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Optical Networks
Series Editor: Biswanath Mukherjee

Hemani Kaushal
V.K. Jain
Subrat Kar

Free Space
Optical
Communication
Optical Networks

Series editor
Biswanath Mukherjee, Davis, California, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6976
Hemani Kaushal • V.K. Jain • Subrat Kar

Free Space Optical

Communication

123
Hemani Kaushal V.K. Jain
Electronics and Communication Electrical Engineering
The NorthCap University Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Gurgaon, Haryana, India New Delhi, India

Subrat Kar
Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
New Delhi, India

ISSN 1935-3839 ISSN 1935-3847 (electronic)

Optical Networks
ISBN 978-81-322-3689-4 ISBN 978-81-322-3691-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-3691-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016963412

© Springer (India) Pvt. Ltd. 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company address is: 7th Floor, Vijaya Building, 17 Barakhamba Road, New Delhi
110 001, India
Thanks to our families for their affection and
endless support!!
Preface

In recent years, the technology of optical communication has gained importance

due to high bandwidth and data rate requirements. This book focuses on free-space
optical (FSO) communication that is capable of providing cable-free communica-
tion at very high data rates (up to Gbps). Unlike radio frequency communication
that has restricted bandwidth due to its limited spectrum availability and interfer-
ence, FSO communication has license-free spectrum as of now. This technology
finds its application in terrestrial links, deep space/inter-satellite links, unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs), high-altitude platforms (HAPs), and uplink and downlink
between space platform, aircrafts, and other ground- based fixed/mobile terminals.
It provides good privacy with flexible interconnection through a distributed or
centralized communication system. It is a growing area of research these days due to
its low power and mass requirement, bandwidth scalability, unregulated spectrum,
rapid speed of deployment/redeployment, and cost-effectiveness. However, despite
many advantages, the performance of FSO communication system is influenced
by unpredictable atmospheric conditions, and this undoubtedly poses a great
challenge to FSO system designers. The primary factors that deteriorate the FSO
link performance are absorption, scattering, and turbulence. Out of these, the
atmospheric turbulence is a major challenge that may lead to serious degradation
in the link performance and make the communication link infeasible. This book
gives the basic understanding of FSO communication system and lays emphasis on
improving the performance of FSO link in turbulent atmosphere.
The purpose of this book is to cover the basic concepts of FSO communication
system and provide the readers with sufficient in-depth knowledge to design
a wireless optical link. The intended readers for this book include engineers,
designers, or researches who are interested in understanding the phenomena of laser
beam propagation through the atmosphere. This book primarily focuses on outdoor
wireless communication, though a little briefing on indoor wireless communication
is given in the introductory chapter. Although this book is based on the doctoral
work of the first author, it has been completely rewritten and expanded to cover
basic concepts of FSO communication system from readers’ point of view.

vii
viii Preface

This book has been organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides an
overview of FSO technology with historical background and its various applications.
Chapter 2 gives a comprehensive coverage of FSO channel models and various
atmospheric losses encountered during beam propagation through the atmosphere
including free-space loss, pointing loss, absorption, and scattering loss. This is
followed by the description of atmospheric turbulence and its effects on the laser
communication, i.e., beam wander, beam spreading, beam scintillation, spatial
coherence degradation, and image dancing. Various models for the atmospheric
turbulent channel are presented. Chapter 3 discusses various components of FSO
communication system. It provides description of optical transmitter, amplifiers,
and receiver. The design of optical receiver that takes into account different types
of detectors, noise sources, and receiver performance in terms of signal-to-noise
ratio is presented. Finally, various issues involved in the link design like choice
of operating wavelength, aperture diameter, and receiver bandwidth are discussed.
Chapter 4 deals with the most challenging aspect of FSO communication system,
i.e., acquisition, tracking, and pointing. The initial linkup or acquisition time puts
a limit on the overall performance of the system, and hence, it is an essential
system design constraint. Various subsystems involved in the accurate pointing
of narrow laser beam toward the target are presented in this chapter. Chapter 5
presents bit error rate (BER) performance of FSO link for coherent and noncoherent
modulation schemes. Chapter 6 discusses various techniques for improving link
performance, i.e., aperture averaging, spatial diversity, coding, adaptive optics,
relay-assisted FSO, etc. Finally, the last chapter describes in detail how the optical
system designers can calculate link budgets.

Gurgaon, India Hemani Kaushal

New Delhi, India V.K. Jain
New Delhi, India Subrat Kar
Contents

1 Overview of Wireless Optical Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Indoor Wireless Optical Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2.1 Types of Link Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Outdoor/Free-Space Optical Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Comparison of FSO and Radio-Frequency
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Choice of Wavelength in FSO Communication System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Range Equation for FSO Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Technologies Used in FSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 Direct Detection System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.1.1 Baseband Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.1.2 Statistical Model for Direct Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.1.3 Subcarrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.2 Coherent Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.3 Optical Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing. . . . . . . . 29
1.6 Eye Safety and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.7 Applications of FSO Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Free-Space Optical Channel Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Atmospheric Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.1 Atmospheric Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1.1.1 Absorption and Scattering Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1.1.2 Free-Space Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.1.3 Beam Divergence Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.1.4 Loss due to Weather Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.1.5 Pointing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.2 Atmospheric Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

ix
x Contents

2.1.2.1 The Effect of Beam Wander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.1.2.2 The Scintillation Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.3 Effect of Atmospheric Turbulence on Gaussian
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.1.3.1 Conventional Rytov Approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.1.3.2 Modified Rytov Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 Atmospheric Turbulent Channel Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3 Techniques for Turbulence Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3.1 Aperture Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.3.2 Spatial Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.3.3 Adaptive Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.3.4 Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.3.5 Hybrid RF/FSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3 FSO System Modules and Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1 Optical Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.1 Choice of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.1.2 Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.1.2.1 Modulation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2 Optical Receiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2.1 Types of Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2.2 Receiver Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.2.2.1 Coherent PSK Homodyne Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2.2.2 Coherent FSK Heterodyne Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2.2.3 Direct Detection (PIN + OA) Receiver
for OOK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2.2.4 Direct Detection (APD) Receiver for
OOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.2.2.5 Direct Detection (APD) for M-PPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.3 Optical Post and Preamplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.4 Link Design Trade-Off. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.4.1 Operating Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.4.2 Aperture Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.4.3 Receiver Optical Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4 Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1 Acquisition Link Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.1 Acquisition Uncertainty Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.1.1 Probability Distribution Function of
Satellite Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.1.2 Scanning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.3 Acquisition Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Contents xi

4.1.4
Beam Divergence and Power Criteria for
Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.2 Tracking and Pointing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3 Integration of Complete ATP System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.4 ATP Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5 BER Performance of FSO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2 BER Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.1 Coherent Subcarrier Modulation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.2 Noncoherent Modulation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2.1 On Off Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2.2 M-ary Pulse-Position Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2.2.3 Differential PPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.2.2.4 Differential Amplitude Pulse-Position Modulation . 153
5.2.2.5 Digital Pulse Interval Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.2.2.6 Dual Header-Pulse Interval Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6 Link Performance Improvement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.1 Aperture Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.1.1 Aperture Averaging Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.1.1.1 Plane Wave with Small lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.1.1.2 Plane Wave with Large lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1.1.3 Spherical Wave with Small lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.1.1.4 Spherical Wave with Large lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2 Aperture Averaging Experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3 Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3.1 Types of Diversity Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.2 Diversity Combining Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3.3 Alamouti’s Transmit Diversity Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.3.4 Two Transmitter and One Receiver Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3.5 BER Performance with and Without Spatial Diversity . . . . . . . 178
6.4 Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.5 Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.5.1 Channel Coding in FSO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.5.1.1 Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.5.1.2 Low Density Parity Check Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.6 Adaptive Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.7 Relay-Assisted FSO Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
xii Contents

7 Link Feasibility Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

7.1 Link Requirements and Basic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.1.1 Transmitter Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.1.2 Atmospheric Transmission Loss Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.1.3 Receiver Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.2 Link Power Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Classification of wireless optical communication systems . . . . . . . . . 2

Fig. 1.2 Applications of WOCs: (a) chip-to-chip
communication, (b) wireless body area network,
(c) indoor IR or visible light communication, (d)
inter-building communication, and (e) deep space missions . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.3 FSO terrestrial link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.4 Directed LOS link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 1.5 Multi-beam non-directed LOS link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 1.6 Diffused link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 1.7 Multi-beam quasi diffused links. (a) Receiver with
multiple lens arrangement. (b) Receiver with single
lens arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.8 Applications of FSO communication links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.9 Block diagram of FSO communication link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.10 Comparison of optical and RF beam divergence from
Mars toward Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.11 Demonstration of optical emission from light source.
(a) Light emission from Lambertian source. (b) Light
emission using beam forming optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 1.12 Optical modulators. (a) Internal modulator. (b) External modulator 21
Fig. 1.13 Block diagram of direct detection receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 1.14 OOK modulation scheme for the transmission of
message 110010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 1.15 8-PPM scheme with eight slots for the transmission of
message 110010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 1.16 Block diagram of SIM for FSO link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 1.17 Modulation schemes in FSO system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 1.18 Block diagram of coherent optical communication system . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 1.19 Block diagram of OFDM based FSO system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 1.20 Pictorial representation of light absorption in the eye
for different wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 1.21 Absorption of light vs. wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Fig. 2.1
Broad classification of atmospheric layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 2.2
Various atmospheric layers with corresponding temperatures . . . . . . 42
Fig. 2.3
Atmospheric transmittance (attenuation) vs. wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 2.4
Average particle size and corresponding particle
density in atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 2.5 Sky radiance due to scattering mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 2.6 Loss due to beam divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 2.7 Beam expander to increase diffraction aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 2.8 Attenuation vs. visibility. (a) For heavy fog and cloud.
(b) For light fog and haze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig. 2.9 Attenuation for fog, snow and rain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 2.10 Kolmogorov model where L0 and l0 are the outer and
inner scale of turbulent eddies, respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 2.11 Beam wander effect described by (a) Movement of
the “hot spot” within
q the beam and (b) Beam wander
˝ 2 ˛1=2 2 2
variance rc D WLT  WST , where W ST is the
short-term beam radius and W LT the long-term beam
radius at the receiver (the shaded circles depict random
motion of the short-term beam in the receiver plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig. 2.12 The rms angular beam wander variance as a function of
transmitter beam radius for ground-to-satellite FSO link . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 2.13 Flattened beam profile as a function of radial
displacement that leads to effective pointing error pe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 2.14 Various distributions for intensity statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 2.15 Representation of (a) convergent beam, (b) collimated
beam, and (c) divergent beam, respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 2.16 Gaussian beam profile parameters for uplink
propagation path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 2.17 Effective beam radius at the receiver (in m) as a
function of transmitter beam radius (in cm) for various
zenith angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 2.18 Variations of atmospheric structure constant with
altitude for the Fried model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig. 2.19 Comparison of HVB, HS, CLEAR 1, and SLC models
for atmospheric structure parameter constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 2.20 Cn2 .h/ profile as a function of altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 2.21 Log-irradiance variance as a function of rms wind
velocity V for zenith angle  D 0ı ; 30ı ; 40ı and 60ı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 2.22 Power fluctuations for small detector placed 145 km
from the transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
List of Figures xv

Fig. 2.23 Scattered optical signal from turbulent cells within

acceptance cone (a) geometrical optics hold good if
cone width is less than the cell dimension and (b)
diffraction effect becomes important if cone width
include many turbulent cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.24 Speckle spot formation on the receiver plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 2.25 Variations of aperture averaging factor with zenith
angle  for various values of receiver aperture diameter
DR D 15; 20 and 30 cm using HVB 5/7 model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 2.26 Concept of (a) receive diversity, (b) transmit diversity
and (c) multiple input multiple output (MIMO) techniques . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 2.27 Block diagram of an adaptive optics system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 2.28 Channel capacity vs. peak-to-average power ratio for
various ratios of signal and background photon arrival rates . . . . . . . 84
Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of various components for
ground-to-satellite optical link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of phase modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 3.3 Integrated optic LiNbO3 phase modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 3.4 Mach-Zehnder amplitude modulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 3.5 Geometry of (a) extended source when FOV < S
and (b) stellar or point source when FOV > S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 3.6 Quadrant APD showing standard dead zone and shared
transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 3.7 A general optical communication receiver valid for all
configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 3.8 Variation of Pe with average PR for coherent receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 3.9 Variation of Pe with average PR for direct detection
receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fig. 4.1 Concept of acquisition link establishment between
initiating and target parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 4.2 Concept of point ahead angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Fig. 4.3 Illustration of point ahead angle in FSO communication
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Fig. 4.4 Various contributors to the acquisition initial
uncertainty area budget for ground-to-satellite FSO link . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 4.5 Probability of acquisition as a function of the ratio of
half-width of uncertainty area, U , to the deviation of
satellite position,  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 4.6 Spiral scan pattern (a), continuous spiral scan, and (b)
step spiral scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 4.7 Single-scan mean acquisition time vs. field of
uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 4.8 Segmented and raster scan, (a) segmented scan, and (b)
raster scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 4.9 Stare/scan acquisition technique where one terminal

(Terminal A) slowly scans its transmitting signal while
other terminal (Terminal B) scans through its entire
uncertain region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 4.10 Total pointing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig. 4.11 Quadrant detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 4.12 Block diagram of ATP system between ground station
and onboard satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 5.1 The received irradiance pdf for various values of
receiver antennae (M D 1; 3; 7; and 10) in weak
atmospheric turbulence level of I2 D 0:25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 5.2 Bit error probability vs. SNR for SC-BPSK and
SC-QPSK modulation schemes for weak atmospheric
turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 5.3 The BER vs. receiver sensitivity for different noise
sources in weak turbulence level of I2 D 0:3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 5.4 BER vs. SNR for OOK modulation scheme in weak
atmospheric turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 5.5 Variation in threshold level of OOK vs. log intensity
standard deviation for various noise levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 5.6 Waveform for 4-PPM scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 5.7 Bit error probability vs. SNR for 4-PPM scheme in
weak atmospheric turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 5.8 BER as a function of scintillation index for Kb D 10, T
= 300 K,  D 0:028, Rb D 155 Mbps, and M D 150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 5.9 8-DPPM scheme for the transmission of message 110010 . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 5.10 Waveforms for (a) 4-PPM and (b) 4-DPPM using
rectangular pulse. Pt is the average transmitted power
and Tc is the chip duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 5.11 The symbol structure for (a) DPPM (M D 4) and (b)
DAPPM (A D 2, M D 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 5.12 Comparison of symbol structure for PPM and DPIM
for same transmitted source bit combination, i.e., 01 and 10 . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 5.13 Comparison of packet error rate performance of PPM
and PIM schemes for modulation levels 2, 4, and 8
with same average power per symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 5.14 Comparative packet error rate performance for DPIM,
PPM, and OOK schemes vs. average received irradiance . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 5.15 Symbol structure of DHPIM scheme with (a) H0 and
(b) H1 headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
List of Figures xvii

Fig. 5.16 Plot of variants of PPM for (a) capacity of variants of

PPM normalized to capacity of OOK and (b) average
optical power requirement to achieve packer error
rate = 106 over dispersive channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 6.1 Variation of aperture averaging factor, Af with
normalized receiver lens radius, d for various
atmospheric turbulence conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 6.2 Variation of aperture averaging factor, Af for different
aperture diameters, DR with (a) horizontal link
propagation and (b) slant link propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fig. 6.3 Aperture averaging factor, Af for different propagation
models (i.e., plane, spherical and Gaussian) in (a)
moderate and (b) strong atmospheric turbulence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 6.4 Aperture averaging experiment. (a) Three-dimensional
view of OTG chamber and (b) experimental setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 6.5 Theoretical and experimental results of aperture
averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 6.6 Representation of (a) frequency diversity and (b) time
diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Fig. 6.7 Representation of (a) receive and (b) transmit spatial
diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 6.8 Selection combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 6.9 Maximum ratio combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 6.10 Equal gain combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 6.11 Alamouti’s transmit diversity scheme with two transmit
and one receive antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 6.12 Bit error probability vs. SNR with spatial diversity in
weak turbulence .l D 0:1 and 0:3/ for subcarrier (a)
BPSK and (b) QPSK modulation schemes when there
is no correlation among transmitted antenna beams
. D 0:0/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 6.13 Bit error probability vs. SNR with spatial diversity in
weak turbulence .l D 0:1 and 0:3/ for SC-BPSK (a)
 D 0:3 and (b)  D 0:7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 6.14 Bit error probability vs. SNR with spatial diversity in
weak turbulence .l D 0:1 and 0:3/ for SC-QPSK (a)
 D 0:3 and (b)  D 0:7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 6.15 Block diagram of FSO communication system with
encoder and decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 6.16 Convolutional encoder with two memory elements and
code rate = 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 6.17 Bit error probability for SC-BPSK with convolutional
code (L D 3 and 7) and code rate = 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 6.18 Bit error probability for SC-QPSK with convolutional

code (L D 3 and 7) and code rate = 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Fig. 6.19 Bit error probability with LDPC code at l D 0:25 for
(a) SC-BPSK and (b) SC-QPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 6.20 Conventional adaptive optics system using wave front
sensor and reconstructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 6.21 Model free adaptive optics system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 6.22 RMS wave front tilt as a function of zenith angle for
different telescope apertures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 6.23 Relay configurations: (a) series relay and (b) parallel
relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 7.1 Variations of link margin with zenith angle for
SC-BPSK modulation scheme with and without
diversity at wavelengths (a)  D 1064 nm and (b)
 D 1550 nm, respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
List of Tables

Table 1.1
Chronology of indoor optical wireless research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 1.2
Comparison of indoor WOC and Wi-Fi systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 1.3
Wavelengths used in practical FSO communication system . . . . . . . 16
Table 1.4
Comparison of RF and optical OFDM systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 1.5
Laser classification according to IEC and ANSI
standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 1.6 Accessible emission limits for 850 and 1550 nm
according to IEC standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 1.7 Various requirements of Class 1 and 1M lasers for 850
and 1550 nm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 2.1 Molecular absorption at typical wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 2.2 Size of various atmospheric particles present in the
optical channel and type of scattering process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 2.3 Visibility range values corresponding to weather conditions. . . . . . . 50
Table 2.4 Rainfall rates and their visibility ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 2.5 Turbulence profile models for Cn2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 3.1
Attributes for lasers used in FSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 3.2
Typical values of dark current for various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table 3.3
Communication and beacon detectors in FSO link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 3.4
Comparison between coherent and noncoherent
receiver configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 3.5 Parameters for FSO link design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 4.1 Acquisition, tracking, and communication link margin
(2.5 Gbps, DPSK modulation, BER of 109 with 5 dB
coding gain at 1550 nm wavelength) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Table 5.1 Values of Ka and Kb for different noise-limiting conditions. . . . . . . . 143
Table 5.2 System parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table 5.3 Mapping between source bits and transmitted chips of
4-PPM and 4-DPPM schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

xix
xx List of Tables

Table 5.4 Mapping between 4-PPM and 4-DPIM chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Table 5.5 Mapping of 3-bit OOK words into PPM, DPPM,
DHPIM, and DAPPM symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 5.6 Comparison of variants of PPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 6.1 Parameters used in laboratory experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Table 6.2 C2n  R values for different temperature difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Table 6.3 Alamouti’s space time encoding scheme for
two-branch transmit diversity scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Table 6.4 Comparison of coding gains with convolutional and
LDPC codes for SC-BPSK and SC-QPSK modulation
schemes in weak atmospheric turbulence .l D 0:25/
at BER D 106 and 104 , respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Table 7.1 Link design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Table 7.2 Commonly used parameters and their abbreviations in
link power budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Table 7.3 Values of series coefficients for pointing loss factor calculation . . . 200
Table 7.4 Various communication link components/parameters
and their values for link power budget calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 7.5 Link power budget of SC-BPSK modulation scheme
using LDPC code for ground-to-satellite uplink at zero
zenith angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
List of Symbols

s Planar emission angle

˛a Aerosol absorption coefficient
˛m Molecular absorption coefficient
˛r Angular pointing error
˛T Transmitter truncation ratio
ˇ Modulation index
ˇa Aerosol scattering coefficient
ˇfog ./ Specific attenuation of fog
ˇm Molecular scattering coefficient
filter Bandwidth of optical band pass filter
T Root sum square of two-axis pointing bias error
Quantum efficiency of the detector
 Narrow-band filter transmission factor
R Receiver optics efficiency
TP Transmitter pointing loss factor
T Transmitter optics efficiency
Atmospheric attenuation coefficient
2 Mutual coherence function of second order
code Coding gain
i Instantaneous SNR
R Receiver obscuration ratio
s Scattering angle
T Transmitter obscuration ratio
Scalar spatial frequency
ƒ Receiver beam parameter (amplitude change due to diffraction)
 Operating wavelength
0 Transmitter beam parameter (amplitude change due to diffraction)
B Rate of arrival of background photons

˝ s2 ˛ Rate of arrival of signal photons
rc Beam wander displacement variance
L Constraint length of code

xxi
xxii List of Symbols

P Peak-to-average power ratio of the signal

R Rainfall rate
V Characteristic velocity
F Fresnel length
M Avalanche multiplication factor
r Radius of atmospheric particles
h Planck’s constant
 Operating frequency
k Kinematic viscosity
b Beam solid angle
FOV Solid angle receiver field of view
!IF Intermediate frequency
!L Frequency of local oscillator
S Stellar or point source field of view
s Emission angle
!s Frequency of incoming signal
 Phase of transmitted signal
ˆn Power spectral density of refractive index fluctuations
‰ Complex phase fluctuations
 Correlation among beams
b2 Background noise current variance
d2 Detector dark current noise variance
I2 Scintillation index
l2 Variance of log-irradiance
pe Effective pointing error displacement
R2 Rytov variance
s2 Signal shot noise variance
2
Th Thermal noise variance
tilt RMS turbulence-induced wavefront tip/tilt
T Root sum square of two-axis jitter
x2 Variance of large-scale irradiance fluctuations
y2 Variance of small-scale irradiance fluctuations
2
lnx Variance of large-scale log-irradiance
2
lny Variance of small-scale log-irradiance
 Optical depth
‚ Receiver beam parameter (amplitude change due to refraction)
 Zenith angle
‚0 Transmitter beam parameter (amplitude change due to refraction)
0 Isoplanatic angle
div Beam divergence
FOV Angular field of view of receiver
H Azimuth pointing error angle
jitter Beam jitter angle
unc Area of uncertainty in solid angle
List of Symbols xxiii

V Elevation pointing error angle

4fc Coherence bandwidth
4tc Coherence time
" Overlap factor
 Normalized distance variable
t Safety margin against high-frequency fluctuations
A Photodiode area
A0 Amplitude of Gaussian beam
Af Aperture averaging factor
AR Effective area of the receiver
As Surface area
B Signal bandwidth
Bd Doppler spread
Bo Optical filter bandwidth
C Channel capacity
c Velocity of light
Cn2 Refractive index structure constant
Ct2 Temperature structure constant
Cv Velocity structure constant
D OFDM bias component
DR Receiver aperture diameter
Dt Structure function for temperature
Dn Structure function for refractive index
Dv Structure function for wind velocity
ELO Local oscillator signal voltage
ER Received signal voltage
eL Electric field of local oscillator
es Electric field of incoming signal
F Excess noise factor
f Signal frequency
0
F Phase front radius of curvature of the beam at the receiver plane
F0 Phase front radius of curvature of the beam at the transmitter plane
Fn Noise figure
GR Receiver gain
GT Transmitter gain
H Altitude of the satellite
h Plank’s constant
h0 Altitude of the transmitter
HB Background radiance of extended sources
I Irradiance/intensity
I0 Irradiance without turbulence
I Exo-atmospheric solar constant
IBG Background noise current
Idb Bulk dark current
Ids Surface dark current
xxiv List of Symbols

Id Dark current
Ip Photodetector current
k Wave number
KB Boltzmann’s constant
Kb Average number of noise photons
kb Number of information or data bits
keff Ionization ratio
Ks Average number of signal photons
L0 Turbulent eddy outer scale size
l0 Turbulent eddy inner scale size
lf Dimension of turbulent flow
LG Beam divergence loss
Lp Pointing loss
LR Transmission loss of receiver optics
Ls Space loss factor
m Number of memory registers
N Number of receivers
n Index of refraction
n0 Mean value of index of refraction
NB Irradiance energy densities of point sources
nc Length of code
Nr Number of total receiver scan area repeats
nsp Spontaneous emission factor
Nt Number of total transmitter scan area repeats
0
P Atmospheric pressure
Pacq Probability of acquisition
PB Background noise power
Pce Probability of chip error
Pdetection Probability of detection
Pew Probability of word error
Pe Probability of error
PL Power of local oscillator
PR Received power
Psp Amplifier spontaneous output noise power
Ps Power of incoming signal
PT Transmitted power
q Electronic charge
R Link range
r Spatial separation of two points in space
r0 Atmospheric coherence length
Rb Bit rate
Rdwell Receiver dwell time
RL Load resistance
Re Reynolds number
Sn Noise power spectral density
List of Symbols xxv

T Absolute temperature in Kelvin

0
T Atmospheric temperature
T Transmittance factor
Ta Atmospheric transmittance
Tb Bit duration
Tdwell Transmitter dwell time
Tm Multipath spread
TSS Single scan acquisition time
Tss Beam spread due to atmospheric turbulence
Ts Slot width
U Electric field
W Effective beam radius at the receiver
W0 Transmitter beam size
wc Number of 1s in each column in sparse matrix
We Effective spot size in turbulence
WLT Long-term spot size
wr Number of 1s in each row in sparse matrix
p Size distribution coefficient of scattering
V Visibility range
List of Abbreviations

AF Amplify-and-Forward
AM Amplitude Modulation
AO Adaptive Optics
APD Avalanche Photodetector
ASE Amplified Spontaneous Emission
ATP Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
BER Bit Error Rate
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
BSTS Boost Surveillance and Tracking System
CALIPSO Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and IR Pathfinder Satellite Observation
CCD Charge-Coupled Devices
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CF Compress-and-Forward
DAPIM Differential Amplitude Pulse Interval Modulation
DAPPM Differential Amplitude Pulse Position Modulation
DEF Detect-and-Forward
DHPIM Dual Header Pulse Interval Modulation
DOLCE Deep Space Optical Link Communications Experiment
DPIM Differential Pulse Interval Modulation
DPPM Differential Pulse Position Modulation
EGC Equal-Gain Combining
ESA European Space Agency
ETS Engineering Test Satellite
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing
FIR Far-Infrared
FM Frequency Modulation
FOU Field of Uncertainty
FOV Field of View
FPA Focal Pixel Array
FSO Free-Space Optical

xxvii
xxviii List of Abbreviations

FSOI FSO Interconnect

GOLD Ground/Orbiter Lasercomm Demonstration
GOPEX Galileo Optical Experiment
HAP High-Altitude Platform
IF Intermediate Frequency
IM/DD Intensity Modulated/Direct Detection
IR Infrared
ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation
JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory
KIODO KIrari’s Optical Downlink to Oberpfaffenhofen
LCS Laser Cross-Link Subsystem
LD Laser Diode
LDPC Low-Density Parity Check
LED Light-Emitting Diode
LIR Long-Infrared
LO Local Oscillator
LOLA Airborne Laser Optical Link
LOS Line-of-Sight
LPF Low-Pass Filter
MEMS Microelectromechanical System
MIR Mid-infrared
MISO Multiple Input Single Output
MLCD Mars Laser Communication Demonstration
MLSD Maximum Likelihood Sequence Detection
MOLA Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter
MRC Maximum-Ratio Combining
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NBF Narrow-Band Filter
NEA Noise Equivalent Angle
NIR Near-Infrared
NRZ Non-return to Zero
NSDA National Space Development Agency
OICETS Optical Inter-orbit Communications Engineering Test Satellite
OOK On-Off Keying
OTG Optical Turbulence Generator
PAA Point Ahead Angle
PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation
PAPM Pulse Amplitude and Pulse Position Modulation
PAPR Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PDF Probability Density Function
PER Packet Error Rate
PPM Pulse Position Modulation
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAPD Quadrant Avalanche Photodetector
List of Abbreviations xxix

QPIN Quadrant P-Intrinsic

QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RF Radio Frequency
ROSA RF Optical System Study for Aurora
RSS Root Sum Square
RZ Return to Zero
SC Selection Combining
SFTS Space Flight Test System
SILEX Space Intersatellite Link Experiment
SIR Short-Infrared
SISO Single Input Single Output
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SOLACOS Solid State Laser Communications in Space
SROIL Short-Range Optical Intersatellite Link
TES Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer
TPPM Truncated PPM
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
VLC Visible Light Communication
VLSI Very-Large-Scale Integration
WBAN Wireless Body Area Network
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WOC Wireless Optical Communication
WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network
Chapter 1
Overview of Wireless Optical Communication
Systems

1.1 Introduction

WOC communication is considered as the next frontier for high-speed broadband

connection due to its unique features: extremely high bandwidth, ease of deploy-
ment, tariff-free bandwidth allocation, low power (1/2 of radio-frequency (RF)
systems), less mass (1/2 of RF systems), small size (1/10 the diameter of
RF antenna), and improved channel security. It has emerged a good commercial
alternative to existing radio-frequency communication as it supports larger data
rates and provides high gain due to its narrow beam divergence. It is capable
of transmitting data up to 10 Gbps and voice and video communication through
the atmosphere/free space. WOC have two broad categories, namely, indoor and
outdoor wireless optical communications. Indoor WOC is classified into four
generic system configurations, i.e., directed line-of-sight (LOS), non-directed LOS,
diffused, and quasi diffused. Outdoor wireless optical communication is also termed
as free-space optical (FSO) communication. The FSO communication systems are
also classified into terrestrial and space systems. Figure 1.1 shows the classification
of WOC systems.
Over the last few years, massive expansion in WOC technology has been
observed due to huge advances in optoelectronic components and tremendous
growth in the market offering wireless optical devices. It seems to be one of the
promising technologies for addressing the problem of huge bandwidth requirements
and “last mile bottleneck.” There are many commercial applications of WOC
technology which includes ground-to-LEO, LEO-to-GEO/LEO-to-ground, GEO-
to-ground, LEO/GEO-to-aircraft, deep space probes, ground stations, unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs), high-altitude platforms (HAPs), etc. [1–4]. It also finds
applications in the area of remote sensing, radio astronomy, space radio commu-
nication, military, etc. When WOC technology is used over very short distances,
it is termed as FSO interconnects (FSOI), and it finds applications in chip-to-
chip or board-to-board interconnections. FSOI has gained popularity these days

© Springer (India) Pvt. Ltd. 2017 1

H. Kaushal et al., Free Space Optical Communication, Optical Networks,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-3691-7_1
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accordingly went, was introduced into the minister’s study, and
commenced the conversation by saying, “I believe there is a small
dispute between you and me, sir, and I thought I would call this
morning and try to settle it.” “Ha!” said the clergyman, “what is it?”
“Why,” replied the wag, “you say that the wicked will go into
punishment, and I do not think that they will.” “Oh, if that is all,”
said the minister, “there is no dispute between you and me. If you
turn to Matt. xxv. 46, you will find that the dispute is between you
and the Lord Jesus Christ, and I advise you to go immediately and
settle it with him.”

A Countryman.—It has often been a matter of wonder, that the

principles and reasonings of infidels, though frequently accompanied
with great natural and acquired abilities, are seldom known to make
any impression upon thoughtful people. It is said of a deceased
gentleman, who was eminent in the literary world, that in early life
he drank deeply of the free-thinking scheme. He and one of his
companions, of the same turn of mind, often carried on their
conversations in the hearing of a religious but illiterate countryman.
This gentleman afterwards became a true Christian, and felt
concerned for the countryman, lest his faith in Christianity should
have been shaken. One day, therefore, he asked him, whether what
had so frequently been advanced in his hearing, had not produced
this effect upon him. “By no means,” answered the countryman; “it
never made the least impression upon me.” “No impression upon
you!” said the gentleman; “why, you must have known that we had
read and thought on these things much more than you had any
opportunity of doing.” “Oh, yes,” replied the man; “but I knew also
your manner of living; I knew that to maintain such a course of
conduct, you found it necessary to renounce Christianity.”

Rev. S. Wesley.—The Rev. Samuel Wesley, rector of Epworth, and

father of the celebrated John Wesley, once went into a coffee-house
in London for some refreshment. There were several gentlemen in a
box at the other end of the room, one of whom, an officer of the
guards, swore dreadfully. The rector saw that he could not speak to
him without much difficulty; he therefore desired the waiter to give
him a glass of water. When it was brought, he said aloud, “Carry it
to your gentleman in the red coat, and desire him to wash his mouth
after his oaths.” The officer rose up in a fury; but the gentlemen in
the box laid hold of him, one of them crying out, “Nay, colonel, you
gave the first offence; you see the gentleman is a clergyman; you
know it is an affront to swear in his presence.” The officer was thus
restrained, and Mr. Wesley departed.
Some years after, being again in London, and walking in St.
James’s Park, a gentleman joined him, who, after some
conversation, inquired if he recollected having seen him before. Mr.
Wesley replied in the negative. The gentleman then recalled to his
mind the scene in the coffee-house; and added, “Since that time, sir,
I thank God, I have feared an oath; and as I have a perfect
recollection of you, I rejoiced at seeing you, and could not refrain
from expressing my gratitude to God and to you.”

John Fox.—When Fox, the well known author of the “Book of

Martyrs,” was once leaving the palace of Aylmer, the Bishop of
London, a company of poor people begged him to relieve their wants
with great importunity. Fox, having no money, returned to the
bishop, and asked the loan of five pounds, which was readily
granted; he immediately distributed it among the poor, by whom he
was surrounded. Some months after, Aylmer asked Fox for the
money he had borrowed. “I have laid it out for you,” was the answer,
“and paid it where you owed it—to the poor people who lay at your
gate.” Far from being offended, Aylmer thanked Fox for thus being
his steward.

Intemperance.—A Temperate Man. A man of temperate habits was

once dining at the house of a free drinker. No sooner was the cloth
removed from the dinner table, than wine and spirits were produced,
and he was asked to take a glass of spirits and water. “No, thank
you,” said he, “I am not ill.” “Take a glass of wine then,” said his
host, “or a glass of ale.” “No, thank you,” said he, “I am not thirsty.”
These answers produced a loud burst of laughter.
Soon after this, the temperate man took a piece of bread from
the sideboard, and handed it to his host, who refused it, saying he
was not hungry. At this, the temperate man laughed in his turn.
“Surely,” said he, “I have as much reason to laugh at you for not
eating when you are not hungry, as you have to laugh at me for
declining medicine when not ill, and drink when I am not thirsty.”
 The Western Hemisphere.

Geography.
Geography is that science which describes the earth on which we
live; its lands and waters; its mountains and valleys; its hills and
plains; its towns, cities, countries, nations, and inhabitants.
The above picture is a representation of one half of the earth, or
what is called the Western Hemisphere. On this you see the
continent of America, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific ocean, the
Northern ocean, and the Southern ocean. About three fourths of the
surface of the Western hemisphere is covered with water.
The continent of America consists of North America and South
America. These are united by a narrow strip of land, called the
isthmus of Darien. In the narrowest part, this isthmus is but about
thirty-seven miles wide.
North America is separated from Asia at the north-west, by
Behring’s Straits, which are about thirty-nine miles wide. North
America is separated from Greenland, which is a great island, almost
always covered with snow and ice, near the north pole.
The continent of North America is about 9000 miles long, from
Cape Horn, to the Northern ocean. It has a vast range of mountains,
extending, in a bending line, nearly the whole length of it. This
range is the longest in the world. In South America, some of the
mountains are about five miles high, and are the loftiest in the
world, except the peaks of the Himmaleh mountains, in Asia. It is
supposed that there are two hundred volcanoes in America.
The largest river in the world is the Mississippi, which, including
the Missouri, properly one of its branches, is about 4000 miles long.
The river Amazon, in South America, though not quite as long,
spreads its branches wider than any other river in the world, and
carries more water to the sea than any other river.
The largest fresh water lake in the world, is that of Lake Superior,
in North America.
 The Eastern Hemisphere.
The above picture represents the Eastern Hemisphere. It includes
the Eastern Continent, which is divided into Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Africa is the south-western portion, Europe the north-western
portion, and Asia the north-eastern portion. The eastern continent
contains about twice as much land as the western continent.
Between Europe, Africa and Asia, is the Mediterranean sea, which
is about 2000 miles long, from east to west. The Atlantic ocean lies
west of Europe and Africa; the Indian ocean lies south of Asia, and
south-east of Africa; the Pacific ocean lies east of Asia.
Between the Indian ocean and Pacific ocean, are many large
islands. The largest is New Holland, which is about as extensive as
all Europe. This island belongs to the British nation, who have
settlements here, occupied by English, Scotch, and Irish people.
There are many curious things upon this island. The natives are a
kind of negro, who live in a manner almost as rude and savage as
wild bears. Among the animals, are the kangaroo, which goes forty
feet at a leap, and the platypus, with fur like a beaver and a bill like
a duck; swans which are black, and a kind of bird with a tail shaped
like a harp.
Asia is the most populous part of the globe, and has more
inhabitants than Europe, Africa, and America, all together. China
alone has about three hundred and sixty millions of people.
In America there are only a few great cities, such as New York,
Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans, in the United
States; Havana, in the West Indies; Mexico, in the United States of
Mexico; Lima, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, and Rio Janeiro, in South
America.
In Europe there are many great cities, among which London and
Paris are the largest; in Asia, Constantinople and Pekin are the
largest; in Africa, Grand Cairo and Alexandria are the largest.
Asia was the first part of the globe inhabited by human beings;
Africa was next inhabited, Europe next, and America last. America
was not discovered by the Europeans, till about three hundred and
fifty years ago.
 The Bob-o-link.
This is the familiar name of the Rice Bunting. He is about seven
inches and a half long, of a deep black color, with the feathers edged
with white and yellow. In Massachusetts, it is first seen in May,
among the fields and meadows, which at that period begin to ring
with its cheerful song. This is familiar to every school-boy, and is
composed of sounds which resemble the words Bob-o-lee, Bob-o-
linke. Mr. Nuttall, who has written several books about birds, says
that as the Bob-o-link rises and hovers on the wing, near his mate,
he seems to say—“Bob-o-link, Bob-o-link, Tom Denny, Tom Denny,
come, pay me the two and sixpence you’ve owed me more than a
year and a half ago! tshe, tshe, tsh, tsh, tshe!” He then dives down
into the grass, as if to avoid a reply.
This bird builds its nest on the ground; it is formed of loose
withered grass, and can scarcely be distinguished from the earth
around it. The eggs are five or six, of a light olive color, spotted with
brown. The male keeps up a continued song while his partner is
sitting, as if to cheer her in her confinement; but when the young
brood appear, this song is less frequent, and he joins his mate in the
task of feeding and rearing them.
In August, the whole brood, old and young, set off for the south,
where they spend the winter, gathering the wild rice of Delaware as
they proceed, and offering great sport to the gunner. They swarm in
the rice fields of Carolina and Georgia, and are much disliked by the
planters for their voracity. They are excellent eating, being so fat
when they reach the West Indies, as to be called Butter birds. Here
they spend the winter, but never fail to return in the spring to their
native meadows, where they feed on insects, worms, crickets,
beetles, and also on grass seeds.
Boys are very fond of catching the Bob-o-link, which they sell for
cages; but, although he is tolerably lively in captivity, yet no one
who has seen and heard him at liberty, can take any pleasure in his
deadened music and dulled plumage. In a state of nature all birds
moult, that is, change their plumage, and after a time generally
reappear in their former gay attire; but we have been told that the
Bob-o-link, in captivity, after moulting once, never resumes the dress
he wore in freedom; as if, absent from his mate, for whom alone he
sung and plumed himself, it were of no consequence what his
appearance might be. Let those of my little readers who have an
opportunity of observing, see if this story be true.
 The White or Polar Bear.
This formidable animal is generally found within the polar circle. It
is a land animal, yet it depends upon the sea for its subsistence. It
preys principally upon seals, young walruses and whales, and upon
those foxes and wolves which sometimes seek their food among the
ice. Its size varies, being from eight to twelve feet long, and
weighing from 900 to 1600 pounds. His fur is thick and very long,
and, like the feathers of water birds, cannot be wet by almost any
exposure to water. He swims at the rate of three miles an hour. He
cannot climb trees like other bears, nor does he need so to do, as
his habitation is among the icebergs. He is a very formidable and
powerful animal, and when attacked, makes desperate resistance.
 From the nature of their food, the flesh of the polar bear is rank
and fishy, though not unwholesome. The fat resembles tallow, and
melts into a transparent oil, which has no offensive smell. The skin is
very serviceable, as well as handsome, for a variety of domestic
purposes, and it is an article of considerable value to the people of
the cold northern regions. The Greenlanders pull it off whole, and
make a sack of it, into which they creep, and find a warm and
comfortable bed. The natives of Hudson’s Bay make very handsome
and pliable garments of these skins.
The Polar Bear may be considered as the most interesting of all
bears. Much is said of its great strength, and power of enduring
hunger and cold; of the peculiarity of its form and appearance; of
the perils and privations to which it must often be exposed; of its
great ferocity and daring when attacked, and of its strong
attachment to its young. Nothing but death can stop the attentions
of the female to her cubs. When they are wounded, she will fondle
them, turn them over, lick them, offer them food, and pay them
even more tender attentions than some human beings bestow upon
their offspring; and when she finds all her efforts unavailing, she
makes most piteous moans.
The White Bear is found in the polar regions of both continents.

The Boy and his Mittens.—I was going around the corner of Park
street church, in February, 1835. It was the morning of one of those
days when the thermometer was hovering about the chill point of
zero. I chanced to notice a small boy, standing with his back to the
basement wall of the church; his cheeks glistening in the keen wind,
the tears flowing down his face, and a kind of blubbering sound
issuing from his mouth. His little red hands were bare, but in one of
them he held a pair of mittens. He was the picture of distress and
imbecility. I went up to him, and asked him why he was crying. “My
fingers are cold,” said he. “But why don’t you put on your mittens?”
said I. “Oh, because my fingers are so cold!” said he. “But can’t you
put them on?” said I. “Oh yes, I can put them on,” said the boy, “but
it hurts.”
“The child is father of the man,” thought I. This boy, here, in a
matter of his fingers, is acting precisely as many men act in regard
to matters of the deepest importance. Rather than bear the slight
pain of putting on his mittens, he will run the risk of freezing his
fingers. And when I see a man spending his time in idleness, and
thus laying up a prospect of future poverty and distress, rather than
work and be industrious, I think of the boy and his mittens. When I
see a man indulging in a habit of tippling, or any other bad practice,
because it is hard to leave off, I think of the boy and his mittens.

Idleness.—If the intellect requires to be provided with perpetual

objects, what must it be with the affections? Depend upon it, the
most fatal idleness is that of the heart; and the man who feels weary
of life may be sure that he does not love his fellow-creatures as he
ought.
 The Unfaithful Servant.
A noble Duke of Scotland, in one of his walks, chanced one day to
see a very fine cow. Having ascertained to whom the animal
belonged, he went to the owner, and offered him a handsome price
for her. For a time the latter hesitated, but at length accepted it, and
promised to drive the cow the next morning.
Not finding it convenient to go himself, the farmer sent his boy to
drive the cow. On approaching the house, the animal appeared
frightened, and refused to proceed. At the time, the Duke happened
to be walking at a short distance, and the boy, not knowing who he
was, craved his assistance, in his Scotch brogue.
“Heh, mun, come here, an’ gie’s a han’ wi’ this beast.”
The Duke, perceiving the boy’s mistake, pursued his walk, without
appearing to understand it. In the mean time, the cow became still
more unmanageable, upon which the lad, with a tone of apparent
distress, cried out, “Come here, mun, and as sure’s anything, I’ll gie
ye the hauf o’ what I get.”
Pleased with the boy’s manner, and especially with his generosity,
the Duke now stepped forward as requested, and lent a helping
hand.
“And now,” said the Duke, as they drove the cow forward, “how
much do you think you will get for this job?”
“Oh, I dinna ken,” said the boy, “but I’m sure o’ something, for
the folk up bye at the house are guid to a’ bodies.”
As they approached the house, the Duke darted by the boy, and,
entering by a private way, called a servant, and putting a sovereign
into his hand, bid him give it to the boy that drove the cow.
The Duke now returned to the avenue, and was soon rejoined by
the boy.
 “Well, and how much did you get, my lad?” inquired the Duke.
“A shilling,” said the boy, “and there’s half o’t t’ ye.”
“A shilling!” rejoined the Duke, “only a shilling! you got more.”
“No I dinna,” said the boy with great earnestness, “as sure’s
death, that’s a’ I get, and d’ye no think it plenty?”
“I do not,” said the Duke; “there must be some mistake, and as I
am acquainted with the Duke, if you’ll return with me, I’ll get you
some more money.”
The boy consented, and back they went. The Duke rang the bell,
and ordered all the servants to be assembled.
“Now,” said the Duke to the boy, “point out to me the person that
gave you the shilling.”
“It was the chap there, wi’ the white apron,” said the boy,
pointing to the butler.
“You villain,” said the Duke.
The butler fell upon his knees, and confessed the wicked act.
“Give the boy the sovereign, and immediately leave my house,”
said the Duke.
The butler implored.
“No,” said the Duke, “you are no longer to be trusted. You have
been detected in an act of villany, which renders you unfit to serve
me. You have lost your shilling, your situation, and your character.
Go, and henceforth learn that ‘honesty is the best policy.’”
By this time, the boy discovered, to his amazement, his assistant,
in the person of the Duke; and the Duke was so delighted with the
sterling worth and honesty of the boy, that he ordered him to be
sent to school, and to be provided for at his own expense.
 Daniel Purcell, the punster, being desired to make a pun
extempore, asked, “Upon what subject?” “The king,” was the answer.
“O, sir,” replied Daniel, “the king is not a subject.”
 The Barber of Paris.
In the city of Paris, there is an ancient street known by the name
of Rue de la Harpe. In one part of this street there formerly stood
two dwelling-houses, in one of which a crime of a most horrible
nature was some years since perpetrated, and the discovery of
which was remarkably sudden and providential.
In one of these houses a barber had his shop; a part of the
adjoining house was occupied by a pastry-cook.
One day two gentlemen entered the shop of the barber for the
purpose of being shaved. These gentlemen belonged to a town
some distance from Paris. They were men of wealth, and had come
to the city for the purpose of transacting business. It is not
uncommon for persons in France, who are well able to ride, to travel
on foot. In this manner had these gentlemen come to the city. Their
only attendant was a faithful dog.
Before proceeding to execute their business, they called, as I
said, at the shop of the barber to get shaved. The barber being
employed in shaving another person, the strangers, in the interim,
incautiously entered into conversation with each other, during which
they alluded to a sum of money which they had about them. The
barber overheard them, but appeared to take no notice of the
conversation.
At length one of the strangers was called to the chair, and the
shaving operation was soon finished. This done, he turned to his
companion, and observed, “We have but a short time, you know, to
transact all our business; and now, while you are being shaved, I will
step down the street and attend to an errand which has been
entrusted to me.”
“Return soon,” said his friend.
 “Before you are ready to move,” replied he; and upon this he left
the shop, and hastened forward to perform the errand.
After a short absence only, he was again at the door of the
barber’s shop; on opening which, he was informed that his friend
was already gone.
“Gone!” said the other with some surprise. But as the dog, which
belonged to his friend, was still sitting without the door, he ceased to
wonder; and, as his friend would probably be back soon, he seated
himself, and chatted with the barber, till he should return.
A half hour had passed, and he began to be impatient. At length,
he went out, and walked up and down the street; but nothing could
he see or learn of his friend. Again he returned to the shop, and
again interrogated the barber. “Did my friend leave any message for
me?” “No,” said the barber, “all I know is, that when he was shaved
he went out.”
“It is strange,” said the man.
“It is singular,” said the barber. “I wish I could help you, my
friend. Pray command my services, as you please.”
But the stranger knew not what measures to adopt. At length, the
singular movements of the dog, still there, attracted his notice. He
appeared restless and watchful; and, at intervals, uttered a low and
piteous howl. This startled the stranger, and the suspicion of foul
play crossed his mind. He hinted his suspicion, delicately indeed, but
the barber took fire and ordered him to quit the shop.
The manner of the barber rather increased than allayed his
suspicion. And then the dog—his conduct was inexplicable. Nothing
would induce him to quit the place. The poor animal appeared kind
to the remaining stranger, but nothing would induce him to stir from
the spot.
The distress of the stranger now amounted to agony. At length he
ventured to make known his story to some passers-by. They stopped
and listened. Others came up and listened also. A crowd was soon
collected.
By some it was proposed to send for the officers of the police.
Others said, “No, let us search the house.” This latter course was at
length agreed upon. Accordingly, a competent number of men
entered, and as the people greatly increased without, they barred
the door, and began to examine. No discovery, however, was made,
and the search was relinquished.
All this time, however, the dog continued at his post. At length,
when the search was through, and nothing found, the barber
requested the people to leave his shop, which they did. Now, coming
to the door, he began to assure the people of his innocence. At this
moment the dog descried him. In an instant he sprang and caught
him by the throat. Persons flew to his assistance, and, at the hazard
of their lives, rescued him from the grasp of the dog, who seemed
urged on with indescribable madness and fury.
What could this mean? Was the dog really mad, or had the barber
secretly made way with his master? One opinion only prevailed.
There had in some way been foul play, and the dog was only acting
out the sagacity which the God of nature had given him. It was
agreed that the dog should have his liberty and be allowed to pursue
the course he pleased.
The crowd fell back, the doors were opened, and the dog let
loose. He sprang to the threshold, and entering the shop, smelled
his way down a pair of stairs into a dark cellar, which he filled with
his howlings.
The noise of the dog was heard without. Several persons entered
the shop—lights were procured, and on searching the cellar, a door
was found which communicated with the cellar of the adjoining
house. Information was immediately given to the people above.
They forthwith surrounded the house. That cellar was also searched,
and there was found the murdered remains of the unfortunate
stranger. On his trial, the barber confessed his guilt.
 The World within a Plant.
“The fragrance of a carnation,” says a fine writer, “led me to enjoy
it frequently and near.” While inhaling the powerful sweet, I heard an
extremely soft, but agreeable murmuring sound. It was easy to
know that some animal, within the covert, must be the musician,
and that the little noise must come from some little body suited to
produce it. I am furnished with apparatus of a thousand kinds for
close observation. I instantly distended the lower part of the flower,
and placing it in a full light, could discover troops of little insects,
frisking and capering with wild jollity among the narrow pedestals
that supported its leaves, and the little threads that occupied its
centre. I was not cruel enough to pull out any one of them, but
adapting a microscope to take in, at one view, the whole base of the
flower, I gave myself an opportunity of contemplating what they
were about, and this for many days together, without giving them
the least disturbance.
Under the microscope, the base of the flower extended itself to a
large plain; the slender stems of the leaves became trunks of so
many stately cedars; the threads in the middle seemed columns of
massy structure, supporting at the top their several ornaments; and
the narrow places between were enlarged into walks, parterres and
terraces.
On the polished bottom of these, brighter than Parian marble,
walked in pairs, alone or in large companies, the winged inhabitants;
these, from little dusky flies, for such only the naked eye would have
shown them, were raised to glorious glittering animals, stained with
living purple and with a glossy gold, that would have made all the
labors of the loom contemptible in the comparison.
I could, at leisure, as they walked together, admire their elegant
limbs, their velvet shoulders, and their silken wings; their backs
vying with the empyrean in its hue; and their eyes, each formed of a
thousand others, out-glittering the little planes on a brilliant. I could
observe them here singling out their favorite females, courting them
with the music of their buzzing wings, with little songs formed for
their little organs, leading them from walk to walk among the
perfumed shades, and pointing out to their taste the drop of liquid
nectar, just bursting from some vein within the living trunk. Here
were the perfumed groves, the more than myrtle shades, of the
poet’s fancy realized; here the happy lovers spent their days in joyful
dalliance; in the triumph of their little hearts, skipped after one
another from stem to stem among the painted trees; or winged their
short flight to the shadow of some broader leaf, to revel in the
heights of all felicity.
Nature, the God of nature, has proportioned the period of
existence of every creature to the means of its support. Duration,
perhaps, is as much a comparative quality as magnitude; and these
atoms of being as they appear to us, may have organs that lengthen
minutes, to their perception, into years. In a flower, destined to
remain but a few days, length of life, according to our ideas, could
not be given to its inhabitants; but it may be, according to theirs. I
saw, in the course of observation of this new world, several
succeeding generations of the creatures it was peopled with; they
passed under my eye, through the several successive states of the
egg and the reptile form, in a few hours. After these, they burst
forth, at an instant, into full growth and perfection in their wing
form. In this, they enjoyed their span of being as much as we do
years; feasted, sported, revelled in delights; fed on the living
fragrance that poured itself out at a thousand openings at once
before them; enjoyed their loves; laid the foundation for their
succeeding progeny, and, after a life thus happily filled up, sunk in
an easy dissolution. With what joy in their pleasures did I attend the
first and the succeeding broods through the full period of their joyful
lives! With what enthusiastic transport did I address to each of these
yet happy creatures, Anacreon’s gratulations to the cicada:
Blissful insect! what can be
In happiness compared to thee?
 Fed with nourishment divine,
The dewy morning’s sweetest wine,
Nature waits upon thee still,
And thy fragrant cup does fill;
All the fields that thou dost see,
All the plants, belong to thee;
All that summer hours produce,
Fertile made with ripening juice.
Man for thee does sow and plough,
Farmer he, and landlord thou.
Thee the hinds with gladness hear,
Prophet of the ripened year;
To thee alone, of all the earth,
Life is no longer than thy mirth.
Happy creature! happy thou
Dost neither age nor winter know;
But when thou’st drank, and danced, and sung
Thy fill, the flowery leaves among,
Sated with the glorious feast,
Thou retir’st to endless rest.

While the pure contemplative mind thus almost envies what the
rude observer would treat unfeelingly, it naturally shrinks into itself,
on the thought that there may be, in the immense chain of beings,
many, though as invisible to us as we to the inhabitants of this little
flower whose organs are not made for comprehending objects larger
than a mite, or more distant than a straw’s breadth, to whom we
may appear as much below regard as these to us.
With what derision should we treat those little reasoners, could
we hear them arguing for the unlimited duration of the carnation,
destined for the extent of their knowledge, as well as their action.
And yet, among ourselves there are reasoners who argue, on no
better foundation, that the earth which we inhabit is eternal.
 The Kildeer Plover.
This bird is so called from its cry, resembling the word kildeer, and
is well known in all parts of the United States. It builds its nest in
level pastures which afford pools of water, or on sandy downs near
the sea. Its nest is a mere hollow, lined with straw or weeds; the
eggs are four, cream-colored, and spotted with black. The bird is
about ten inches long, is of an olive-gray color, and has long legs,
which enable it to wade in the water, of which it is very fond.
While rearing its young, the kildeer makes an incessant noise, and
if any one approaches its nest, it flies around and over him, calling
kildeer, kildeer, te dit, te dit, te dit, seeming to evince the utmost
anxiety. If this clamor does not frighten away the intruder, it will run
along the ground, with hanging wings, pretending to be lame, in
order to draw off attention from the nest. It seems to be a sleepless
bird, for it may be heard very late at night, in the spring and fall.
The kildeer feeds on grasshoppers and insects which it finds in
fields and in pools of water, wading in search of them. It is very
erect, runs with great swiftness, and flies very high in the air. Toward
autumn, large flocks descend to the seashore, where they are more
silent and circumspect.

Force of Truth.—Some years ago, a motion was made in the

house of commons, in England, for raising and embodying the
militia, and for the purpose of saving time, to exercise them on the
Sabbath. When the resolution was about to pass, an old gentleman
stood up and said, “Mr. Speaker, I have one objection to make to
this, which you will find in an old book called the Bible.” The
members looked at one another, and the motion was dropped.
 Early Impressions.
a story for parents.

for merry’s museum.

A gentleman and lady, the parents of an only daughter about three

years old, residing in one of our southern cities, proposed, a few
months since, a visit to the lady’s friends at the north. She was
particularly anxious once more to see an aged mother, who, during
her absence, had experienced a long and distressing sickness, and
whom, considering the distance which separated their residences,
she could not hope to see many times more. One day, she told
Augusta, her little daughter, of the journey, and inquired how she
should like it. Of course, the child was delighted with the project,
and from that time it occupied many of her thoughts and much of
her conversation. She should see her friends, of whom her mother
had made frequent mention, and especially her grandmother, who,
of all the rest, was of course an object of the greatest interest.
Augusta’s inquiries, about her in particular, were often repeated, and
almost daily the question was renewed when her father would be
ready to start.
After her usual round of inquiries about the journey and her
mother’s friends, Augusta, one day, concluded by saying, “My
grandmother will be glad to see me—don’t you think she will,
mother?” “Certainly,” replied the mother. “Don’t you think she will be
very glad to see me?” “Yes,” said the mother, “she will almost eat
you up.”
The reply was inconsiderate, but who has not heard it a hundred
times? Nothing more common—but it sunk deep into the heart of
the child, and from that time, though she continued daily to talk of
the contemplated journey, it was with diminished joy, and sometimes
with positive reluctance. The idea of being devoured, and by one
with whom she had associated so many ideas of tenderness and
love, preyed, as it was afterwards discovered, upon her imagination,
and nearly annihilated her hitherto happy anticipations. She
frequently spoke of her grandmother’s devouring her, and on one
occasion gave her father a pretty serious practical idea of the
manner in which she expected her aged relative would proceed. She
began by telling him what her mother had said—that her
grandmother loved her so well that she would eat her up. “When
she sees me, she will do so,” said Augusta—applying her sharp little
teeth to his cheek, which brought the blood to the surface, and at
the same time sent a pang to the extremities of his frame—“she will
do so!”
The time set for their departure at length arrived, and Augusta
and her parents, in a few weeks, reached the place of their
destination. From motives of convenience, the grandmother had,
some months before, left her own residence, and was at lodgings in
the village of W——. Consequently, the parents of Augusta sought
quarters at a friend’s in the immediate neighborhood.
After a few hours’ rest, a call upon the grandmother was
proposed, and Augusta was to accompany her parents. But she did
not wish to go. “Why, my daughter,” inquired the mother—“do you
not wish to see your dear grandmother?” Augusta was silent. “You
were delighted,” continued the mother, “with the idea before you left
home—what has changed your mind?” Augusta made no reply—but
she did not wish to go. Thinking that her reluctance was the
offspring of a childish whim, or at most the effect of timidity at
meeting one who, notwithstanding her relationship, was indeed a
stranger, but which would be removed in a single half hour’s
acquaintance, she insisted upon her going.
A walk of a few minutes brought them to the residence of this
object of love and tenderness to the mother, but of distrust and
terror to the daughter. They were ushered into her presence. The
meeting of the younger and of her more aged mother was tender
and mutually affecting. They embraced each other after the lapse of
years, and each imparted and each received a kiss of friendship and
affection. Tears flowed in copious streams, if not along the cheeks of
her aged mother, down those of her daughter.
Augusta, young as she was, was an intent and interested
spectator of the scene. She watched every look—marked every
action—weighed every word. Her own time of being welcomed soon
came, when the caresses of the grandmother were transferred from
the daughter to the grand-daughter. She shuddered in the embrace
—and her eyes, generally large and brilliant, rolled more widely and
wildly; but she escaped the anticipated mastication, and at length
breathed more at her ease!
Augusta was delighted, as she bounded forth from the gate into
the path that led back to her lodgings, and was as much inclined to
expedite her return, as she had been slow and reluctant in going.
Up to this time the intensity of her feelings was unknown, and
even the nature of them was scarcely if at all suspected. But the
secret was gradually developed, and at length the parents were able
to explain many a circumstance and many a declaration in regard to
Augusta’s change of feelings towards her grandmother, which,
perhaps, with more consideration, they might have explained before,
but which had been set down rather to the whim of the child than
the unguarded expression of the mother.
On reaching her quarters, a young lady, to whom the casual
mention had been made that Augusta expected her grandmother
would eat her up, said to her—
“Well, Miss Augusta, your grandmother, it seems, didn’t eat you
up.”
“No, she didn’t eat me,” said she, “but she tried to eat mother.”
Some circumstance at the moment intervening, the conversation
was interrupted, but on the following day, it was renewed by
Augusta herself, who, approaching her mother, said:
“Mother, what did grandma’ do to you yesterday?”
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