in a solar eclipse.
The eclipses are simply a play of shadows. Knowing the move¬
ments of the sun, the Earth and the moon, we can predict the
time and the date of an eclipse.

We can watch the moon and a lunar eclipse directly with the
naked eye. However we must never watch the sun without pro ¬

tecting our eyes. This is because direct rays of the sun are very
strong, even in a solar eclipse.

6 . Mirrors and Reflection of Light

An object acts in three ways to the light that falls on it. It may
allow the light to pass through, it may completely cut off the
light from passing by absorbing the light, or, the object may
scatter the light incident on it.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Light rays
stopped by
mirror

• The light beam (1) above the mirror consists of unstopped light
rays. Light beam ( 2) defines the length of the shadow. Rays ( 3),
(4), (5) and ( 6) are stopped by the mirror.

• Instead of passing through, the mirror surface bounces light

rays like a smooth wall bounces a ball.
• The light rays falling on a mirror are scattered back. This scat ¬
tering back is called reflection.
• The reflection of light from a smooth and and an uneven surface
is different, as the smooth surface gives a clear image due to
regular reflection. On the other hand, the reflected rays from an
uneven surface are scattered in all directions. This is why a mir¬
ror that has lost its smoothness does not give a clear image.

IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR

• Our image in a plane mirror looks different from us. The left
appears right, and the right appears left in the mirror. This phe¬
nomenon is called ‘lateral inversion’. We, therefore, say that the
image formed by a plane mirror is laterally inverted.
On looking at the image of all the letters from A to Z in a plane
mirror, the images of some letters appear to be the same as the
original letters. H and O are two examples.
• The image formed by a plane mirror is ofthe same size as the ob¬
ject. The image is also erect. It means the top of the object does
not become the bottom part of the image and bottom vice-versa.
• Another feature of the image formed in a plane mirror is that if
we move close to the mirror, our image also moves closer. Sim¬
ilarly, if we move away from the mirror, our image also moves
away. Thus, the distance of the image behind the mirror is equal
to the distance of the object infront of the mirror.
• The image formed of an object by a plane mirror is ‘virtual’. It
means that we cannot obtain the image formed in a mirror on a
screen placed anywhere behind the mirror. An image which can
be obtained on a screen is called ‘real image’.

Plano imago of mirror

Regular Reflection Diffuse Reflection

SPHERICAL MIRRORS

• The plane, convex and concave mirrors act very differently

from each other. We use all three mirrors in our daily life. Plane
mirrors form virtual images. Convex and concave surfaces are
segments of a hollow sphere like a tennis ball. The outside sur ¬
face is convex while the surface facing inside is concave.

• Concave mirrors are used in designing headlights of cars, train

engines, searchlights and even torchlights. On the other hand,
convex mirror is used in rear-view mirrors in cars, scooters,
buses and trucks. A driver looks at rear-view mirror to see the
traffic behind his vehicle.
 7. Sound

• We hear many sounds around us. For example, the sound of

buses and cars running on the street, the chirping of birds on
the trees, the rustling of leaves in the breeze, the sound of rain
falling on the roof and the sound ofthunder in the monsoon.
• In each case, the sound is produced when the object undergoes
a rapid to-and-fro motion. Such motion is called vibration or
oscillation. In some cases, the vibrations are easily visible to our
naked eyes such as the rustling of tree leaves. But in some cases,
they are so small that we feel them with our palms. For example,
we can feel the vibrations of a transistor, radio or television by
placing our hands on the speaker. If we grab the vibrating tree
leaves, their vibrations stop and so does the sound.

VIBRATIONS OR OSCILLATIONS

• A vibration is a repeated to-and-fro motion. This motion is also

called an oscillation.

• The distance an object travels from its central position to an ex¬

treme position is called the amplitude of the oscillation.

' Oscillation of amplitude

-
Mid position of object

• When the object goes from one extreme position ‘B’ to the other
extreme position 'C* and thenback to ‘B’, we say that it completes
 one oscillation. The time taken to complete one oscillation is
called ‘time period’.
• The number of oscillations per second is called frequency ofthe
oscillation. Frequency is measured in hertz. If an object makes
10 oscillations in a second, we say that the frequency is 10 hertz
(10 Hz).

LOUDNESS AND PITCH

Any vibration or oscillation has an amplitude and a frequency.

The amplitude tells us how far the object travels from its central
position. The frequency tells us how fast it repeats its position
oscillatory motion about its central position.
• Sound is produced when objects vibrate. Due to vibrations ofthe
object, the molecules of air close to it also start vibrating with
the same frequency. The motion of these molecules causes the
neighbouring molecules to vibrate similarly and so on. Soon all
the air molecules in the vicinity begin to imitate the vibrating
object and start oscillating. If we place our ear in the vicinity of
vibrating air molecules, we can feel the vibrations as sounds.
• The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of vibration.
When the amplitude of vibrating air molecules is large, we say
that the sound is loud.
• The frequency of vibration gives a sound its shrillness or pitch.
If the frequency of vibration is high, we say that the sound has a
high pitch.
• Our ears cannot hear a sound if its amplitude is too small, i.e.,
they do not respond if the frequency of oscillation is less than
20 hertz nor can they hear this sound if its frequency is greater
than 20,000 hertz.
Sounds of frequency greater than 20,000 hertz are called
ultrasonic sounds - ultra means beyond limit and sonic refers to
sound.
The human voice can produce sounds with a frequency between
60 hertz and 13,000 hertz.

Some animals like dogs, leopards, monkeys and deer can hear
ultrasonic sounds. Some animals can also produce ultrasonic
sounds. The bat, for example, screams at a very high frequency
much beyond the limit of our hearing.
Ears are the sensory organs that aid us in hearing. Sound from
the outside is collected by the outer ear and reaches the eardrum
which is situated in the middle ear. When this sound strikes the
eardrum, it vibrates to-and-fro. This vibration causes a delicate
set ofbones to move. The nerve connected to this region, called
the auditory nerve, picks up this motion as a signal and sends it
to the brain.
Note: Damage to the eardrum can make a person deaf.

Sound needs a medium to be heard. If there is no air between a

vibrating object and our ears, we would not hear any sound at
all. This means a medium is needed for sound to travel. It can
travel through any medium - solids, liquids and gases but not in
vacuum.
Velocity of Sound: Sound takes some time to travel from a
vibrating object to our ears. The speed of sound depends on the
medium through which it travels. For example, in dry air the
velocity of sound is 330 metres per second ( m /s). Its velocity in
water is 1500 m /s.
 Chapter

General Science & Technology

Class X 3

1. Energy

MEANING OF ENERGY

When an object is capable of doing work, we say that it has en ¬

ergy. This means energy is the ability to do work.

HUMAN AND ENERGY

• The most common form of energy humans have used over the
ages and still continue to use is the energy stored in the mus¬
cles of the body. We obtain this energy from the food we eat.
Of course, as we age or fall sick, our ability to do physical work
decreases.
• The external sources of energy used by humans in the 17th cen ¬
tury were:
Fire: Primitive humans had discovered fire and used it for
heat and light.
 Food: The energy that humans obtained from the food we
ate was used to do most of their work.
Animals: Humans domesticated animals and used the en ¬
ergy of their muscles to perform more laborious tasks.
Wind and water: The kinetic energy of wind and flowing
water was also used to do work through windmills and
water wheels like grinding the grain, pottery, mining and
metallurgy.

ACCOUNTING ENERGY

• Whenever we move an object by the application of a force, we

do some work. Work is measured in joules. When a force of one
newton displaces an object by one metre, we say that one joule
of work has been done. That is, all forms of energy are always
measured in joules.

ACCOUNTING POWER

• The rate at which energy is supplied is called power.

Energy Supplied
Power =
Time Taken

• If one joule of energy is supplied in a second, the power of the

source is said to be one watt.

1 J ule
1 Watt = °
I second

• Power was earlier measured in a unit called horse power. One

horse power was roughly equal to 746 watts.

=
1 Horse Power 746 watts

• The kilowatt-hour is used as a commercial unit of energy.

SOLAR HEATING DEVICES

• All solar heating devices are designed to facilitate the collection

of as much solar energy as possible. Solar cooker and solar cell
are chief examples of such kinds of device.

Solar Cooker

• For making a solar cooker, a blackened sheet is placed in an insu¬

lated box and its open face is covered with a glass sheet.
• The glass sheet on the top allows both visible and infrared
components of the sunlight to fall on the blackened sheet. Often
the inner walls of the box are also painted black to maximise ab¬
sorption of heat and to minimise heat loss due to reflection.
• When such a solar heating device is kept in the sun for some
time, its inner surfaces become hot after absorbing solar energy.
As a result, these surfaces start radiating heat in the form of
infrared radiations. However, the glass sheet on the top does not
allow these radiations to go out. Thus, the heat inside the box is
retained in it.

• This type of design is often known as box-type solar cooker.

The temperature inside the cooker can go up to 100°C-140°C in
2-3 hours. This solar cooker can be used to prepare food items,
which require slow heating. These cookers are generally not
used for baking and frying.

• One major drawback of all solar energy heating devices has

been that they must be adjusted every half -an-hour or so to
keep them facing the Sim. This is an essential requirement to
optimise collection of solar energy. These days, special arrange¬
ments are made to ensure that the device keeps on rotating so
that it always faces the sun.
• To meet growing energy demands, India became the first
country in the world to start production of solar cookers on
a commercial scale in 1962. The Department ofNon-Conven-
tional Energy Sources (DNES) of the Government of India and
similar departments at the state level are making all efforts to
popularise the use of solar cookers. Solar water heaters on the
rooftops of hotels, hospitals and industrial complexes are now
a common sight. Many solar energy parks are being planned to
harness solar energy on a commercial scale.

Solar Cells

• A solar cell is a device which directly converts solar energy into

electricity.
• For making a solar cell, a wafer of selenium is placed in sunlight
and it produces electricity. Since the efficiency of such a solar
cell was very low, no significant efforts were made to utilise this
phenomenon for producing electricity.
These days, solar cells are usually made from semiconductor
materials like silicon and gallium. To obtain a much higher
power, a large number of solar cells are arranged in a special
order in a solar cell panel. The use of such solar cells has been
found very effective in remote and isolated locations.
• All artificial satellites and space probes mainly depend on elec¬
tricity generated by solar panels.
• In India, the use of solar cells for lighting, operating water
pumps, radio and TV receivers has been demonstrated. Besides,
they have also been used to provide electric power to light
houses and offshore oil drilling platforms.

WIND ENERGY
• The wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the move¬
ment of large masses of air.
• For centuries, wind energy has been utilised to power sailboats
and windmills. Even modem aeroplanes utilise wind energy
to manipulate their upward and downward motions. However
with the harnessing of more efficient, convenient and economi¬
cal energy sources like electricity and fossil fuels, windmills are
gradually losing their importance.
• Once again, harnessing wind energy on a large scale is being
considered by the world to meet the growing energy demands
and to conserve the non-renewable fossil fuels like petroleum
and coal.
• A windmill works on a very simple principle. When the blowing
wind strikes across the blades of a windmill, it exerts force that
rotates its blades. The rotational effect is due to a special design
of the blades like those of an electric fan. The rotating fan blows
air while the blowing air rotates the blades of the windmill.
• The following regions of India have been found to be high wind
energy locations - Gujarat, parts of Rajasthan, western Madhya
Pradesh, coastal belts, southern Tamil Nadu, Bay of Bengal, the
Arabian Sea Islands and parts of Karnataka.

HYDROELECTRICITY

• A more efficient and convenient way of utilising hydro energy

is to convert it into electrical energy. The water flowing in a
river is collected with the help of a dam. The potential energy
of stored water is then converted into kinetic energy water by
allowing it to fall through pipes from the top of the dam to hy¬
droelectric generators.
• The flowing water rotates a turbine which, in turn, rotates the
armature of a generator to produce electricity.
• Though the electricity generationby hydroelectric power is non¬
polluting and water is a renewable source of energy, numerous
environmental problems are associated with them. Construc¬
tion of dams results in a variety of ecological changes in the
downstream region of the river on which it is constructed. A
vast variety of flora and fauna and even human settlements get
submerged by a dam.
• The decision for hydroelectricity generation through high-rise
dams, therefore, requires careful consideration of its impact on
the environment and social life.

ENERGY FROM THE OCEANS

• The oceans cover almost 70.4 per cent of the Earth. The energy
from the oceans is available in many forms as:
• There is always a temperature difference between water at the
surface and at deeper levels of oceans. This difference in many
places is of the order of 20°C. This form of energy is known as
ocean thermal energy (OTE) which can be converted into usable
forms of energy like electricity.
• Another form in which ocean energy manifests itself is the
energy associated with its waves. These waves are up by the
wind and the shorelines continuously. Besides, tidal waves keep
billions of litres of water in movement as they build up and re¬
cede twice a day.
The difference in the concentration of salt, where water from
two different seas meet can also be utilised to obtain energy in
usable form.
• Sea vegetation or biomass is another indirect source of energy.

• The vast seaweed plantation may provide an endless supply of

methane fuel in the future.
 Oceans are also a source of deuterium or the heavy hydrogen
atom. Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen which has one
proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Efforts are going on to
achieve controlled fusion of deuterium. Success in these efforts
may convert the sea into a source which could supply energy for
our present demands for a billion years.

2. Fuels

• Substances that produce heat on combustion are called fuels.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF FUEL

There are different forms of fuels:

• Biomass fuel: The material contained in the bodies of plants
and animals is called biomass. When organisms die, their
biomass can be used as fuel for domestic purposes.
• Agricultural waste: Bagasse (sugarcane from which juice has
been extracted) is sometimes burned in industrial boilers.
• Wood: We burn wood in traditional chulhas.
• Dung cakes: Animal dung in the form of dried cakes is also
burned in many parts of the country for domestic purposes.
• Biogas: It is unadvisable to burn dung cakes directly because
animal dung contains vital nutrients which should be returned
to the soil. As dung cakes burn inefficiently and produce a lot of
smoke, their utilisation as fuel leads to a considerable wastage
of useful elements and causes air pollution. Instead, animal
dung should be converted into biogas, which is a cleaner fuel.
The residue, which is rich in nutrients, can then be used as ma ¬

nure.
Animal and plant wastes are easily degraded by anaerobic
microorganisms in the presence of water. In this process, gases
such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide are pro¬
duced. This mixture of gases is called biogas. It contains about
65 per cent methane, which is an excellent fuel. Biogas canbe
burned in gas stoves to produce heat. It can also be used for
street lighting and for running engines.
Fossil fuels: Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years by the
burial of plant and animal remains.
The most commonly used fossil fuels are: (i) coal (ii) petroleum
(iii) natural gas
(i) Coal

Coal deposits are the distilled remains of large land plants

which flourished in vast shallow swamps about 300 million
years ago.
In India, coal is mainly found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and West Bengal.
It consists largely of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy¬
gen, and a small amount of sulphur.
It comes in three main varieties - lignite, bituminous and
anthracite.
Coal, when heated in the absence of air, gives coke. Coal tar
and coal gas canbe obtained from coal by a simple process
known as destructive distillation.

Coaltaris amixture ofmany carboncompounds. For about a

hundred years, it was the chief source of important carbon
compounds used in dyes, explosives, paints, synthetic fibre,
drugs and pesticides.
Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon
monoxide. This mixture is an excellent fuel. It was used for
lighting homes, factories and streets.
(ii) Petroleum
 Petroleum is formed by decomposition of microorganisms
and dead organic matter. The dead organic remains sinks to
the bottom and are gradually covered by sand and clay. Over
millions of years, these remains are gradually transformed
into hydrocarbons by heat, pressure and catalytic action.
These hydrocarbons rise through the permeable rock layers.
They form an oil trap when blocked by some impermeable
rock layers.

Petroleum is obtainedby drilling a hole through the imper ¬

vious cap rock.
Petroleumis amixture ofseveral hydrocarbons.
Crude oil is a brown-black liquid.

Petrol and diesel are mainly used in automobiles and

locomotives. Two wheelers, three wheelers and most motor
cars run on petrol. Heavier vehicles such as buses, trucks and
railway engines rim on diesel. Diesel is also used to operate
pumps in the fields and to generate electricity on a small
scale.
(iii) Natural Gas

Natural gas readily burns to produce heat. It is also a rich

source of hydrogen gas which is needed to manufacture
fertilisers. It occurs along with oil. Many oil wells produce
natural gas as a by-product. There are, however, some wells
that produce only natural gas as a by-product.
Natural gas mainly contains methane (CH4). Its great ad¬
vantage is that it can be used directly for burning purposes
in homes and factories.

Other Fuels

• Kerosene: Kerosene is used for domestic purposes like in a

pressure or wick stove to obtain heat, for fighting hurricane or
 petromax lamps for illumination. A special grade of kerosene is
also used as aviation fuel in aeroplane jet engines.
Petroleum gas: It is a mixture of ethane, propane and butane.
Its main constituent is butane, which bums readily, releasing
a lot of heat. Butane is easily liquefied under pressure. It is
supplied in liquid form in cylinders and is commonly known as
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG ).

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

• Fuels are classified in two ways:

Fuels
|
i l
-
Natural l uels
( Raw F'uels)
Processed Fuels
( Manufactured F'ucls)
-- Wood - Coal - Charcoal - Coke
-
Petroleum Natural gas - Kerosene
Petrol - Dieselgas
- - Coal
• Fuels can also be classified in other way:

Fuels
J
r
Primary Fuels
~
l
Secondary' Fuels
Coal, wood and petroleum are Secondary fuels, on the other hand,
used directly to produce heat. arc derived from primary fuels as
These arc called primary fuels. coal gas, producer gas, water gas etc.

COMBUSTION OF FUELS

Combustion means burning. During combustion, an element or a

compound combines with oxygen. It is an exothermic process, i.e.,
heat is given out in this reaction. Oxygen is essential forburning. In
most cases, oxygen is available from the air. In wood-fired chulhas,
gaps are left between the logs for the air to enter and facilitate their
burning.
Harmful effects of over-combustion of fuels

As our energy requirements continue to grow, we are burning

more and more fuels. In doing so, we also add undesirable and
dangerous chemicals to the air. For example, coal contains carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. Carbon, in the presence of enough
oxygen, produces a harmless and non-toxic gas carbon dioxide. An
increased proportion of carbon dioxide in the air could lead to un¬
desirable changes inthe climate. However, if the oxygen supply is
insufficient, carbonburns incompletely to produce the poisonous
gas carbon monoxide. Also, while nitrogen usually escapes as a free
element, sulphur present in the coal forms sulphur dioxide, which
is an extremely suffocating and corrosive gas.

Burning of petroleum

Petroleum-based fuels also lead to air pollution. When gasoline

bums in automobiles, it produces water vapour, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. All these materials
are released from the high temperature of internal combustion
engines. Even nitrogen from the air is oxidised to nitrogen oxides.
Except for carbon dioxide and water vapour, all these components
are harmful.

ATTRIBUTES OF AN IDEAL FUEL

Some attributes of an ideal fuel are:

(i) High calorific value

(ii) Proper ignition temperature

(iii) Moderate rate of combustion

(iv) Low content of non-volatile material

( v) Absence ofpoisonous products oncombustion
 (vi) Ready and plentiful availability
(vii) Low cost
( viii) Ease of storage and transportation.

3. The Sun and Nuclear Energy

The sun is the most direct and bountiful source of energy. It

powers the flow of wind and water cycles on the Earth's surface
and sustains all life.
Plants use this energy to make their food by the process of pho¬
tosynthesis. It is this food that provides sustenance to humans
and other animals on the Earth.
On studying the wavelength of light emitted by the Sun, it was
concluded that it is largely made up of hydrogen. Hydrogen
burns in the presence of oxygen and this process is called com¬
bustion. But combustion could hardly account for the massive
amount of energy that we continue to receive from the sun.
• In 19 3 9 German physicist, Hans Bethe, gave correct explanation
for the massive energy of the sun. He proposed that the sun con¬
tains in its core hydrogen nuclei moving at very great speeds.
Whenever these lighter nuclei fuse to form the nucleus of a
heavier element, a large amount of energy is liberated. It is this
energy which we receive when the Earth faces the sun.
• Every square metre ofthe Earth’s upper atmosphere receives
1.36 kj of energy per second. However, all of this energy does
not reach the surface of the Earth. Some of the light energy is re¬
flected into space and some is absorbed by watervapour, ozone,
dust and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. In fact, only
47 per cent of the energy that strikes the Earth’s atmosphere
reaches its surface and is absorbed.
To understand the source of the sun’s energy, we must under¬
stand the structure of atom. The atom consists of a positively
charged heavy nucleus.
The nucleus consists ofpositively charged protons and neutrally
charged neutrons negatively charged light electrons revolving
around the nucleus. The mass of one proton is approximately
equal to the mass of 1,836 electrons.
Although two atoms of an element always have the same num¬
ber of protons, they can have different numbers of neutrons
in their nucleus. For example, an atom of an element uranium
always has 92 protons in its nucleus and 92 electrons orbiting
around it. However, not all uranium atoms have the same num ¬
ber of neutrons in the nucleus. Some uranium atoms have 146
neutrons, while others have 143 neutrons. These two forms of
uranium are called isotopes of uranium.
Each isotope is designated by the total number of protons and
neutrons ( nucleons) in its nucleus. This number (number of
protons + number of neutrons) is called the mass number ( Z) of
the atom. Thus, a uranium atom with 146 neutrons is desig¬
nated as U-238 ( 238 = 92 + 146), while a uranium atom with
143 neutrons is designated as U-235 (235 = 92 + 143).
The chemical symbol for uranium is U.
Most of the uranium found on the Earth is of the kind-U-2 38.
The percentage of uranium U-235 is only about 0.7.
When two protons moving at high speeds collide, one of the
colliding protons transforms into a neutron generating two
new particles additionally. One of these particles is positively
charged with the mass similar to that of an electron. It is called
positron. The other particle does not have charge. It is called
neutron. These nuclear reactions occur inside the sun liberating
a huge amount of energy. Nuclei of deuterium, which is the
heavier isotope of hydrogen, collide inside the sun to produce
helium. This is the source of energy liberated in the sun, which
in turn, emits lights of different wavelengths.
This is called fusion reaction where hydrogen inthe sun is
converted into helium, accompanied withthe release of energy.
For fusion of hydrogen to occur, the nuclei must collide at very
high speeds. Such speed can be attained when the temperature
is quite high (about 4,000,000 °C). Scientists are trying to create
such high temperatures in laboratories to induce fusion reac¬
tions that occur in the sun.
The naturally occurring element uranium is found in two
forms, i.e., the isotopes U-238 andU-235. Both have same
number of protons in their nuclei but not the same number of
neutrons. The number of neutrons in U-235 is 143 and in U-238
is 146. The rarer of these two isotopes, U-235 has a very peculiar
property. The nucleus of this variety is highly unstable. Even a
slow, stray neutron colliding with it can rupture it completely.
An extra neutron entering such a highly unstable nucleus can
completely upset the delicate balance between the electrostatic
and the nuclear forces in it. The nucleus of the U-2 35 atom then
splits into smaller fragments, releasing huge amounts of energy
in the process. The fragments flying apart in this explosion are
mainly bunches of protons and neutrons which are, in fact,
nuclei of smaller atoms. The bursting nucleus also emits two or
three loose neutrons as well as light of a very small wavelength.
The wavelength of this radiation is about a thousand times
smaller than the wavelength of red light. This is often referred
to as X-rays and the entire process is called nuclear fission which
means to break apart.
The energy released in nuclear disintegrations is used to heat
water, which then turns turbines and generates electricity, i.e.,
 the heat energy generated is converted to electricity. The appa ¬
ratus where this reaction takes place is called a nuclear reactor.
• The fuel used in the reactor is uranium. Since, naturally occur¬
ring uranium has very little U-2 35, it must be first processed
to increase the percentage of fissionable U-2 3 5. This process is
called enrichment.
• Three per cent of the energy produced in India is obtained from
nuclear reactors situated at various sites across the country. In¬
dia’s uranium comes chiefly from the Jaduguda mines in Bihar.
It is processed and fuel elements are fabricated at the Nuclear
Fuels complex at Hyderabad. This enriched fuel is then sent to
various reactors at Tarapur in Maharashtra, Kota in Rajasthan,
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu and Narora in Uttar Pradesh.
Nuclear energy production is also associated with release of
radioactive substances in the environment. These need to be
stringently controlledbecause some ofthese nuclear radiations
are highly penetrating. If the humanbody is exposed to them in
large concentrations, irreparable damage can be caused to the
body cells.
• To prevent leakage of these dangerous and toxic radiations, the
nuclear reactor is covered with a thick coat of radiation absorb¬
ing materials. However, a minor fault in the design of reactors
or a natural calamity striking a perfectly designed reactor could
result in the release ofthese radiations into the environment.
• The world has already witnessed major accidents in reactors, as
in the United States at the nuclear power plant on Three Mile Is ¬
land and the one Chernobyl in Russia, and one in the Fukushima
reactor of Japan. The devastation caused by the release of radia ¬

tion in these accidents is yet to be assessed correctly.

• Apart from the dangers arising from a possible accident at the

reactor site, there is, of course, the additional danger of harmful
 waste matter produced at various steps of the nuclear cycle,
which includes mining, enrichment ofthe area and, of course,
the nuclear reaction inside the reactor. These generate a number
of substances capable of emitting nuclear radiations. These sub ¬

stances are collectively termed as nuclear wastes. Though envi¬

ronmentally safe practices are followed for disposal of nuclear
wastes, more accepted solutions are desirable for their disposal
from a long-term point of view.
• We urgently need to accelerate research and development
programmes aimed at devising economical and reliable means
of safeguarding the biosphere from fuel wastes. Meanwhile, we
must choose lifestyles and a social ethos, which would actively
discourage wasteful use of energy, conserve scarce resources
such as wood and kerosene, and promote maximum utilisation
of renewable and non-polluting sources of energy, notably solar
energy and energy is locked in biomass wastes.

4. Nutrition

• We need food to live, that is to carry on with our life processes.

Food provides energy, helps in repairing damaged parts of cells
and tissues, and makes materials necessary for growth and
reproduction.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY

• To be healthy and energetic, we need to consume nutritious

food. Our food should be such that it takes care of our daily en¬
ergy needs.
• The requirement for energy varies with age and occupation.
Growing children need more energy; so do pregnant women
 and nursing mothers. Other examples related to energy require¬
ments are as follows:

Age Group Requirement (kilojoules) Energy

5 years 6 ,000
11 years 9.000
18 years 11.000
Adult 9,600
Adult (heavy work ) 12,000
Adult (very heavy work) 16,000

BALANCED DIET

• The major components of food are carbohydrates, proteins,

fats, vitamins and minerals. These are called nutrients. Besides
these, water is an important constituent of our food, and makes
up for two-thirds of our body weight.
• A diet is balanced if it contains all the above mentions nutrients
in proportionate.

5 . Space Exploration

SPACE SCIENCE IN WORLD

• The term outer space or space now usually refers to the vast
limitless expanse that exists beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.

• Space contains all the stars, planets, gases and dust particles,
meteorites, comets, asteroids and radiations.
• The first step into space was taken on 4 October 195 7by the
erstwhile Soviet Union (USSR), which successfully launched the
first satellite named ‘Sputnik 1’ into space.
Satellite, in general, refers to a celestial body that revolves
around a planet. The moon, for example, is a natural satellite of
the planet Earth. These days, however, the term satellite is used
for man-made satellites which revolve around the Earth.

The closed path of a satellite around the Earth is called its orbit.
It may be circular or elliptical in shape.
The characteristics which define an orbit are apogee, perigee
and inclination. Apogee is the farthest and perigee is the nearest
point on the orbit of a satellite from the Earth. The inclination
of an orbit is determined by the angle it makes with the equator.
The USA followed the erstwhile Soviet Union and launched
their first spacecraft a few months later. It was named Explorer.
Since then, space technology has made rapid progress. Not only
have the satellites or other space probes called ‘payloads’ grown
many times in size and weight but their functions also have be ¬

come more and more complex and demanding.

Within a few weeks of launching Sputnik I, the erstwhile USSR
launched Sputnik II, which had the distinction of carrying a
dog named Laika for the first time into space. The weight ofthe
satellite was 500 kg. The blood pressure, temperature and
heartbeat of Laika were monitored from Earth for eight days,
following which she was allowed to die peacefully as there was
no possibility of bringing her back.
Sputnik II was successful in sending important data, which
provided vital information and paved the way for sending the
first human into outer space.
The erstwhile Soviet Union sent the first human into space. Yuri
Gagarin completed a single orbit around the Earth on 12 April
1961. The USA followed the event on 5 May 1961, when Alan
Shepard became the first American to go into space.
• The main purpose of developing space technology included
communication, resource, survey, meteorological studies, scien¬
tific experiments and most importantly, collecting information
for military purposes, i.e., for spying.

• The significant development in space science during the Eight ¬

ies was the establishment of permanent space stations and the
development of space shuttles (used to carry astronauts into
space), establishing a permanent observatory in space and the
maiden flight of Voyager II, which passed very close to all plan¬
ets of the solar system and sent their pictures to the earth.
• In April 1992, another remarkable achievement was to carry out
repair of a satellite in space by a team of American astronauts.
Later, the repaired satellite was placed back in its original orbit.

Space Science in India

• The foundation of space research in India was laid in 1961.

During that period, the task of developing a programme on
space research was entrusted by the Government of India to its
Department of Atomic Energy. A national committee set up by
the Department of Atomic Energy identified two major objec¬
tives for the space research programme. These objectives were:
(i) Rapid development of mass communication and educa ¬
tion, especially in widely dispersed rural communities
(ii) Timely survey and management ofthe country’s natural
resources
• In 1972, a space commission was set up to boost the technologi¬
cal efforts. A separate Department of Space was established.
• The Department of Space executes its space activities through
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
The task assigned to ISRO involved development of the know¬
how to fabricate the rocket, its propellants, its control and guid¬
ance systems, and to design and fabricate satellites.
In India, a beginning in exploration of outer space was made
even before the Department of Space came into existence. The
first Indian rocket RH-75 was launched in 1967 from Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) near Thiruvanan-
thapuram.
The historic event of launching of an Indian satellite on an
Indian launch vehicle took place on 10 July 1992. The launch
vehicle was a 23-metre tall, five-stage, solid-fuel rocketASLV-D 3,
a modified version of ASLV.
India entered the Space Age on 19 April 1975, when the first
satellite was designed and fabricated in India and launched
from the erstwhile Soviet Union. The satellite was named
Aryabhata after the famous Indian mathematician. It was
purely experimental in nature. The satellite enabled Indian
scientists to develop the skills and facilities for fabricating satel¬
lites and monitoring their performance in orbit.
Aryabhata also provided an opportunity to conduct some
experiments in the field of X-ray astronomy, solar physics and
meteorology.
Bhaskara-I was the second Indian satellite that was launched on
7 June 1979 from the erstwhile Soviet Union. It was essentially
intended to develop expertise in collecting data on natural re¬
sources through remote sensing techniques. Ground water sur ¬
veys, forestry and geological surveys were conducted through
this satellite by collecting valuable data until March 1981.

Bhaskara-II, launched from the erstwhile Soviet Union on 20

November 1981 functioned successfully for over two years.
The success of the Bhaskara series of satellites provided our
scientists the necessary competence and confidence to design
and fabricate the first fully operational remote sensing satellite.
The first Indian Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1A was launched
on 17 March 1988, while IRS-IB was successfully put into orbit
on 29 August 1991. Both these satellites were launched from
the erstwhile USSR.
To gain experience in using the satellites for communication, a
third type of experimental satellite was fabricated by Indian sci¬
entists. This was namedAPPLE satellite. APPLE is abbreviation
for Ariane Passenger Pay Load Experiment. The satellite was
launched on 19 June 1981 with the help of the European Space
Agency from the Kourou launching facility in French Guyana
(South America). This was the first Indian satellite put up in a
geostationary orbit.
The first operational satellite intended to be used on a com¬
mercial basis was conceived in 1977. This programme was
named Indian National Satellite System (INSAT). The satellite
was expected to carry out three independent tasks, namely (i)
communication (ii) television and radio broadcasting (iii) mete¬
orological observation. The construction, testing and launching
of the satellite was entrusted to the Ford Aerospace Corporation
of the USA.