Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01603-4

REVIEW ARTICLE

Methods to prepare biosorbents and magnetic sorbents for water

treatment: a review
Ahmed I. Osman1 · Eman M. Abd El‑Monaem2 · Ahmed M. Elgarahy3,4 · Chukwunonso O. Aniagor5 ·
Mohamed Hosny6 · Mohamed Farghali7,8 · Emanne Rashad9 · Marcel I. Ejimofor5 · Eduardo A. López‑Maldonado10 ·
Ikko Ihara7 · Pow‑Seng Yap11 · David W. Rooney1 · Abdelazeem S. Eltaweil2

Received: 7 April 2023 / Accepted: 17 April 2023 / Published online: 4 May 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Access to drinkable water is becoming more and more challenging due to worldwide pollution and the cost of water
treatments. Water and wastewater treatment by adsorption on solid materials is usually cheap and effective in removing
contaminants, yet classical adsorbents are not sustainable because they are derived from fossil fuels, and they can induce
secondary pollution. Therefore, biological sorbents made of modern biomass are increasingly studied as promising alter-
natives. Indeed, such biosorbents utilize biological waste that would otherwise pollute water systems, and they promote
the circular economy. Here we review biosorbents, magnetic sorbents, and other cost-effective sorbents with emphasis on
preparation methods, adsorbents types, adsorption mechanisms, and regeneration of spent adsorbents. Biosorbents are pre-
pared from a wide range of materials, including wood, bacteria, algae, herbaceous materials, agricultural waste, and animal
waste. Commonly removed contaminants comprise dyes, heavy metals, radionuclides, pharmaceuticals, and personal care
products. Preparation methods include coprecipitation, thermal decomposition, microwave irradiation, chemical reduction,
micro-emulsion, and arc discharge. Adsorbents can be classified into activated carbon, biochar, lignocellulosic waste, clays,
zeolites, peat, and humic soils. We detail adsorption isotherms and kinetics. Regeneration methods comprise thermal and
chemical regeneration and supercritical fluid desorption. We also discuss exhausted adsorbent management and disposal.
We found that agro-waste biosorbents can remove up to 68–100% of dyes, while wooden, herbaceous, bacterial, and marine-
based biosorbents can remove up to 55–99% of heavy metals. Animal waste-based biosorbents can remove 1–99% of heavy
metals. The average removal efficiency of modified biosorbents is around 90–95%, but some treatments, such as cross-linked
beads, may negatively affect their efficiency.

Keywords Adsorption · Biosorbents · Magnetic sorbents · Water treatment · Regeneration · Kinetics

Abbreviation it involves removing contaminants from water by adhering

PPCPs Pharmaceuticals and personal care products them to an adsorbent material (Abdel Maksoud et al. 2022;
Osman et al. 2022a). Due to their unique properties and
cost-effectiveness, biosorbents and magnetic sorbents have
Introduction emerged as cost-effective and environmentally friendly alter-
natives to conventional adsorbents (Abdel Maksoud et al.
Over the past few years, water pollution has become an 2020). Biosorbents are derived from renewable sources,
increasingly urgent global issue due to industries discharg- such as plant-based materials, animal waste, and marine
ing significant amounts of pollutants into water bodies. biomass, and can be easily modified to increase their adsorp-
This situation poses substantial risks to human health and tion capacity, making them versatile and efficient for vari-
the environment, creating multiple treatment technologies. ous pollutants (Crini et al. 2019a, b; Osman et al. 2020a).
Among these methods, adsorption holds great promise as Meanwhile, magnetic sorbents are produced by incorporat-
ing magnetic nanoparticles into adsorbent materials, allow-
ing easy separation from water using a magnetic field. This
* Ahmed I. Osman
[email protected] makes them ideal for continuous water treatment, as they can
be recovered and reused multiple times.
Extended author information available on the last page of the article

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
2338 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of 2021; Eltaweil et al. 2022a; Osman et al. 2023). However,
recent advancements in biosorbents and magnetic sorbents the production cost of conventional synthetic adsorbents
for water treatment. The topics covered include preparation is prohibitively high, which limits their usage. This has
methods, adsorption isotherms, mechanisms, applications, increased the demand for natural adsorbents, also known
and economic evaluation of these materials, as shown in as biosorbents (Salleh et al. 2011). Various materials can be
Fig. 1. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the utilized as biosorbents, including wood biomass, agro-waste
first study to critically evaluate adsorbents, with particular such as crop and forest residue, and animal waste materi-
emphasis on biosorbents, magnetic sorbents, and other eco- als, e.g., fish scales, crab shells, and chicken feathers. The
nomical sorbents, from their preparation to their ultimate materials undergo various processes before being used for
application. Furthermore, it provides a better understand- pollutant removal, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Subsequent sec-
ing of adsorption mechanisms and facilitates the effective tions will provide a detailed discussion of these materials.
regeneration of contaminated adsorbents.
Preparation of wooden, herbaceous, bacterial,
and marine‑based biosorbents
Methods to prepare biosorbents
Adopting the circular economy concept in the national
The industrial and technological progress of the past cen- development plans of many countries has facilitated the
tury has resulted in the release of substantial quantities of use of waste products for various purposes (Stjepanović
various organic and inorganic pollutants into the environ- et al. 2021). In the case of wood-based production, most
ment (Hosny et al. 2022; Mahmoud et al. 2022a). In order waste wood biomass has been used to generate heat and
to remove these pollutants, different treatment techniques electricity, replacing non-renewable sources with renew-
are continuously researched and implemented. Adsorption able, eco-friendly, and more sustainable alternatives (Uasuf
is considered one of the most effective techniques for remov- and Becker 2011). However, a significant amount of wood
ing pollutants due to its simplicity, low energy demand, and biomass waste remains underutilized or disposed of inad-
adaptability to various types of pollutants (Abdelfatah et al. equately, resulting in hazardous environmental issues

Fig. 1  Main topics presented in this review article. Various materi- in a more efficient technology for water treatment. The sorbents can
als can be used to prepare these sorbents cost-effectively. By utilizing be regenerated and reused to maximize these approaches' cost-effec-
these sorbents, improved pollutant removal can be achieved, resulting tive and sustainable benefits

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2339

Fig. 2  Biosorbents from synthesis to application. The production and of the feedstock. This is followed by the adsorbent process, which can
application of biosorbents involve several stages. First, the desired be carried out using pyrolysis, torrefaction, and gasification methods.
substrates are selected and subjected to washing and drying. Subse- The resulting biosorbent can remove contaminants from wastewater,
quently, physical techniques are employed to increase the surface area producing purified water suitable for various applications

(Stjepanović et al. 2021). Therefore, recent research articles were subjected to a 12-h ball-milling process at 300 rpm
have focused on utilizing wood biowaste in multiple applica- in ambient air, changing the rotation direction every three
tions, mainly as adsorbents for various pollutants. hours. After ball milling, the remaining biosorbents were
In order to adsorb phosphates from wastewater, aspen rinsed with deionized water, dried for 12 h at 80 °C, ground,
wood particles were treated in two stages with carboxym- and stored in airtight containers. The resulting biosorbents
ethyl cellulose and ferrous chloride solutions (Eberhardt exhibited high removal efficiencies of 87.9% for Congo red
and Min 2008). The study's novel aspect was using car- using the acidic biosorbent and 76.9% for crystal violet using
boxymethyl cellulose, a nontoxic anionic polymer, to cre- the alkaline biosorbent, even after five regeneration cycles.
ate additional binding sites for iron ions, thereby increasing The increased oxygen-containing functional groups and
phosphate adsorption capacity. The wood particles were pore channels of the biosorbents due to the acidic/alkaline
first ground, then treated with a carboxymethyl cellulose ball milling process resulted in electrostatic interaction, ion
solution in deionized water, and left for several hours. They exchange, and surface complexation between the biosorb-
were then filtered via vacuum filtration and dried at 60 °C. ents and the polar dyes. It is worth noting that this low-cost
The sample was subsequently soaked in an aqueous ferrous biosorbent production method did not require extensive heat
chloride solution, filtered, washed, and processed similarly. treatment, unlike the biochar preparation method.
The positive effect of carboxymethyl cellulose was evident Another study targeted the removal of crystal violet
in the adsorption capacity of approximately 4.14 mg ­g−1, from water using a biosorbent prepared by the valoriza-
compared to approximately 2.78 mg ­g−1 for the wood sample tion of jujube shell wood (El Messaoudi et al. 2017). The
treated solely with ferrous chloride. jujube core was initially crushed to extract the shell, which
Similarly, Yang et al. (2022) developed two wooden- was then processed using procedures similar to those used
based biosorbents for removing congo red and crystal violet for the biosorbent mentioned earlier. To create the modi-
using a one-step ball milling approach with Hickory wood fied shell powder, the jujube shell was mixed with sodium
feedstock. The biosorbents were synthesized via acidic and hydroxide, stirred at room temperature for one day, filtered
alkaline ball milling, while a neutrally-prepared biosorbent and rinsed with water, and finally dried and sieved similarly
served as a control. In the synthesis process, 100 g of 6 mm to the raw powder. The removal efficiency achieved using
agate spheres and 1 g of biomass feedstock were added to 0.2 g of raw shell powder was 95.84%, while only 0.1 g of
agate jars. Each jar was filled with 20 ml of sulfuric acid, the modified shell powder was required to achieve 98.16%
sodium hydroxide, or deionized water (control). The jars removal efficiency. The modified powder was also found to

13
2340 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

have a significantly higher adsorption capacity than the raw exhibited very low efficiency in removing copper and zinc
powder, with a capacity of 288.18 mg ­g−1 compared to only ions from aqueous solutions, with only about 3% efficiency
59.84 mg ­g−1 for the raw powder. This enhanced adsorption for both metals. This was due to the low cation release from
capacity was attributed to irregular cavities and carboxylate the wood biomass in both metal solutions, resulting in a very
groups on the surface of the modified powder, which facili- low cation exchange rate. However, when using Fucus vesic-
tated the adsorption of crystal violet molecules. ulosus algal biomass as a biosorbent, the removal efficien-
Chemical modifications used in current biosorbent syn- cies were much higher, with 67% and 55% for copper and
thesis methods can lead to secondary pollution, making zinc ions, respectively. To prepare the unmodified biosorb-
it essential to search for eco-friendly and green alterna- ent, the algae were collected, rinsed with water, air-dried,
tives (Zhang et al. 2012). In this concern, a recent study crushed, rewashed, and air-dried. A chemically treated algal
by Zhang et al. (2022b) investigated using an ultrasound- biosorbent was produced to enhance the removal efficiency
assisted and hydroalcoholic-freezing combination modi- by shaking the dried algal powder with a calcium nitrate
fication method for preparing a biosorbent made of waste solution for one day, followed by rinsing with water and air
peach wood branches to remove methylene blue. Initially, drying.
the peach wood branches were ground into powder (control Furthermore, modified algal biosorbents were also pre-
sample), mixed with ethanol, stirred for a few minutes, soni- pared for the same purpose. A chemically modified biosorb-
cated in a water bath at 70 °C, centrifuged, and subjected ent was produced by treating the dried algal powder with
to freeze-drying at − 60 °C. The resulting biosorbent had a calcium nitrate solution for one day, then rinse it with
a porous structure with fewer impurities than the control water and air drying. A thermally modified biosorbent was
sample, providing more adsorption sites and improving the also prepared by drying the crushed algae at 100 °C for two
overall removal efficiency to 94.91%. After removing impu- days after rinsing it with water. Surprisingly, both modified
rities with an ultrasound-assisted hydroalcoholic cleaning biosorbents showed lower efficiencies than the untreated
process, the remaining cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose biosorbent without any explanation provided by the authors.
were responsible for methylene blue adsorption via electro- The chemically modified biosorbent exhibited 62% and 52%
static, ion–dipole interactions, and π electrons transfer from efficiency against copper and zinc ions, respectively, while
the biosorbent to methylene blue. Additionally, the stability the thermally modified biosorbent exhibited 59% and 42%
of this biosorbent was confirmed by observing a removal efficiency against copper and zinc ions, respectively. The
efficiency of 81.79% after five recycling times. high efficiency of the untreated biosorbent was attributed
A green and cost-effective method for producing a highly to the presence of functional groups such as alcohols, car-
efficient and easily recyclable biosorbent for removing nickel boxylic acids, esters, and amides that have a high affinity
ions from wastewater was achieved through the esterification for both metals.
of paulownia wood using eco-friendly chemicals, phosphoric Various herbaceous materials have been investigated as
acid, and urea, commonly used in food and fertilizer produc- efficient biosorbents in multiple research articles. One such
tion (Huo et al. 2022). The Paulownia wood was first made material is Phytolacca americana L., which Wang et al.
into chips, mixed with sodium hydroxide, and heated for (2018a) used to remove lead ions ­(Pb2+) from aqueous solu-
one hour at 100 °C, followed by rinsing with hot deionized tions. To prepare the biosorbent, the plant material was pro-
water to produce the control wood biosorbent. The chemi- cessed similarly to the biosorbents discussed previously. A
cally modified (phosphorylated) biosorbent was prepared by modified biosorbent was created by soaking the plant mate-
suspending the control biosorbent in water and mixing it rial in a diluted nitric acid solution and shaking it for six
with phosphoric acid and urea. The mixture was then dried hours at room temperature. This was followed by washing to
at 80 °C for 12 h, rinsed with hot water, and left to dry in the neutralize the pH and drying the modified biosorbent simi-
open air. The positive effect of phosphorylation was evident larly to the raw biosorbent. The modification with nitric acid
in the significant increase in the adsorption capacity, from played a crucial role in improving the adsorption efficiency
18.5 mg ­g−1 for the unmodified biosorbent to 130.2 mg ­g−1 from 81.97 to 93.29% by increasing the surface porosity
for the phosphorylated biosorbent. This increase was attrib- and creating cracks that served as additional adsorption sites
uted to the complexation and electrostatic attraction between for lead ions. The adsorption mechanism was electrostatic
the negatively charged phosphate groups on the phosphoryl- interaction and ion exchange through the hydroxyl, carboxyl,
ated biosorbent surface and the positively charged nickel and amine functional groups.
ions. The high adsorption capacity was also attributed to the Phragmites australis, also known as the common reed,
protection and stabilization of the phosphorylated biosorbent is a cosmopolitan aquatic plant species that pose various
achieved by urea. environmental issues, including depletion of dissolved
In contrast to biosorbents prepared by Richards et al. oxygen and reduction of biological diversity (El-Borady
(2019) from wood biomass, natural softwood chippings et al. 2021; Hosny et al. 2021). Nevertheless, due to its

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2341

high cellulose and lignin content, it was utilized by South- To enhance the adsorption efficiency of biosorbents,
ichak et al. (2006) as a biosorbent to remove heavy metals, surfactants can be utilized to reduce surface tension and
such as nickel ions. The biosorbent was prepared in the increase the rate of ionic exchange. Bhatti et al. (2007) con-
same way as previously mentioned. The raw biosorbent ducted a study using Moringa oleifera as a biosorbent to
was then modified by treating it with sodium hydroxide, remove zinc ions from aqueous solutions. The plant was pro-
washing it with water to neutralize the pH, and oven- cessed by being rinsed, dried, and ground into a fine powder
drying it at 90 °C. The adsorption efficiency of the raw before being mixed with three different surfactants: Triton,
biosorbent was only 14% against a nickel concentration sodium dodecyl sulfate, and acetyl trimethyl ammonium
of 1.1 ppm, but it significantly increased to 81% for the bromide. After each surfactant was added and washed to
treated biosorbent. This improvement was primarily attrib- reach a pH of approximately 7, the biosorbent was air-dried.
uted to the enhanced surface area of the treated sorbent The results showed that acetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
(20 ­m 2 ­g −1), compared to only 3.49 ­m 2 ­g −1 for the raw had the highest removal efficiency at 85.6%, followed by
sorbent. Surprisingly, the removal efficiency of the treated Triton (84.12%), sodium dodecyl sulfate (80.82%), and the
biosorbent against a nickel concentration of 0.9 ppm unmodified biosorbent (74%). This was attributed to the high
increased from 92% in the first cycle to almost 99% in the number of carbon atoms in acetyl trimethyl ammonium bro-
second and third cycles. This behavior was attributed to mide, which created more positive sites for improved ionic
the slight increase of the biosorbent's negative zeta poten- exchange with zinc ions than other surfactants.
tial after being recycled using hydrochloric acid, resulting Yeast, including commercial dry baker's yeast (Sac-
in improved adsorption of positively charged nickel ions. charomyces cerevisiae), has been used by researchers as a
Shahnaz et al. (2020) conducted a study to remove hex- category of biological material for preparing biosorbents.
avalent chromium using a chemically modified biosorbent do Nascimento et al. (2019) utilized this yeast and success-
made from Acacia auriculiformis. The plant material was fully removed 76% of copper ions. Similarly, De Rossi et al.
processed like the previously mentioned biosorbents, then (2020) used the same yeast to remove hexavalent chromium
treated with sulfuric acid and pyrolyzed at 400 °C. The ions from real wastewater. Encapsulating the yeast with algi-
resulting powder was neutralized with a sodium bicarbo- nate beads led to an efficacy of approximately 95%. To pre-
nate and water mixture, dried, and mixed with ethylenedi- pare the biosorbent, the yeast was first rinsed with water and
aminetetraacetic acid for two days at room temperature mixed with a sodium alginate solution in phosphate buffer
before being washed and dried. The modified biosorbent for 10 min. The mixture was then added to a calcium chlo-
achieved a higher removal efficiency of 57.51% compared ride solution and left for two hours for the capsules to form.
to 40.65% for the pristine biosorbent. This increase was These capsules were then rinsed and oven-dried at 50 °C for
attributed to the complexation of the pristine biosorbent 24 h. The significant removal efficiency was attributed to the
with chelating agents, which increased the number of surface pores formed by the dried alginate beads.
active functional groups, such as carboxyl and hydroxyl Using the same biosorbents, baker’s yeast was treated
groups, that interacted with chromium ions. with ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid di-anhydride by Yu
Due to their high surface area and other positive proper- et al. (2008) to remove lead and copper ions. The prepara-
ties, nanomaterials have found numerous applications. In tion procedures involved two main steps; firstly, the baker’s
a recent study, Herrera-Barros et al. (2020) investigated yeast was mixed with a glutaraldehyde solution for 24 h at
using alumina nanoparticles to modify an oil palm-based room temperature, rinsed, and subjected to freeze drying.
(bagasse) biosorbent to remove cadmium and nickel from Secondly, ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid di-anhydride
wastewater. The preparation process involved shredding, was mixed with a solution of N, N-dimethylacetamide con-
rinsing, drying, and grinding the oil palm into fine pieces, taining yeast crosslinked biomass that was prepared in the
followed by mixing the pristine powder with dimethyl sul- first step. Subsequently, the mixture was washed to remove
foxide, tetra ethyl-o-silicate, and alumina nanoparticles the unreacted reagent after being stirred for 4 h at 60 °C and
while stirring for 12 h. The biosorbent was then rinsed freeze-dried. This treatment improved the active adsorption
and dried at room temperature. However, the chemical sites, leading to a removal efficiency of more than 90% for
modification of the bagasse biosorbent did not signifi- both metals through complexing these ions with ethylenedi-
cantly improve its adsorption efficacy. While the removal amine tetra-acetic acid of the modified biosorbent.
efficiency increased slightly for cadmium and nickel, In another study, Chwastowski and Staroń (2022)
the improvement was insignificant enough to justify the investigated how modifying a biosorbent made from
modification process's additional cost and environmental coconut fibers with Saccharomyces cerevisiae impacted
impact. Therefore, it may be more cost-effective and envi- the removal of lead ions. Initially, the fibers were rinsed
ronmentally friendly to rely on unmodified biosorbents. and dried at 50 °C for 72 h. The researchers then mixed
the fibers with sterilized yeast cells and left the mixture

13
2342 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

to incubate at 28 °C for 24 h. The study found no signifi- Preparation of agricultural waste‑based biosorbents
cant difference in the removal efficiency before and after
the modification, with both the unmodified and modi- Due to their wide availability, eco-friendliness, and facile
fied biosorbents achieving a removal efficiency of 99.32% conversion to biosorbents by straightforward processes such
against a lead concentration of 1000 ppm. However, as washing, drying, and grinding, agricultural waste materi-
the modified version demonstrated a slightly improved als are an efficient candidate for removing various organic
efficiency of 99.87%, attributed to the accumulation of and inorganic pollutants (Bhatnagar et al. 2015). The uti-
lead ions in the yeast cells. As the lead concentration lization of such a type of waste materials offers numerous
increased, the efficiency of the modified biosorbent positive aspects, such as minimizing the number of released
decreased and became lower than the unmodified version. waste materials, producing materials that could be of a high
This was due to the toxic effect of lead ions on the yeast value as well as treating wastewater by removing organic
cells, resulting in their death and the subsequent blocking and inorganic contaminants (Escudero et al. 2019; Peng
of active adsorption sites. et al. 2023). In this regard, peels of overripe Cucumis sati-
Jalali et al. (2002) utilized Sargassum hystrix, a type vus, commonly known as cucumber, were used by Lee et al.
of brown algae, as a source of biosorbents for remov- (2016) to remove acid blue 113 dye. The biosorbent was
ing lead ions. Marine biomass has become a popular and conventionally prepared by washing the whole plant with
environmentally friendly option due to its simplicity and water, followed by removing the plant's outer layer, cutting
cost-effectiveness. The algal biomass was prepared con- it into small pieces, oven drying, and finally, the peels were
ventionally by rinsing it with water, drying it under the ground into fine powder. The obtained removal efficiency
sun, oven-drying it, and finally grinding it into powder. was 97.6%, as indicated in Table 2, at an acidic pH level of
The study found that the obtained removal efficiency was 2 due to the electrostatic attraction between the positively
98%, and it is worth noting that the efficiency remained charged adsorption sites and the negatively charged sul-
constant even after ten regeneration cycles. This high effi- fonate groups of the dye molecules.
cacy was attributed to the algal polysaccharides, particu- Similarly, Ali (2018) used banana peels to support silicon
larly alginates, which contain carboxyl and sulfate func- dioxide nanoparticles to produce a nanocomposite of cel-
tional groups that act as adsorption sites (Volesky 1994). lulose/silicon dioxide and employed this composite in the
Several research studies have confirmed the effective- biosorption of methylene blue. Silicon dioxide nanoparti-
ness of modifying biosorbents, including marine-based cles were first synthesized through the alkaline hydrolysis
ones, with surface functional groups like amine, carboxyl, of tetraethylorthosilicate in ethanol. Then the peel powder
and phosphate to enhance their removal efficacy (Jayaku- was similarly prepared to the abovementioned article. Sub-
mar et al. 2021). For example, Oscillatoria princeps was sequently, the powder was mixed with the nanoparticles
modified using three different amine ligands; tetraethyl- solution and stirred for 16 h, dried at 80 °C, and eventu-
ene tetramine, para-amino benzamidine, and polydopa- ally calcined at 550 °C for one hour. Upon characterizing
mine to enhance the removal efficiency of reactive red both biosorbents, the surface area of the raw biosorbent was
120 dye (Bayramoglu et al. 2022). The study found that found to be 1.9 ­m2 ­g−1, whereas, for the modified biosorb-
the removal efficiency of the unmodified biosorbent was ent, the surface area significantly increased to 8.9 ­m2 ­g−1.
approximately 33.1% but significantly increased to 99.7%, Consequently, the adsorption capacity increased from 21 to
81.4%, and 59.8% after being modified with tetraethylene 78.75 mg ­g−1 by the modified biosorbent. Also, the removal
tetramine, para-amino benzamidine, and polydopamine, efficiency increased from 86.5 to 99.6% by increasing the
respectively. This increase in efficiency was attributed to pH from 4 to 10. Such a result indicated the quintessential
the increased number of adsorption sites after modifica- role of the electrostatic attraction between the negatively
tion and the electrostatic attraction between the amine charged biosorbent and the cationic dye molecules and the
groups on the aliphatic chains of the ligands and the dye's chemical adsorption.
sulfonyl groups. The higher efficiency of the tetraethyl- Similarly, sugarcane bagasse was treated with phosphoric
ene tetramine-treated biosorbent compared to the other acid to produce a biosorbent for methyl red dye adsorption
modified biosorbents was due to its numerous primary (Saad et al. 2010). The bagasse powder was added to a phos-
and secondary amine groups. Overall, various biosorbents phoric acid solution and heated at 150 °C for one day, fol-
have been found to be effective in removing dyes, heavy lowed by water rinsing and overnight mixing with sodium
metals, and other pollutants, as listed in Table 1, with carbonate to remove acid residues. Lastly, the mixture was
algal biomass exhibiting the highest efficiency even after neutralized by washing with deionized water, 24 h-drying
ten regeneration cycles. at 150 °C, and ground into fine powder. This treatment
increased the adsorption efficacy from 64.2 to 83.2%, which
was attributed to the enhanced anion-exchange reaction

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2343

Table 1  Methods to prepare wooden, herbaceous, bacterial, and marine-based biosorbents

Preparation method Feedstock material Target pollutant Removal% or qm (mg ­g−1) References

Two-stage treatment of aspen Refined aspen wood fiber Phosphates 4.14 mg ­g−1 Eberhardt and Min (2008)
wood particles with car-
boxymethyl cellulose and
ferrous chloride solutions
Acidic and alkaline one-step Hickory wood Crystal violet 76.9% Yang et al. (2022)
ball milling Congo red 87.9%
Valorization of wood Jujube shell Crystal violet 98.16% El Messaoudi et al. (2017)
Ultrasound-assisted and Waste peach wood branches Methylene blue 94.91% Zhang et al. (2022b)
hydroalcoholic-freezing
combination modification
Esterification of wood by Paulownia wood Nickel 130.2 mg ­g−1 Huo et al. (2022)
phosphoric acid and urea
Conventional method Unmodified wood chippings Copper 3% Richards et al. (2019)
Zinc 3%
Unmodified macro algae Copper 67%
(Fucus vesiculosus) Zinc 55%
Treatment with a nitric acid Phytolacca americana L Lead 93.29% Wang et al. (2018a)
solution
Treatment with sodium Phragmites australis Nickel 92% Southichak et al. (2006)
hydroxide solution
Sulfuric acid treatment Acacia auriculiformis shells Hexavalent chromium 57.51% Shahnaz et al. (2020)
combined with ethylen-
ediaminetetraacetic acid
complexation
Modification of oil palm with Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) Cadmium 87% Herrera-Barros et al. (2020)
alumina nanoparticles Nickel 81%
Modification of Moringa Moringa oleifera treated with Zinc 84.12% Bhatti et al. (2007)
oleifera with surfactants Triton
Moringa oleifera treated with 80.82%
sodium dodecyl sulfate
Moringa oleifera treated with 85.6%
cetyl trimethyl ammonium
bromide
Conventional biosorption Commercial dry baker’s yeast Copper 76% do Nascimento et al. (2019)
assays (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Encapsulation with alginate Commercial dry baker’s yeast Hexavalent chromium 95% De Rossi et al. (2020)
beads (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Modification of baker’s yeast Commercial dry baker’s yeast Lead and copper More than 90% Yu et al. (2008)
with ethylenediaminetet- (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
raacetic acid dianhydride
Modification of coconut fib- Coconut fibers Lead 99.87% Chwastowski and Staroń
ers by Saccharomyces cer- (2022)
evisiae
Conventional preparation of Brown algae (Sargassum Lead 98% Jalali et al. (2002)
algal biosorbents hystrix)
Chemical modification of Blue-green algae (Oscillato- Reactive red 120 99.7% Bayramoglu et al. (2022)
algal biomass with amine ria princeps) 81.4%
ligands (tetraethylene
59.8%
tetramine, para-amino
benzamidine, and polydo-
pamine)

Various techniques are used to modify these biosorbents to improve their efficiency. In addition, different feedstock materials used, types of
target organic and inorganic pollutants, and the reported removal efficiencies of these biosorbents were reported. qm is the maximum adsorption
amount of Langmuir isotherm

13
2344 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Table 2  Common methods to prepare biosorbents from agricultural waste materials

Preparation method Feedstock material Target pollutant Removal% References

Conventional preparation of agro-waste Peels of overripe Cucumis sativus Acid blue 113 97.6 Lee et al. (2016)
biosorbents
Synthesis of cellulose/silicon dioxide Banana peels Methylene blue 99.6 Ali (2018)
nanocomposite
Treatment of agro-waste biosorbent with Sugarcane bagasse Methyl red 83.2 Saad et al. (2010)
phosphoric acid
The two-stage process of chemical acti- Orange peels Congo red 98 Karaman et al. (2022)
vation accompanied by carbonization
followed by surfactant modification
Combined acidic and alkaline treatment Tangerine peels Cadmium 97.9 Abdić et al. (2018)
of an agricultural waste material Cobalt 94.7
Hexavalent chromium 88.9
Copper 97
Manganese 92.4
Nickel 93.5
Lead 93
Zinc 96.8
Thermochemical treatment of agricul- Corn husk (Zea mays) Lead 100 Rwiza et al. (2018)
tural waste-based biosorbent
Formation of crosslinked composites Aspergillus australensis Copper 79 Contreras-Cortés et al. (2019)
beads containing copper-toler-
ant Aspergillus australensis biomass
Ultrasound treatment of seaweed-based Seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii) Methylene blue 100 Kumar et al. (2022)
biosorbent
Conventional preparation of forest Inga marginata Gentian violet 77.65 Franco et al. (2021)
waste-based biosorbents Tipuana tipu 68.71
Treatment of forest waste biosorbent Kenaf fiber Copper 88.2 Razak et al. (2020)
with phosphoric acid

The possible modifications applied to these preparation methods to enhance their pollutants’ removal efficiencies and the employed feedstock
materials in preparing the biosorbents were listed. The detected removal efficiencies. qm is the maximum adsorption amount of Langmuir iso-
therm

between the dye and functional groups on the biosorbent was related to the enhancement of surface area from 102
surface. to 1169 ­m2 ­g−1 and the improved pores' formation after the
Treating biosorbents with surfactants to enhance their modification process. Also, van der Waals forces between
removal performance of various organic and inorganic pol- the dye and the surfactant molecules were considered one
lutants was indicated in previous research works, such as the of the main factors for increasing the adsorption efficacy.
one conducted by Karaman et al. (2022) on Congo red dye. One more study targeted the removal of eight different
The raw biosorbent was made of orange peel waste, simi- heavy metals by a chemically-modified biosorbent made of
lar to the abovementioned studies. The modified biosorbent tangerine peels (Abdić et al. 2018). The peel powder was
was prepared in two steps; chemical activation accompanied prepared using the same steps mentioned above and then
by carbonization and modification with the surfactant cetyl mixed with nitric acid at the average room temperature for
trimethyl ammonium bromide. Firstly, the powder was mag- one day, followed by thorough washing to neutralize the pH
netically stirred with zinc chloride solution and then dried and air-dried. Secondly, the powder underwent a further
at 110 °C, followed by a carbonization process in a muffle alkaline treatment by mixing the neutralized powder with
furnace at 500 °C for one hour. Secondly, the carbonized sodium hydroxide for three to four hours and then processed
powder was rinsed with hydrochloric acid followed by water, in the same manner as the first step. The observed removal
oven-dried at 110 °C, mixed with the surfactant, shaken efficiencies using the modified biosorbent were 97.9%,
for one day, rinsed, and dried. The removal efficiency was 94.7%, 88.9%, 97.0%, 92.4%, 93.5%, 93.0%, and 96.8%
boosted from 61% by the pristine biosorbent to almost 98% for cadmium, cobalt, hexavalent chromium, copper, man-
using the treated biosorbent. Such a significant difference ganese, nickel, lead, and zinc, respectively. These removal

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2345

efficiencies were about 40% higher than the unmodified dissolution that could result in forming other secondary
biosorbent for all eight metals. Such an improved perfor- pollutants (Sánchez-Duarte et al. 2017).
mance was accredited to the increased adsorption sites and Applying the ultrasound energy in modifying biosorb-
the enhanced ionic exchange between the negatively charged ents is another option to produce highly efficient biosorb-
functional groups in the cell wall of tangerine peels and the ents, such as the ultrasound seaweed-based (Kappaphycus
positively charged metal ions upon chemical modification. alvarezii) biosorbent synthesized by Kumar et al. (2022)
Another sort of common agricultural waste material that to remove methylene blue. The seaweed powder was pre-
could be harnessed in producing biosorbents for wastewater pared similarly to the aforementioned raw biosorbents.
treatment is corn husk. In this line, a recent study (Rwiza Subsequently, the powder was mixed with ethanol and
et al. 2018) targeted the adsorption of lead ions using a subjected to a probe-based ultrasound treatment at 30 °C
thermochemically treated corn (Zea mays) husk biosorb- with a variation in ultrasound power, solid–liquid ratio,
ent. Conventional experimental procedures, from rinsing and contact time. Such treatment created more cavities
and drying to grounding, were employed to prepare the raw on the biosorbent surface and increased the surface area
corn husk biosorbent. Subsequently, biochar material was from 0.77 ­m2 ­g−1 to almost 1 ­m2 ­g−1, leading to complete
produced by pyrolyzing at 500 °C for 1 h. Afterwards, the removal efficiency (100%).
biochar powder was chemically treated using two different Forest waste materials are another category of eco-
reagents; firstly, mixed in an equal ratio with zinc chloride friendly biosorbents that attracted the researchers’ interest
in water, followed by stirring, heating, filtration, and dry- due to their wide availability, low cost, simple preparation
ing. The resulting powder was re-carbonized using the same techniques, facile modification, and high efficacy (Gemici
conditions, removed excess zinc chloride by nitric acid, and et al. 2021). In this regard, Franco et al. (2021) investi-
finally washed to have a pH range of 5–6. Secondly, another gated the removal of gentian violet dye using the pods of
chemically modified biosorbent was prepared similarly using two forest species; Inga marginata and Tipuana tipu. The
potassium hydroxide. The observed removal efficiency for pods were rinsed separately and then dried at 60 °C inside
the raw biosorbent was about 82% but reached almost 100% a greenhouse for two days. Subsequently, the dried materi-
using the two thermochemically biosorbents. Such a result als were ground, washed with ethanol followed by water,
was accredited to the improved chemical cation exchange and ultimately dried one more time inside the greenhouse.
because of the increased oxygen-containing functional Some negatively charged functional groups, including car-
groups, including carboxyl and hydroxyl groups (Gaskin bonyl and hydroxyl groups on the biosorbents’ surface led
et al. 2008), along with the enhanced adsorption sites after to the adsorption of the cationic dye molecules by 77.65%
chemical treatment. and 68.71% using the biosorbents of Inga marginata and
Fungi-based materials constitute another important type Tipuana tipu, respectively.
of biosorbent that showed high efficacy and well applica- Within the same biosorbents category, Razak et al.
bility in many research works, such as the one carried out (2020) examined the adsorption of copper ions by a
by Contreras-Cortés et al. (2019) to adsorb copper ions phosphoric acid-treated biosorbent based on Kenaf
on the surface of crosslinked composites beads containing fiber. The pristine biosorbent was produced similarly to
copper-tolerant Aspergillus australensis biomass with an the abovementioned biosorbent. However, the pristine
efficiency of 79%. The dead fungi powder was prepared in powder was mixed with dimethyl formamide solution
a broth containing potassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium for one day at room temperature to prepare the modified
nitrate, sucrose, yeast extract, and others. Subsequently, one. Subsequently, the solution was filtered, followed
the broth was inoculated, and the produced biomass was by adding urea in a fresh dimethyl formamide solution
filtered, rinsed, sterilized in an autoclave, dried, and even- and phosphoric acid addition. Furthermore, the mixture
tually ground into fine powder. To prepare the chitosan was refluxed, filtered, and washed with ethyl alcohol, fol-
beads, chitosan solution was mixed with the prepared fun- lowed by water. Finally, the filtered powder was mixed
gal powder, then sodium alginate solution was added to with sodium hydroxide, rinsed with water, and dried. The
synthesize the polymerization gel. Furthermore, the gel observed adsorption capacity of the treated biosorbent was
was mixed with a tripolyphosphate solution to formulate 25.2 mg ­g−1 with an efficiency of 88.2% compared to just
the crosslinked composite beads. A comparison between about 15 mg ­g−1 using the untreated biosorbent when the
the unmodified composite beads and the crosslinked com- target sample was real wastewater released from the elec-
posite beads revealed higher removal efficiency for the troplating industry. A substantial difference was attributed
unmodified beads since the crosslinking step blocked some to the increased surface area from 78.38 to 150.82 ­m2 ­g−1,
active adsorption sites. However, the mechanical stability accompanied by an increased number of pores that serve
of the crosslinked beads was higher, particularly in the as adsorption sites and the presence of oxygen-containing
acidic medium, which is better for avoiding chitosan beads functional groups bind the target pollutant.

13
2346 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

In conclusion, acid treatment is the most common modi- Continuing with the abovementioned study, the enhanced
fication technique for improving the efficacy of various efficacies of all treated biosorbents indicated the positive
biosorbents. Additionally, ultrasound and thermochemical effect of treatments in removing the inorganic and the
treatments positively influence the performance of biosorb- organic materials blocking the active adsorption sites on
ents. However, some treatment types might have a negative the biosorbent surface. The chemical treatments were spe-
effect on the biosorbents' efficiency, such as using cross- cifically responsible for blocking lipids and proteins, creat-
linked beads. Such a conclusion could be supported or ing more pores, and increasing the surface area. Addition-
refuted by undertaking further research work. ally, the hydrothermal treatment resulted in slightly better
adsorption efficiencies attributed to the enhanced adsorption
sites as a consequence of removing inorganic minerals from
Preparation of animal waste‑based biosorbents the biosorbent surface. As a result, it was expected that the
combination of the acid and hydrothermal treatments would
The industrial revolution, advanced medical care, overpop- yield greater removal efficiencies for both metals.
ulation, economic growth, and welfare are all interrelated Extracting several materials from biological waste materi-
reasons behind the substantial food and animal consumption als and using them as biosorbents is another viable option
rates worldwide. Subsequently, it releases loads of animal by which a product with the added value could be produced
waste into the environment, such as fish scales, crab shells, from such waste. In this respect, Aziz et al. (2022) extracted
and chicken feathers. Therefore, it is essential to make the hydroxyapatite from two different bio-waste materials, fish
utmost use of these wastes by turning them into biosorbents scales, and camel bones, and employed it to remove bisphe-
and employing them in wastewater treatment. nol A. Both scales and bones were firstly and separately pro-
In this regard, Ighalo and Eletta (2020) conducted experi- cessed using the abovementioned experimental procedures
ments using biosorbents derived from fish scales to eliminate and then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, followed by adding
zinc and lead ions from aqueous solutions. Scaling scales sodium hydroxide solution while keeping the mixture heated
involved a few simple steps, beginning with a thorough rins- and stirred for 12 h. Subsequently, white precipitates started
ing with water and then a detergent. Subsequently, the scales settling out of the solution and were collected, washed, oven-
were mixed with nitric acid to remove metal oxides and other dried, and ground. This heat treatment helped improve the
waste materials on the scales' surface and then washed with porosity of both biosorbents allowing the bisphenol A mol-
water. Lastly, the scales were oven-dried and ground into ecules to get adsorbed on their surfaces. Therefore, efficient
fine powder. The detected removal efficiencies for zinc and adsorption performance was detected with removal efficacies
lead ions were 96.4% and 98.7%, respectively, as indicated of 83.51% and 79.38% using scales-based and bone-based
in Table 3. Such a result was accredited to many adsorptive biosorbents, respectively.
constituents, including esters and carboxylic acids. Another class of animal waste materials that are released
Regarding applying the same sort of biosorbents in the from the seafood industry, restaurants, and homes daily is
remediation of sediments, Pal and Maiti (2020) investi- crab shell waste. Crab shells contain various organic and
gated the adsorption of cadmium and lead using chemically, inorganic constituents that help produce biosorbents with
hydrothermally, and chemically hydrothermally biosorbents high adsorption efficacy. Therefore, many research studies
made from fish scales. The raw powder was prepared as were focused on investigating these waste materials, such as
mentioned above and then chemically modified using two the one that targeted the adsorption of copper and lead using
different reagents, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydrox- a crab shell-based biosorbent (Cancer pagurus) (Richards
ide, by simply mixing and stirring each one, followed by et al. 2019). The shells were rinsed with a surfactant, fol-
washing and drying. The powder was dissolved in deionized lowed by water, and ground into fine powder. The observed
water for the hydrothermal treatment and heated for 3 h at removal efficacy of copper was 31%, while 18% was against
150 °C in a stainless-steel autoclave, followed by rinsing and zinc ions. The formation of coordination bonds between the
oven drying. Furthermore, the raw powder was dissolved metals and the amino acids and carboxyl functional groups
in hydrochloric acid instead of water and processed simi- on the biosorbent surface governed the removal of these
larly to the hydrothermally treated biosorbent to produce the ions. Moreover, the increased concentration of calcium
hydrothermally-acidic biosorbent. The observed efficiencies ions released from the biosorbent surface into the solution
were 43.3%, 60.9%, 76.5, 77.4%, and 95.9% for cadmium indicated the ionic exchange mechanism. Also, it was con-
ions using raw biosorbent, alkaline-treated, acid-treated, cluded that chitin molecules, a major constituent of crab
hydrothermally-treated, and hydrothermally-acidic treated shells, acted as binding sites for the metal ions.
biosorbents, respectively. While for lead ions, the obtained Concomitantly with the same biosorbents category, the
efficiencies were 51.2%, 65.3%, 78.8%, 83.3%, and 97.2% removal of lead and zinc ions was targeted by the crab shells
using the same order of biosorbents. of Clistocoeloma sinensis (Zhou et al. 2016). Four different

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2347

Table 3  Methods to prepare animal waste-based biosorbents

Preparation method Feedstock material Target pollutant Removal% References

Conventional preparation of biosor- Fish scales of Micropogonias Zinc 96.4 Ighalo and Eletta (2020)
bents undulatus Lead 98.7
Alkaline treatment of animal waste- Fish scales Cadmium 60.9 Pal and Maiti (2020)
based biosorbent Lead 65.3
Acidic treatment of animal waste- Cadmium 76.5
based biosorbent Lead 78.8
Hydrothermal treatment of animal Cadmium 77.4
waste-based biosorbent Lead 83.3
Combined hydrothermal and acid Cadmium 95.9
treatments of animal waste-based Lead 97.2
biosorbent
Thermal extraction of hydroxyapa- Fish scales Bisphenol A 83.51 Aziz et al. (2022)
tite from animal waste materials Camel bones 79.38
Conventional preparation of animal Untreated crab shells (Cancer Copper 31 Richards et al. (2019)
waste-based biosorbent pagurus) Zinc 18
Chemical modification of carb Fresh crab shells (Clistocoeloma Lead 99.95 (2016)
shells-based biosorbents sinensis) Zinc 99.72
Boiled crab shells (Clistocoeloma Lead 99.90
sinensis) Zinc 99.70
Deproteinated crab shells (Clisto- Lead 99.99
coeloma sinensis) Zinc 99.89
Demineralized crab shells (Clisto- Lead 10.17
coeloma sinensis) Zinc 1.50
Extraction of biopolymers from Shrimp shells Copper 98.97 Mohanasrinivasan et al. (2014)
shrimp shell wastes Zinc 86.15
Ferrous iron 65.2
Hexavalent chromium 37.51
Modification of chicken feathers- Chicken feathers Nickel 99 Zubair et al. (2022)
based biosorbent with graphene Cobalt 92
oxide nanoparticles
Lead 91
Cadmium 90
Zinc 90
Chromate 90
Selenium 99
Arsenic 96
Calcination of eggshell waste-based Eggshells Yellow 28 93.2 Slimani et al. (2014)
biosorbent
Mechanical ball milling of eggshell Unmodified eggshells Copper 91.36 Mohammad et al. (2022)
waste-based biosorbent Nano-sized eggshells 97.21

Animal waste-based biosorbents can remove multiple pollutants, including zinc, lead, cadmium, bisphenol A, and others

biosorbents were prepared from the same material, includ- efficiencies of lead ions were 99.95%, 99.90%, 99.99%, and
ing a fresh biosorbing sample that was prepared via rinsing 10.17% using the fresh, boiled, deproteinated, and deminer-
with water and air drying. Additionally, a portion of this alized biosorbents, respectively. At the same time, the effi-
sample was then ground to prepare the boiled biosorbent. ciencies of these biosorbents in the same order against zinc
At the same time, to produce the deproteinated biosorbent, ions were 99.72%, 99.70%, 99.89%, and 1.50%.
the powder was mixed and stirred with sodium hydroxide The abovementioned percentages indicated that the pres-
for six hours. Lastly, the demineralized biosorbent was pre- ence of minerals with a biosorbent structure is a quintessen-
pared by mixing the boiled one with hydrochloric acid at tial factor in boosting the removal efficacy against both met-
average room temperature for 48 h. The obtained removal als. The lowest effective biosorbent was the demineralized

13
2348 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

one. The primary mechanism for lead adsorption was the Eggshell wastes are commonly produced in most of the
precipitation of lead ions on the surface of the biosorbent as world's countries regardless of their economic well-being.
lead carbonate with the aid of the dissolved calcium carbon- They represent another green, facile, and cost-effective
ate from the shells. At the same time, the chelation of zinc biosorbent material, whether prepared in a pristine or modi-
ions with carbonyl and hydroxyl functional groups, along fied form. Therefore, such a kind of waste material always
with the coordination between zinc and carbonate compo- attracts researchers' interest, such as Slimani et al. (2014),
nents of the crab shell, was considered the main removal who examined the adsorption efficacy of physically treated
mechanism. egg shells by calcination in removing basic yellow 28 dye
Extracting biopolymers from shrimp shells is another sus- with an efficiency of 93.2%. The raw biosorbent was pre-
tainable route for preparing biosorbents such as chitosan, pared by the same conventional experimental procedures
extracted from shrimp shell waste material and used as a used for most biosorbents, including washing, drying, and
biosorbent to remove heavy metal ions (Mohanasrinivasan grinding. In contrast, the calcined biosorbent was prepared
et al. 2014). Firstly, the shrimp shells were demineralized by heating the ground powder for two hours at 900 °C. The
using hydrochloric acid, followed by acid removal using adsorption mechanism was found to be governed by van
water. The second step was producing chitin via deproteini- der Waals along with dipole forces by observing that the
zation, which was conducted by mixing the demineralized adsorption capacity decreased from 9 mg ­g−1 at 15 °C to
shells with 5% sodium hydroxide for one day at 90 °C and 5 mg ­g−1 at 45 °C.
then drying. Subsequently, the chitin was subjected to dea- Mechanical ball milling is a commonly used technique
cetylation to produce chitosan by mixing with a higher con- for preparing various nanomaterials and nano-biosorbents.
centrated sodium hydroxide (70%) under stirring for three Mohammad et al. (2022) in preparing an eggshell-based
days. Lastly, the pH of the residual solid was neutralized by biosorbent to remove toxic copper ions from water. The
washing with water and then filtering, drying, and crush- raw biosorbent material was prepared similarly to the pre-
ing. The detected removal efficiencies were 98.97%, 86.15%, viously mentioned biosorbents. In contrast, for the nano-
65.2%, and 37.51% for copper, zinc, ferrous iron, and hexa- biosorbent, the raw biosorbent powder was crushed into
valent chromium ions, respectively. This result was accred- nano-sized powder using a ball milling machine. Although
ited to the main role of polysaccharides existing in chitosan the obtained removal efficiencies were primarily compara-
as active adsorption sites for these metal ionic species. ble, as they were 91.36% and 97.21% for the raw and the
In line with the abovementioned technique, chicken feath- mechanically treated biosorbents, respectively, the removal
ers constitute another renewable, widely available, and sus- rate of the latter was about 17 times faster than the former.
tainable source of biopolymers and proteins, such as kera- The main reason behind that difference was the high surface
tin (Tesfaye et al. 2017). Accordingly, a recent study used area of the modified biosorbent (21.2 ­m2 ­g−1) which was 1.6
keratin to produce an efficient nano-biosorbent by modify- times higher than the unmodified powder. The major driving
ing it using graphene oxide nanoparticles to remove several force of biosorption was the electrostatic attraction between
cationic and anionic heavy metals with efficacies of more positive copper ions and negative biosorbent particles at an
than 90% (Zubair et al. 2022). The feathers were pretreated almost neutral pH (6).
in a similar procedure to other types of biosorbents. Then This section summarizes the preparation methods
they were stirred with ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid, of different biosorbents using various source materi-
urea, tris-base, and sodium sulfite at 90 °C for two days. als, including wooden, bacterial, algal, and herbaceous
Subsequently, they were sonicated for half an hour to extract materials. Additionally, agricultural wastes, fungi, and
keratin. Secondly, keratin was precipitated with hydrochloric forest waste materials, as well as animal wastes (e.g.,
acid and mixed with graphene oxide, and then the precipitate fish scales, camel bones, crab and shrimp shells, egg-
was centrifuged, rinsed, dried, and ground into a fine powder shells, and chicken feathers), as shown in Fig. 3, could be
biosorbent. Keratin has high stability due to its crosslinking employed in the adsorption of several organic and inor-
structure, so many functional groups in its internal struc- ganic pollutants. Such a fact is based on their availability
ture and side chains are unavailable for adsorbing pollutants. worldwide, eco-friendliness, low cost, facile modifica-
Consequently, they became more exposed and exfoliated tion, and high adsorption efficacy. As shown in Fig. 4,
upon modification by graphene oxide, which was in line with numerous modification techniques could be applied to
the substantial increase in the surface area of the modified enhance the performance of biosorbents, and they are
biosorbent (19.50 ­m2 ­g−1) compared to the unmodified one mainly categorized into chemical, physical, and mechani-
(1.06 ­m2 ­g−1). Thus, the observed removal efficacies against cal techniques. Therefore, the main target of biosorbent
both anionic and cationic metals were higher than 90%, as preparation is two-fold: first, to use the unwanted bio-
indicated in Table 3, whereas the efficacies of the unmodi- logical waste materials that always end up being released
fied one ranged from 20 to 70%. into the environment and polluting water systems. The

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2349

Fig. 3  Categorization of
common biosorbent materi-
als. Biosorbent materials can
be broadly categorized into
woody and herbaceous-based
biosorbents, crop residue and
biomass-based biosorbents, and
animal waste-based biosorbents.
Examples of animal waste-
based biosorbents include fish
scales, eggshells, and chicken
feathers. Among bacteria-based
biosorbents, commercial dry
baker's yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) and blue-green
algae-based biosorbents are
commonly used. Biosorbents
from agricultural waste, such as
fruit peels, sugarcane bagasse,
and corn husk, are also widely
used

Fig. 4  Classification of major modification techniques of biosorbents' Chemical techniques include acid treatment, alkaline treatment, treat-
preparation. Mechanical techniques such as ball milling are used— ment with surfactants, and others. A combination of multiple treat-
physical techniques involving ultrasound treatment and calcination. ment types is also applied in biosorbents' preparation

13
2350 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

second target is to advocate circular economy principles Coprecipitation approach

and sustainable development by using pollutants (i.e.,
biosorbents) to remove other pollutants. Coprecipitation is one of the most straightforward con-
ventional approaches that is widely utilized for fabricating
magnetic sorbents. Typically, the approach is proceeded by
mixing a divalent metal ions ­(M2+) precursor with a triva-
Methods to prepare magnetic sorbents lent metal ions precursor (­ M3+) in fundamental conditions.
Furthermore, the fabricated magnetic sorbents by the copre-
Due to magnetic sorbents' outstanding properties, sus- cipitation approach could be easily functionalized by adding
tained studies have been executed to foster their prepara- functional substances to the reaction mixture. Notably, the
tion approaches. Notably, the preparation method mainly magnetic nature, structure, particle size, and morphology
controls the magnetic sorbents' shape, morphology, of the synthesized magnetic sorbents by coprecipitation
magnetic property, and particle size. Generally, the most are controlled by some key parameters, including the type
applied approaches to synthesizing magnetic sorbents of metal salts, ­M2+/M3+ ratio, and the process temperature
are coprecipitation, hydrothermal, thermal decomposi- and pH (Wu et al. 2008). Also, the precipitating agent type
tion, polyol, microwave, sol–gel, and micro-emulsion, as impacts the magnetic sorbent specifications since the crys-
revealed in Table 4 and Fig. 5. tallinity and magnetic saturation of the fabricated particles
by ammonium hydroxide are higher than those prepared by

Table 4  Preparation approaches of magnetic sorbents

Preparation method Controlling parameters Advantage Disadvantage

Coprecipitation Type of metal salts Simplicity Lack of particles uniformity

M2+/M3+ ratio Easy-functionalization Low reproducibility
Temperature Eco-friendly solvent
pH High yield
Precipitating agent Short reaction time
Hydrothermal Reaction temperature Synthesis in water Slow kinetic rate
Reaction pressure Excellent magnetic property High temperature and pressure
Precursor concentration High surface area
Reaction time Narrow size distribution
High product purity
Micro-emulsion Oil/water ratio High magnetic property Large amounts of emulsifier
Small particles' size Low yield
High cost
Thermal decomposition The precursor: surfactant: Narrow size distribution High temperature and pressure
solvent ratio Size and shape control Safety issues of the reactants
Annealing temperature Good magnetic property Solubility in organic solvents
Reaction time High crystallinity
Polyol Precursor concentration Excellent magnetic property Production of elemental metals
Reaction temperature Application in hyperthermia Poly-dispersed particle size
Special morphology
High crystallinity
Microwave-assisted pyrolysis Microwave power Superb adsorption property Needs specific apparatus
Radiation time High surface area
High total pores volume
Rapid crystallization
Chemical reduction Reducing agent type Simple Oxidation probability of mag-
Precursor concentration Safe netic metal sorbents
Easy to be performed in the laboratory
Proceeding at room temperature
Arc discharge Temperature Efficient Low efficiency
Power supply Cheap Difficulty in size controlling
Pressure Eco-friendly Limited in industry
Electrode geometry Nontoxic

The controlling parameters of the preparation approaches of magnetic sorbents are listed. The advantages and disadvantages of different prepara-
­ 2+/M3+ is divalent metal ions precursor/trivalent metal ions precursor ratios
tion methods are clarified. M

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2351

Fig. 5  Preparation approaches

of magnetic sorbents. Magnetic
sorbents could be prepared
via coprecipitation using a
precipitating agent. Further,
the sol–gel method is a popular
method for preparing magnetic
sorbents. Heating in a reac-
tor (hydrothermal process),
microwave-assisted process, or
direct thermal decomposition
could be used to prepare mag-
netic sorbents. Other methods,
such as micro-emulsion, could
also prepare magnetic sorbents.
­M3+ and ­M2+ refer to the metal
valences

sodium hydroxide (Faraji et al. 2010). Coprecipitation pos- and growth, resulting in the fabrication of small particles,
sesses remarkable merits, such as producing a high yield, which increase the surface area and the adsorption effi-
having a short reaction time, and utilizing water as an eco- cacy of the magnetic sorbents. Whereas the generated high
friendly solvent. pressure in the reactor could reduce the volatilization of
On the other hand, a high base condition is one of the the reactants as well as improve the purity of the produced
demerits of the coprecipitation method since such conditions particles (Sari et al. 2018).
decrease the uniformity of the produced magnetic particles. Furthermore, the metal salt precursors significantly
In addition, the low reproducibility is another disadvantage influence the size and morphology of the fabricated mag-
of the coprecipitation method (Husnain et al. 2017). The netic substances. Interestingly, the synthesized magnetic
coprecipitation method is a simple, efficient, economical materials via the hydrothermal method have higher crys-
procedure for producing magnetic sorbents but lacks uni- tallinity and narrower size distribution than those manu-
formity and reproducibility. factured by the other preparation approaches. The long
hydrothermal time increases the size of the magnetic
Hydrothermal approach particles, while the short time produces uniform particles
ranging from 10 to 50 nm (Xu and Teja 2008). Neverthe-
Hydrothermal is an approach for fabricating magnetic sor- less, the hydrothermal approach has shortcomings, such
bents by chemical reactions in an autoclave. Hydrother- as a slow reaction rate and high temperature and pressure
mal needs specific conditions such as elevated temperature requirements (Eltaweil et al. 2022b). In brief, the hydro-
ranging from 150 to 200 °C and high pressure reaching thermal method needs high temperature and pressure, and
2000 psi (Lv et al. 2009). Noteworthy, the saturation it overcomes the metal salt effect on the produced size
magnetization of magnetic sorbents could be enhanced by and morphology. Still, the reaction time should be well-
adjusting the reaction temperature (Attallah et al. 2016). adjusted to control the particle size.
In addition, elevated temperature leads to fast nucleation

13
2352 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Thermal decomposition approach agent at room temperature. Chemical reduction distinguishes

by its safety, simplicity, and ease of being performed in the
Thermal decomposition is one of the popular approaches laboratory (El-Monaem et al. 2021, 2022). Nevertheless, the
for preparing monodispersed magnetic sorbents via the metals could be oxidized during the fabrication via chemical
decomposition of organometallic precursors in boiling reduction, which is the major disadvantage of this approach.
organic liquids (Duan et al. 2015). The size and morphology To overcome this limitation, adjusting the ratio between
of produced magnetic particles by the thermal decomposi- metal precursor and reducing agent, utilizing freshly pre-
tion method depend on the ratio between metal precursor, pared reducing agent, performing the process quickly, and
surfactant, and solvent, in addition to the domination of washing the fabricated metal particles well with an ethanolic
the other factors, such as annealing temperature and reac- solution is essential.
tion time on the structural and magnetically nature of the
fabricated magnetic substances by thermal decomposition Polyol approach
method (Patsula et al. 2016). However, thermal decomposi-
tion suffers the safety issue since it requires harsh condi- Polyol is a liquid phase approach that proceeds by the diva-
tions like boiling organic liquids at elevated temperatures lent metal ions precursor (­ M2+)/trivalent metal ions precur-
and using vapor phases without air. Nevertheless, how metal sor ­(M3+) oxidative alkaline hydrolysis in a polyol solvent.
oxides can be synthesized without oxygen is still question- Although the particle size of the produced magnetic sub-
able. Pioneering studies pointed out that the protons of water stances by the polyol method is poly-dispersed, the magnet-
could oxidize the formed metal hydroxide to metal oxide ism of the particles is pretty high. In addition, their unique
(Gul et al. 2019). It could be concluded that thermal decom- morphology, "flower-like structure", renders them suitable
position suffers extreme operating conditions; moreover, the for performed applications at high temperatures (Hugounenq
produced magnetic particles' size and morphology depend et al. 2012). Interestingly, the increment in the precursors'
on metal precursor ratios, surfactant, and solvent. concentration increases the particle size. Furthermore, the
crystallinity of the particles is controlled by raising the
Microwave‑assisted pyrolysis approach reaction temperature (Yang et al. 2014). Advanced heat-
ing sources like ultrasonic and microwaves have revealed
Microwave-assisted pyrolysis involves using heat to shorten great results in the polyol process. However, the prepara-
the preparation time, yield a high product, and enhance the tion of metal oxides by the polyol method is limited due
adsorption property (Abdel Maksoud et al. 2021). Such an to the production of elemental metals (Wee et al. 2017).
approach could heat the prepared substances without trans- Overall, the polyol method is a liquid-phase approach that
ferring the heat throughout the furnace, saving time and can produce magnetic substances with high magnetism and
energy (López-Quintela et al. 2004). Notably, the character- a unique flower-like structure suitable for high-temperature
istics of the fabricated magnetic adsorbents via microwave- applications. However, the method's limitations in produc-
assisted pyrolysis are controlled by the power of the micro- ing metal oxides due to the production of elemental metals
wave and the radiation time. The surface area of magnetic must be considered.
adsorbents can be ameliorated by raising the power of the
microwave owing to the increase in the quantity of volatile Micro‑emulsion approach
matter (Vidal-Vidal et al. 2006). Furthermore, the incre-
ment in the radiation time and microwave power increase Micro-emulsion method involves the fabrication of mag-
the pores' volume, enlarging the micro-pores, decreasing the netic sorbents via the precipitation in an oil/water medium.
micro-pores number, and increasing the total pores' volume Notably, the oil/water ratio could adjust the micro-emul-
(Chin and Yaacob 2007). More importantly, the microwave- sion medium since oil acts as a surfactant and water is a
assisted pyrolysis method has an advantage over the other co-solvent. Micro-emulsion produces magnetic substances
preparation approaches, which is rapid crystallization since with unique advantages such as relatively small particles'
the microwave provides central heating to the reaction size, uniformity, and superior magnetic property. Nonethe-
solution. less, there is a restriction to applying the micro-emulsion
approach in the laboratory owing to its low yield, high cost,
Chemical reduction approach and the need for large quantities of emulsifiers (Liu et al.
2020b). In conclusion, the micro-emulsion method is prom-
Chemical reduction is the simplest solution-phase approach ising for producing magnetic sorbents with small particle
to fabricating magnetic adsorbents, especially metal nano- sizes, uniformity, and superior magnetic properties. Still,
particles (Eltaweil et al. 2020). The process proceeds as fol- its limited yield, high cost, and high emulsifier requirements
lows; simple reduction to the metal precursor by reducing restrict its applicability in the laboratory.

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2353

Arc discharge approach While there are wastes that need some processing before use
as sorbents, as follows.
The arc discharge is a common approach for preparing
magnetic sorbent encapsulated into a carbon layer. The arc Cost‑effective sorbents‑derived cotton gin trash
discharge is executed by placing the metal precursor into
the cavities of the graphite electrode, and then arc dis- Figure 6 represents the pretreatment approaches of cotton
charge is applied to evaporate the solvents of the precur- gin trash for material fabrication. Raw cotton gin trash con-
sor (Ansari et al. 2022). The quality and quantity of the sists of many fractions like sticks, leaf parts, and motes, so
yielded magnetic sorbent by arc discharge are controlled the first step involves milling these fractions to a powder
by the process temperature, power supply, applied pressure, (Haque et al. 2020). The milled cotton gin trash could also
and electrode geometry (Arora and Sharma 2014). The arc easily interact with chemicals such as solvents, polymers,
discharge method possesses economic and environmental and others, facilitating its surface modification. Then, the
merits; efficient, cheap, eco-friendly, and nontoxic (Aljo- size of the milled cotton gin trash could be reduced by
hani et al. 2021). However, this approach cannot be applied "mechanical processing", in which the speed of the shaft
in the industry since controlling the magnetic particle size and impellers is relatively high in the presence of water as a
is impossible. Excessive studies have focused on overcom- solvent to form a slurry (Chranioti et al. 2016). Interestingly,
ing this bottleneck to exploit the unique advantage of arc the drying step impacts the morphology of the fabricated
discharge. cotton gin trash since the produced cotton gin trash pow-
ders by spray drying are more spherical than those dried
in an oven (Haque et al. 2021). Next, after the mechanical
Other preparation methods to prepare processing, "chemical processing" is sometimes conducted
cost‑effective sorbents to facilitate the cotton gin trash properties. For example,
the hydrophilicity of cotton gin trash could be improved by
Nowadays, cost-effective sorbents prepared from industrial succinylation, while acetylation is performed to enhance
wastes have drawn particular attention due to their abun- cotton gin trash hydrophobicity. In addition, the mechani-
dant resources, low cost, and excellent adsorption efficiency. cal strength of cotton gin trash is reinforced by polyvinyl
Many industrial wastes that cost nothing have exhibited an alcohol. Also, "thermal processing" could be carried out to
auspicious adsorption behavior toward various contami- diminish the moisture content in cotton gin trash powder and
nants. Interestingly, most of these industrial wastes could be increase the interaction with polymers. Notably, the thermal
used as sorbents after a simple treatment via cleaning with processing could be performed at low temperatures (50 °C)
water and acid like dolochar, bagasse fly ash, and others. or high temperatures (150 °C), taking into consideration

Fig. 6  Cotton gin trash consists

of fractions like sticks, leaf
parts, and motes. These parts
should be milled into powder.
Thermal processing is used to
eliminate moisture content in
cotton gin trash powder. Milled
cotton gin trash is treated with
chemicals through a chemical
modification process. Polyvinyl
alcohol could be used to enforce
cotton gin trash mechanical
strength

13
2354 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

reduces the treatment time at high temperatures and vice route can significantly increase the surface area of red mud
versa (Holt et al. 2012; Sutivisedsak et al. 2012). In sum- through a series of treatment routes involving seawater, acid-
mary, various pretreatment methods, including milling, thermal treatment, and sulfate salts of ferric and aluminum.
chemical and mechanical processing, drying, and thermal Thermal activation means the treatment of red mud at
processing, can convert raw cotton gin trash into material an elevated temperature ranging from 200 to 1000 °C for
suitable for fabrication. a pyrolysis time in the range of 1–3 h. The X-ray diffrac-
tion analysis revealed hematite, bayerite, gibbsite sodalite,
Cost‑effective sorbents‑derived red mud quartz, calcite, and titanium dioxide crystalline phases. In
addition, the crystallinity of hematite enhanced with the
Red mud is a rich resource for fabricating efficient adsor- raising in pyrolysis temperature above 600 °C. Moreover,
bents, but it needs excessive neutralization to reduce its dan- the surface area of the red mud improved at 500 °C, which
gerous environmental effects. Several neutralization or acti- is most likely due to the water exclusion. Nonetheless, the
vation routes have been adopted to fabricate a cost-effective adsorption performance declined when the pyrolysis tem-
sorbents-based red mud, as clarified in Fig. 7. perature exceeded 700 °C (Smiljanić et al. 2011; Taneez and
Seawater neutralization is a simple and popular route for Hurel 2019). To summarize, the thermal activation of red
red mud neutralization. This approach exploits the soluble mud at elevated temperatures can lead to the formation of
ions into seawater (mainly calcium and magnesium) to neu- various crystalline phases and an increase in the surface area
tralize the red mud via the precipitations of the hydrotalcite of red mud. Still, the adsorption performance is negatively
compounds and carbonate and hydroxide minerals (Kannan impacted at temperatures above 700 °C.
et al. 2021). The increase in the washing of red mud by Acid treatment includes neutralizing red mud with acids
seawater increases its surface area, reaching 31 ­m2 ­g−1, and such as sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acid to remove
decreases pH to ~ 8.5 (Rai et al. 2013). In brief, seawater the alkali salts and inorganic and organic impurities. The
neutralization is an effective and straightforward method for acid neutralization of red mud can be executed via two
neutralizing red mud using soluble ions present in seawater. approaches; the first is simple treatment by acid (0.1–1.0 M),
Combined treatment involves the enhancement of the followed by washing with distilled water and drying at
adsorbability of red mud via a series of treatment routes. 100 °C. At the same time, the second approach involves the
For instance, in the first stage, red mud is treated by seawater reflux of red mud in an acidic solution for 1–2 h and then
(Bauxsol™), and the second stage involves the combined precipitating the red mud in an ammonia solution. Finally,
acid-thermal treatment of Bauxsol™. Finally, sulfate salts the precipitated red mud was washed with distilled water
of ferric and aluminum are used for further treatment of and dried at 100 °C (Joseph et al. 2019; Qi 2021). Generally,
Bauxsol™ (Taneez and Hurel 2019). It was found that the acid treatment is an effective method to remove impurities
combined treatment route significantly enhances the surface from red mud. There are two approaches to achieving acid
area of red mud, reaching about 130 ­m2 ­g−1 (Sahu et al. neutralization, the simple treatment and reflux method, fol-
2013). It could be concluded that the combined treatment lowed by washing and drying.

Fig. 7  Treatment approaches to fabricate cost-effective sorbents- tions could be employed for red mud before use. Thermal activation
derived red mud. Red mud is a good resource for the efficient adsor- below 700 °C can lead to a higher crystallinity and an increase in the
bent. Red mud needs excessive treatment to make it safe for use. surface area of red mud
Acid, microbial, gypsum, carbon dioxide, and seawater neutraliza-

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2355

Adsorbent classifications and their or by oxidizing chars (Heidarinejad et al. 2020). Both fos-
wastewater treatment applications sil and renewable carbonaceous materials serve as activated
carbon precursors. Other non-conventional activated car-
The sorption application and uptake efficiency are often a bon precursors, such as ionic liquids (Zhang et al. 2014a),
function of a given adsorbent's class and physicochemical organic salts (Xu et al. 2012), and deep eutectic solvents
features. Accordingly, these adsorbents vary in selectivity, (Iwanow et al. 2017, 2020) still exist. To obtain high-quality
adsorption capacity, shelf life, and synthesis cost (Syeda and low-cost activated carbon adsorbents, non-fossil and
and Yap 2022). Also, there are obvious distinctions in their renewable materials with high carbon and volatile com-
respective active surface, pore diameters, quality of pore ponents and low ash content are recommended. However,
distribution, and surface functional groups. The following coal-based activated carbons exhibit superior mechanical
subsection discusses applying an array of adsorbents in the properties to those from lignocellulosic materials.
adsorption of varying pollutants. The different adsorbents Dyes are one of the most typical aquatic pollutants suc-
used in wastewater treatment were broadly classified as acti- cessfully adsorbed using activated carbon and are often
vated carbon, biochars, lignocellulosic biomass, clay min- classified following their chemical structure and industrial
erals, silica, zeolite, and peat and humic soil (Chen et al. application (Liu et al. 2022b). The adsorption of different
2019b; Osman et al. 2020b, 2022b). classes of dye, including cationic (Ahmed 2016; Corda and
Similarly, the common pollutants encountered in waste- Kini 2018), dispersed (Mittal et al. 2022; Shukla and Dhi-
water treatment were also classified. Figure 8 presents the man 2017), reactive (Giannakoudakis et al. 2016; Silva et al.
different classes of adsorbents and pollutants considered in 2016), direct (Ho 2020; İmran et al. 2012), vat (Ho 2020;
this review. The applicational benefits and drawbacks of the Nagy 2018), and acid (Biglari 2017; Naraghi et al. 2017)
different adsorbent classes considered in this review are out- dyes onto activated carbon have been extensively studied.
lined in Table 5. However, it was noted that irrespective of the dye class, effi-
cient adsorption is always a function of high surface area.
The larger the surface area, the more available active sites
Activated carbon adsorbents for binding dye molecules. The weak adsorptive interac-
tion between the π-electrons of the activated carbon basal
Activated carbons are porous carbon materials produced by planes and the loose electrons of the aromatic rings of the
carbonizing chemically dehydrated carbonaceous materials dye molecule also accounts for the efficient dye adsorption

Fig. 8  Broad classification of adsorbents and pollutants. The adsorp- physicochemical properties and the structural/ionic composition of
tion capacity and ultimate success of the adsorption process depend the adsorbent are significant for establishing the desired adsorbent-
on the degree of adsorbent-adsorbate compatibility. The respective adsorbate affinity

13
 Table 5  Benefits and drawbacks of adsorbent classes in wastewater treatment processes
2356

Adsorbent class Application in water treatment References

13
Benefits Drawbacks

Activated carbon Activated carbon is readily sourced from local precur- Not suitable for adsorbing low molecular weight Ling et al. (2019) and Thompson et al. (2016)
sors pollutants, water streams with high solids, oil, and
Due to their high porosity and surface area, activated grease
carbons are highly effective Activated carbon as a standalone operation cannot
Activated carbon is very suitable for batch conditions produce treated water of high purity
They are efficient in adsorbing a wide variety of Spent adsorbent disposal is challenging
contaminants
They are readily recyclable
In most cases, the spent activated carbon is not haz-
ardous
Biochar They are eco-friendly adsorbents Biochar, as an adsorbent, is highly pH sensitive Marcińczyk et al. (2022), Srivatsav et al. (2020) and
The feedstock is highly available, and the cost of The cost of system maintenance can be relatively high Tan et al. (2016)
production is low The process efficiency continuously decreases with
Spent biochar is readily and cheaply recyclable usage; hence continuous regeneration or desorption
The specific surface area which aids efficient pollutant may be needed for prolonged use
adsorption is high Their small particle size and low density make sepa-
They are efficient for the adsorption of organic and rating from treated water difficult
inorganic species from wastewater
They have abundant functional groups for efficient
adsorption
Lignocellulsoic wastes Being generated from agro-wastes, they are natural, Mostly need modification to improve the adsorption Çelebi (2020), Maia et al. (2021) and Nindjio et al.
efficient, and of low production cost capacity (2022)
Their adsorptive application promotes waste-to-wealth
initiatives
They have good regenerative potential
Easy to prepare and have a good surface structure for
effective adsorption
Excellent for heavy metals
Clay and clay minerals They are inexpensive, as they mainly occur naturally They are usually of low adsorption capacity, therefore, Jadhav and Jadhav (2021) and Uddin (2017)
They are eco-friendly and non-toxic need modification for effective adsorption
They have a high surface area and large ionic The regeneration of spent clay minerals is complex
exchange propensity It is always tricky separating the adsorbent-adsorbate
mixture after adsorption
Silica Exhibit high adsorption capacity at low temperatures Relatively expensive Hamad and Idrus (2022)
It has high porosity suitable for the efficient adsorp- Not readily recyclable
tion of macromolecular species Exhibit low adsorption capacity compared with other
It is non-toxic and adequate as packings in column conventional adsorbents
adsorption
They are not pH sensitive
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398
 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2357

(Chatterjee et al. 2005; Giannakoudakis et al. 2016). Thus,

The specific characteristics of the various adsorbents in relation to their ability to selectively adsorb certain substances, their capacity for adsorption, longevity, and affordability are determined
Crini et al. (2019a), Hamad and Idrus (2022) and You-
efficient adsorption of dye molecules onto activated carbon
is significantly influenced by the surface area present for
Alver and Metin (2012) and Zhou et al. (2023)
physisorption and active sites for chemisorption.
Lead (Largitte et al. 2016; Shi et al. 2018), chromium
(Ugwu and Agunwamba 2020; Yang et al. 2015), copper
(Natrayan et al. 2022; Ugwu and Agunwamba 2020), zinc
(Tuomikoski et al. 2019; Ugwu and Agunwamba 2020),
cobalt (Kakavandi et al. 2018; Peres et al. 2018), manganese
(Tran et al. 2018), iron (Goher et al. 2015), and arsenic (Yin

by factors such as the type of precursor material, the physicochemical properties of the adsorbent, the treatment method used, and the properties of the adsorbate
et al. 2019) have been reportedly adsorbed using activated
nas et al. (2021)

carbon. However, for improved adsorption efficiency, the

adsorbate solution pH, the activated carbon surface charge,
References

textural characteristics, and surface chemistry should be

considered (Li et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2022c). It was noted
that when the activated carbon surface is composed mainly
of alkaline/basic groups, the point of zero charges (­ pHpzc)
There is always a high blockage risk during column

value is expected to be higher than pH 7.0. In such a situa-

Zeolite has very high selectivity for specific pollutants Due to the high selectivity index, the adsorption

operations due to the microporous structure of

tion, electrostatic interaction and exchange of ions between

the negative activated carbon surface groups, π–electrons of
the activated carbon, and the heavy metal cations are real-
ized at the acidic pH ranges (Aniagor et al. 2022). Similarly,
capacity of zeolite is often limited

Peats have low mechanical strength

in the presence of abundant acidic surface groups, the p­ Hpzc

is less than pH 7.0, and efficient cation adsorption via an
electrostatic interaction mechanism is achieved when the
solution pH tends to the alkaline pH ranges (Hashem et al.
2021b). Also, the issue of ionic speciation and precipitation
strongly affects the effective adsorption of heavy metals, and
Drawbacks

to circumvent such a limitation, the appropriate solution pH

zeolites

must be adopted. In conclusion, the heavy metals' adsorption

onto activated carbon is a function of the adsorbents' surface
area, pore volume, and the number of surface groups.
They are suitable for the adsorption of some trace pol-

The effectiveness of activated carbon for adsorbing dif-

They have high uptake capacity, with hydrothermal

They have high selectivity index and strong cation

Peats have high adsorption capacity and improved

ferent pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)

lutants due to their cage-like surface structure

They are considered non-toxic and eco-friendly

(Bursztyn Fuentes et al. 2022; El Naga et al. 2019; García-

Rosero et al. 2022; Kim et al. 2022) and other emerging pol-
lutants (Ahn et al. 2022; Moreno-Marenco et al. 2020) have
been documented. The adsorption generally occurs via pore-
Spent zeolites are easy to replace
Application in water treatment

filling/size exclusion, hydrogen bonding, π–π electro-donor

surface area and porosity

acceptor, electrostatic interactions, and hydrophobic interac-

tion mechanism (Ahn et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2022a; Pamphile
exchange capacity

et al. 2019). Accordingly, the pore-filling mechanism is a

function of the adsorbate’s molecular size and the adsorbent
pore properties (Moreno-Marenco et al. 2020). Aside from
stability
Benefits

the pore-filling, all the mechanisms mentioned above are

controlled by the activated carbon’s surface charge, acid dis-
sociation constant (pKa) of the organic pollutants, and pH
variation within the bulk adsorbate phase (Kim et al. 2022).
Peats and humic soil
Table 5  (continued)

During the comparative adsorption of caffeine, ibuprofen,

Adsorbent class

and triclosan, due to the size exclusion mechanism, a higher

adsorption capacity was recorded when there is a high corre-
Zeolite

lation between the molecular size of the adsorbate and pore

diameter of the activated carbon (Kaur et al. 2018).

13
2358 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Furthermore, El Naga et al. (2019) noted that the phe- while biochar strictly implies the solid products from the
nolic and carboxylic acid groups on the activated carbon, pyrolysis of agro and animal waste materials (Chen et al.
respectively, donated hydrogen bonds to the oxygen atoms in 2019c). Biochar is distinguished from activated carbon
diclofenac molecules up to pH ∼ 10 and pH ∼ 4.9, hence the because of its low pyrolysis temperature requirement,
improved uptake via hydrogen bonding. Also, strong elec- which is always below 700 °C, and the absence of any
tron acceptor groups like the chlorine atoms in most PPCPs activation step (Ighalo et al. 2022a). The high porosity of
and other emerging organic pollutants lower the π-electron biochar is comparable to that of activated carbon, but bio-
density on their respective phenyl ring, thus improving π–π chars also have a high ion exchange capacity compared to
interactions with the activated carbon surface (El Naga activated carbons. Such high biochar ion exchange capac-
et al. 2019). Therefore, the sorption efficiency of the PPCPs ity is linked to residual carboxylic, phenolic, hydroxyl,
and other emerging organic pollutants on activated car- and carbonyl groups on the graphitic backbone (Zhao
bons depends on the solution pH, the adsorbate's molecular et al. 2021). Meanwhile, the percentage composition of
features, and the nature of the mutual adsorbate-adsorbent each functional group on the biochar varies as the precur-
interaction, as well as the surface and pore properties of the sor material and thermochemical conversion technique are
activated carbon. adopted (Amin et al. 2016). Thus, the creation of efficient
Activated carbon adsorbent has been applied for the and affordable adsorbents for wastewater decontamination
adsorption of different radionuclides such as cobalt-60 is greatly aided by the physicochemical and porous fea-
(Hamed et al. 2016), europium (Hamed et al. 2016; Mol- tures of biochar.
oukhia et al. 2016), cesium (Khandaker et al. 2021; Mol- The application of biochar for azo (Gurav et al. 2021;
oukhia et al. 2016), radon (Karunakara et al. 2015), thoron Guy et al. 2022), reactive (Acemioğlu 2022; Muralikrishnan
(Karunakara et al. 2015), uranium (El-Magied et al. 2021; and Jodhi 2020), vat (Gupta et al. 2022; Vigneshwaran et al.
Nezhad et al. 2021), radioactive iodine (Chien et al. 2011; 2021a), basic (Praveen et al. 2021; Silva et al. 2021), dis-
Li et al. 2014), selenium (Elgazzar et al. 2020), molybdenum perse (Das et al. 2021), and acid (Gao et al. 2021; Jose et al.
(Elgazzar et al. 2020), strontium (Elgazzar et al. 2020; Mol- 2022) dye adsorption has been reported in the literature.
oukhia et al. 2016), lanthanum (Elgazzar et al. 2020), and Notably, dye adsorption onto biochar generally proceeds via
technetium-99 (Li et al. 2014). All the studies highlight the physical interaction (Guy et al. 2022), ion exchange (Gos-
importance of oxygen-based functional groups and activated wami et al. 2016), and electrostatic interaction (Nguyen
carbon π-electrons. Consequently, the radionuclides could et al. 2021) mechanisms. The physical interaction mecha-
either form complexes/cation exchange with the oxygen- nisms include pore filling, hydrophobic effect, π–π interac-
based groups (Khandaker et al. 2021), interact with aromatic tions, and n–π interactions. The pore-filling mechanism is
π-electrons of the activated carbon basal planes (Cho et al. always facilitated and favored by biochar's enhanced surface
2020), or physically bind onto the activated carbon pores area and pore volume (Goswami et al. 2016). Similarly, the
(Khandaker et al. 2018). During the adsorption of uranium abundant carbonyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, phenyl, and amine
ions, Nezhad et al. (2021) and Rout et al. (2016) noted that functional groups on the biochar are advantageous for π–π
improved adsorption is achieved at decreasing solution acid- interactions with the aromatic rings of the different dye mol-
ity since the electron lone pair from the negatively charged ecules (dos Reis et al. 2021). Siddiqui et al. (2019) reported
oxygen-based groups form complexes with empty uranium efficient adsorption via a hydrogen bond donor–acceptor
ions orbitals. Therefore, it is concluded that highly porous interaction between the hydroxyl group of modified biochar
activated carbon with either positive or negative oxygen- and the hydrogen bond receptor present in the methylene
containing surface groups can efficiently adsorb arrays of blue molecules. Also, non-covalent π–π and n–π interactions
radionuclides from wastewater. were reported between the aromatic rings of biochar and the
In conclusion, adsorption onto activated carbon is a Evans blue dye (Guy et al. 2022). Electrostatic attraction
function of the adsorbents' surface area, pore volume, and and ions exchange mechanism was noted as important sorp-
the number of surface groups, irrespective of the pollutant tion mechanisms during the adsorption of methylene blue
class. Furthermore, the weak adsorptive interaction between dye (Pirbazari et al. 2014; Yang et al. 2019a). Consequently,
the π-electrons of the activated carbon basal planes and electrostatic interaction predominates when the dye mol-
the loose electrons of the aromatic rings also accounts for ecules and biochar surface contain opposite charges, while
the efficient adsorption of organic pollutants. ion exchange mechanism involves ionic exchange between
the surface groups of the biochar and the charges on the
Biochar dye molecules. In conclusion, dye adsorption onto biochar
occurs significantly through the hydrophobic effect, elec-
The term “char” refers to the residue obtained from the trostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and π–π interaction.
pyrolysis of carbonaceous materials (Armah et al. 2022), However, for biochar with highly developed porosity and

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2359

specific surface area, efficient dye adsorption is mostly via the biochar and abundant electrophilic groups in the PPCPs
a pore-filling mechanism. makes for efficient PPCPs uptake.
Heavy metal adsorption onto modified and unmodified The adsorption of different radionuclides such as euro-
biochar has been successfully demonstrated (Amabilis-Sosa pium (Frišták et al. 2017), uranium (Ahmed et al. 2021a,
et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022b; Sun et al. 2022). Several proper- b; Guilhen et al. 2019), and thorium (Chen et al. 2019d)
ties, such as elemental distribution, surface area, and sur- onto raw and modified biochar has been reported. The stud-
face charge, have been identified as key factors influencing ies generally highlighted the involvement of chemisorption,
adsorption (Bai et al. 2023; Liu et al. 2023). Ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, and surface complexation reaction
surface complexation, electrostatic interactions, precipita- mechanisms. Also, oxygen-containing functional groups'
tion, and π–π interaction mechanisms are some main pro- significance in facilitating the abovementioned mechanisms
cesses during cation adsorption. According to Chu and was identified. For improved adsorption of radionuclides,
Nguyen (2023), the adsorption of hexavalent chromium onto different authors (Li et al. 2019b; Liu et al. 2021b) incorpo-
magnetic biochar involves ion exchange, surface complexa- rated iron and sulfur into their biochar samples. It is believed
tion, and redox reactions. Consequently, the sorption mecha- that the iron and sulfur species promoted the reduction of
nism mentioned above is possible following the involvement most radionuclides, especially uranium, and enhanced their
of the biochar's carboxyl, hydroxy, and carbonyl groups. Qi removal from wastewater. Ahmed et al. (2021a) and Li et al.
et al. (2023) also affirmed that the surface complexation (2019b) applied magnetic biochar for uranium adsorption.
involving the oxygen-based functional groups of the biochar They suggested the possibility of surface complexation
was critical to the successful adsorption of lead, cadmium, between the oxygen-based groups, such as the hydroxyl,
and copper ions. Conversely, the influence of pore-filling and carbonyl, iron oxide, and uranium molecules. Based on spec-
electrostatic attraction between ionic copper species and the troscopic evidence, Ahmed et al. (2021b) also verified the
surface of magnetic biochar have been reported (Sun et al. binding of uranyl ions on surface groups of oxidized biochar.
2023b). Therefore, biochar with improved porosity, specific In conclusion, the creation of efficient and affordable bio-
surface area, and large oxygen group amounts exhibit high char for wastewater decontamination is greatly aided by the
adsorption capacity for heavy metal species. physicochemical and porous features of the adsorbent. The
PPCPs and other emerging organic pollutants are high porosity of biochar is comparable to that of activated
adsorbed onto modified and non-modified biochar via chem- carbon, but biochars also have a high ion exchange capac-
ical and physical adsorption (Nayyar et al. 2022; Zhang et al. ity compared to activated carbons. Such high ion exchange
2022a). Chemisorption interaction occurs via electrostatic capacity of biochar is linked to residual carboxylic, phenolic,
interactions and ion exchange, while physisorption occurs hydroxyl, and carbonyl groups on the graphitic backbone.
via pore-filling, π–π interaction, and other weak interac-
tion mechanisms (Keerthanan et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2022a). Lignocellulosic wastes
Choudhary and Philip (2022) ruled out the role of electro-
static interaction during the sorption of methylparaben, car- This class of adsorbent is generally sourced from plant mate-
bamazepine, ibuprofen, and triclosan onto biochar. Instead, rials and by-products of agro-material processing in various
the predominance of non-electrostatic interaction (such as industries (Syeda et al. 2022). Many authors have previously
hydrogen bonding, electron donor–acceptor, and hydro- developed efficient lignocellulosic adsorbents from tree bark,
phobic interactions) that is driven by the hydrophobic and fruit peels, seeds, husk, and leaves. According to Aniagor
hydrophilic moieties on the respective PPCPs, was proposed. et al. (2022), these lignocellulosic wastes are generated in
Mayakaduwa et al. (2017) reported the role of chemisorp- large quantities, and their disposal is often challenging. Con-
tion and physisorption interaction during the adsorption of sequently, successfully utilizing these lignocellulosic wastes
carbofuran onto biochar. The study further noted that during as adsorbents in wastewater treatment offers the advantage of
chemisorption, the carbonyl groups interact with the nitro- cost-effectiveness and mitigates the environmental problems
gen atoms of the carbofuran molecule via a nucleophilic associated with their indiscriminate disposal. The high pres-
addition reaction. ence of relevant organic functional groups at the surface of
Similarly, the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups of the bio- these agricultural wastes makes them efficient in adsorbing
char can also interact with the heterocyclic ring of the car- varying classes of pollutants (Wakkel et al. 2019).
bofuran via π–π and hydrogen bonding-driven physisorption. The adsorption potentials of the raw lignocellulosic
The occurrence of an n–π interaction between the nucleo- wastes have been previously investigated (Hashem et al.
phile-like oxygen groups on the biochar and π electron cloud 2022b; Ighalo et al. 2022b). However, it has been reported
of caffeine molecules was reported by Keerthanan et al. that this adsorbent class's functional group and sorption site
(2020). Thus, it is concluded that high π-electron density on could be greatly enhanced through surface chemical func-
tionalization and other pre-treatment methods (Hashem et al.

13
2360 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

2021a). Cavalcante et al. (2022) utilized grape winery waste the sorption process. Similarly, an ion exchange mechanism
functionalized with 3-aminopropyl tri ethoxy silane as an could occur involving the carbon and oxygen-based func-
adsorbent for methyl orange dye uptake. The study noted tional groups on the acid-treated banana bunches, coconut
the positive impact of chemical grafting on the adsorption bunches, and bisphenol A (Abdullah et al. 2021). Conde-
performance of the modified material, as significant electro- Cid et al. (2019) also reported the influence of electrostatic
static interactions occurred between the ammonium group attractions between different antibiotics and variable charge
of the grafted adsorbent and the sulfur trioxide group on components in the mussel shell and pine bark. Also, cationic
methyl orange dye species. Asides from electrostatic interac- bridges between antibiotics and non-crystalline minerals of
tion, van der Waals, π−π interactions, and hydrogen bonds the respective adsorbents were reported. In conclusion, the
between the remaining functional groups of the dye mol- adsorption of PPCPs and other emerging organic contami-
ecules and the modified adsorbent were also reported. Other nants reportedly occurred mainly through various electro-
biomasses such as Dodonaea viscosa (Hopbush) plant, apri- static and non-electrostatic interactions between the indi-
cot (Prunus armeniaca L.) seed shell wastes, lupine seed vidual drug molecules and the adsorbent’s surface functional
powder, Lepidium sativum seed powder and olive waste have groups. Notably, no recent studies were found on the adsorp-
been respectively utilized in the adsorption of methyl red tion of radionuclide onto lignocellulosic waste adsorbent,
(Gul et al. 2022), acid blue 193 (Hashem et al. 2022a, c), and the reason for this observation is unknown. Therefore, it
acid orange 142 (Hashem et al. 2022b) and methylene blue is suggested that the researcher further explore the potential
(Ferkous et al. 2022) dyes. Incidentally, all the studies men- of lignocellulosic waste for radionuclide adsorption. Also,
tioned above affirmed the predominance of the electrostatic effective surface functionalization and pretreatment could be
interaction mechanism. necessary to improve the sorption capacity of lignocellulosic
Studies have shown that heavy metal adsorption onto lig- wastes for radionuclides adsorption.
nocellulosic waste biosorbents occurs mostly via chelation, Overall, lignocellulosic adsorbents have been success-
ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, and complexation fully synthesized from tree bark, fruit peels, seeds, husk,
with relevant surface groups (Aniagor et al. 2021; Mohamed and leaves. The successful utilization of these lignocellu-
et al. 2021). Also, the role of sodium, potassium, calcium, losic wastes as adsorbents in wastewater treatment offers
and magnesium in the adsorbent towards improved ion the advantage of cost-effectiveness and mitigates the envi-
exchange process has been highlighted (Akar et al. 2012). ronmental problems associated with their indiscriminate
Furthermore, certain functional groups, like the acetamide, disposal. However, the functional group and sorption site
carboxyl, phenolic, amino, alcohols, and ester groups, can of this type of adsorbent could be greatly enhanced through
substitute hydrogen ions with cations or donate electron surface chemical functionalization and other pre-treatment
pairs to form complexes with the metal ions in solutions methods.
(Kwikima et al. 2021). The predominance of electrostatic
interaction and ion exchange mechanism was also reported
during the adsorption of lead ions onto sugarcane waste Clay minerals
(Hashem et al. 2021b) and respective adsorption of four dif-
ferent heavy metals onto husk cedar cones, pine nut oil cake, The classification of clay minerals is based on the respective
baffle walnut, pectin (Salishcheva et al. 2021). Therefore, the layer type, interlayer order, and layer net charge (Bergaya
organic functional groups on lignocellulosic wastes play a and Lagaly 2013). However, the extensive application of
crucial role during heavy metal adsorption from wastewater. clay minerals is hinged on their low cost, ready availability,
Lignocellulosic waste has also proven effective for PPCPs ecofriendliness, high specific surface area, and ion exchange
adsorption. Among the PPCPs investigated are bisphenol A, capacities (Uddin 2017). Thus, clay minerals constitute the
tetracycline, oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, diclofenac, active adsorptive groups on natural clay. However, despite
trimethoprim, and aflatoxin B1 species (Abdullah et al. their abundance, naturally occurring clay minerals have lim-
2021; Li et al. 2019c; Vázquez-Durán et al. 2021). It was, ited and variable adsorptive capacities due to their inherent
however, observed that the efficient sorption occurs majorly impurities and mineralogical composition variations (Jaber
via the electrostatic and non-electrostatic mechanisms. et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2010). Controlled fabrication of
Vázquez-Durán et al. (2021) used unmodified lignocellu- synthetic clay minerals is being explored to obtain a pure
losic adsorbents prepared from kale and lettuce wastes to and homogenous clay mineral phase. These synthetic clay
adsorb carcinogen aflatoxin B1. The study concluded that minerals are applied as advanced functional materials in spe-
adsorption occurred mainly via electrostatic, hydrophobic, cialized systems and the synthesis of specialized consumer
and dipole–dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding. goods. Therefore, regarding the layer structure, natural and
Furthermore, complexation between the aflatoxin B1 synthetic clay minerals are widely used in many process
and the chlorophyll content of the agro-waste also drove industries and as an adsorbent in water treatment.

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2361

Several researchers have recorded massive success in are propranolol, ibuprofen, amoxicillin, diclofenac-sodium,
the adsorption of dyes using modified and unmodified clay imipramine, paracetamol, p-chlorophenol, and tetracy-
minerals. Dyes such as methylene blue (Amrhar et al. 2021; cline species (Chauhan et al. 2020a, b; del Mar Orta et al.
Çiftçi 2022), crystal violet (Cao et al. 2020; Sarma et al. 2019; Ji et al. 2019; Martín et al. 2019; Obradović et al.
2019), brilliant green (Sarma et al. 2019), malachite green 2022; Sun et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2021). It was, however,
(Sevim et al. 2021), basic blue 9 (El Kassimi et al. 2021; observed that efficient sorption occurs majorly via an ionic
Lawchoochaisakul et al. 2021), basic yellow 28 (El Kassimi exchange mechanism (de Farias et al. 2022; del Mar Orta
et al. 2021; Lawchoochaisakul et al. 2021), acid green 25 et al. 2019; Martín et al. 2019; Obradović et al. 2022). Fur-
(Yap and Priyaa 2019), methyl orange (Akbour et al. 2020; thermore, a complex mechanism involving hydrophobic
Lawchoochaisakul et al. 2021), rhodamine B (Ouachtak interactions between the nonpolar groups of the PPCPs and
et al. 2020; Yu et al. 2019), and congo red (Yu et al. 2019) clay minerals and an electrostatic interaction mechanism
have been successfully investigated and reported in the lit- was reported while adsorbing Ibuprofen and diclofenac-
erature. Notably, dyes have charged and neutral parts, but sodium (Obradović et al. 2022). Zhang et al. (2021) reported
Haounati et al. (2021) noted that clay adsorbent provides improved adsorption of tetracycline species onto montmo-
suitable sites for both species. The cationic dye molecules rillonite via partial cation exchange, surface complexation,
interact with the negative charge sites of the clay miner- and hydrogen bond/Vander Waal interaction. Therefore, it is
als through electrostatic attraction. At the same time, the concluded that the ionic exchange mechanism accounts for
neutral species are adsorbed onto the external surface of the most PPCPs adsorption onto clay minerals.
clay mineral via hydrogen bonding with the hydroxyl groups The adsorption of different radionuclides, including
(de Queiroga et al. 2019). Aside from hydrogen bonding, cesium, strontium, uranium, europium, plutonium, iodine,
this surface attachment can also occur via intermolecular cobalt, zirconium, and selenium, onto modified and unmodi-
π–π stacking attraction (Dobe et al. 2022; Thirumoorthy fied clay minerals, have been successfully investigated (Ake-
and Krishna 2020). Thus, dye adsorption onto clay miner- moto et al. 2021; Pavón González and Alba 2022; Soliman
als majorly proceeds via electrostatic attraction, hydrogen et al. 2019; Zabulonov et al. 2021). Generally, one or a com-
bonding and intermolecular attraction. Similarly, the sorp- bination of electrostatic interaction, surface complexation,
tion efficiency is a function of the solution pH, initial dye and ionic exchange mechanisms play a significant role in the
concentration and adsorbent dose. adsorption of radionuclides onto clay minerals (Akemoto
The adsorption of different heavy metal cations, including et al. 2021; Alamudy and Cho 2018). In addition, clay min-
trivalent chromium, hexavalent chromium (Essebaai et al. erals' expandability and basal spacing enhance their cation
2022; Mdlalose et al. 2021), lead (Jabłońska 2021; Jiang exchange capacity and affinity for radionuclides (Philipp
et al. 2021a; Sun et al. 2023a), zinc (Jabłońska 2021; Jiang et al. 2022; Soliman et al. 2019). The influence of environ-
et al. 2021a), nickel (Jabłońska 2021), cadmium (Szewczuk- mental factors such as temperature, pH, organic matter con-
Karpisz et al. 2022; Tonk et al. 2022; Zeng et al. 2023), tent, contact time, initial adsorbate concentration, and ionic
and barium (Atun and Bascetin 2003; Mundim et al. 2022) strength also impacts the adsorption of radionuclides (Fan
have been reported. The efficiency of clay and clay miner- et al. 2019). Zabulonov et al. (2021) reported a low distribu-
als in heavy metal adsorption has been linked to the clay's tion coefficient for cesium radionuclide at low solution pH
high cation exchange capacity, high specific surface area, and enhanced strontium uptake due to the high probability of
and high swelling properties (Essebaai et al. 2022). Accord- strontium ionic fixation in diffuse clay ionic layers. Philipp
ing to Szewczuk-Karpisz et al. (2022), heavy metals usually et al. (2022) reported improved uranium adsorption with
adsorb onto the inner-sphere complexes of the clay min- increasing ionic strength and solution alkalinity. According
erals via ionic exchange and on the silicon monoxide and to the study, at pH < 8.0, the main sorption driving force
aluminium oxide surface groups. Furthermore, at low pH was cation exchange, which depends on ionic strength.
(acidic sorption environment), negatively charged sites of Beyond this pH, there was a sequential surface de-proto-
the clay mineral adsorbent establish electrostatic interaction nation, thus enhancing surface complexation. The positive
with the target heavy metal, forming outer-sphere complexes impact of solution temperature on the clay expandability
(Mundim et al. 2022). In summary, heavy metal adsorption and the mobility and effective collision of the radionuclide
onto clay and clay minerals mainly occurs via ion exchange molecules was also highlighted (Soliman et al. 2019). Thus,
and electrostatic attraction mechanisms. The solution pH it is concluded that the sorption capacity of clay minerals
also influences sorption efficiency since the charges on the for radionuclides is a function of the expandability of the
surface groups of the clay minerals vary considerably with clay particles, as well as the pH and the ionic strength of the
pH variation. adsorbate solution.
Clay minerals adsorbents also have proven effective for To sum up, clay minerals are widely used in adsorption
the adsorption of PPCPs. Among the PPCPs investigated due to their affordability, availability, eco-friendliness, high

13
2362 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

specific surface area, and ion exchange abilities. However, Different forms of raw and functionalized silica-based
despite their abundance, their adsorptive capacities are adsorbents have been successfully investigated for the
limited and inconsistent due to inherent impurities and adsorption of heavy metal ions. The surface functionaliza-
variations in mineralogical composition. Therefore, chemi- tion techniques mainly involve introducing relevant surface
cal modification is necessary to enhance their adsorption groups to enhance interaction with heavy metal cations.
capabilities. Although many studies have demonstrated the usefulness
of surface functional groups in pollutant binding, it should
be noted that some functional groups exhibit superior cation
Silica binding capacities than others. Through successful silylat-
ing reactions, Shao et al. (2020) incorporated the sulfoacid,
Silica is an inorganic solid material often applied as an effi- thiol, amino, carboxyl, and ethylenediamine tetra-acetic
cient adsorbent in water treatment, either in its raw or chemi- acid groups onto silicon dioxide nanoparticles. Further,
cally modified state. They exhibit a considerably high sur- they tested the lead ion adsorption potentials of the respec-
face area, chemical inertness, improved pore properties, and tive adsorbents. It was reported that the ethylenediamine
many surface functional groups, which can provide grafting tetra-acetic acid-decorated silicon oxide, with improved
sites (Lahiri and Liu 2021). Many recent publications have geometrical adaptability, depicted the highest adsorp-
demonstrated the versatility of silica-based adsorbents in tion capacity. Other studies by Vareda et al. (2020), Wang
wastewater treatment. et al. (2020c), and Albayati et al. (2019) also highlighted
Different types of dye have been successfully adsorbed the role of nitrogen-containing functional groups, having
onto varieties of silica-based adsorbents (Arasi et al. 2021; similar electrostatic interaction mechanisms in heavy metal
Benvenuti et al. 2020; Koyuncu and Okur 2021); however, adsorption. Radi et al. (2019) explored the potential of por-
it was noted that the functionalization of these silica adsor- phyrin-modified silica for adsorbing lead, zinc, cadmium,
bents greatly enhanced their dye adsorptive capacity. Con- and copper ions. The study concluded that efficient uptake
sequently, different surface-modified silica-based adsorbents occurred through the direct complexation of porphyrins with
(Bensedira et al. 2022; Cao et al. 2020; Gomaa et al. 2022; the cations via a so-called ‘sitting-atop’ interaction. Con-
Li et al. 2020d; Zein et al. 2020) have been used to adsorb clusively, it was noted that efficient cation uptake is hinged
different dyes. Specifically, Kalkan and Nadaroglu (2021) upon successfully introducing sufficient negatively charged
adsorbed acid fuchsin dye onto laccase-modified silica groups on the silica adsorbents that could interact with the
fume. The optimum uptake was established at pH 5.0, with different cations.
a hydrogen bond forming between the adsorbent's sulfate Studies exist on the adsorption of PPCPs and other
and amine groups and the positively charged acid fuchsin emerging organic pollutants onto modified silica adsor-
dye molecules. Also, during the adsorption of reactive wool bents (Ighalo et al. 2022c; Igwegbe et al. 2021). Modified
dyes, Gemeay et al. (2020) reported the role of the sulfonate nano-silica (Pham et al. 2020b) and polycation-modified
and oxygenated groups for enhanced hydrogen bonds and nano-silica (Pham et al. 2020a) were used for the adsorp-
electrostatic interaction. Pham et al. (2021) synthesized a tion of ciprofloxacin and beta-lactam cefixime. Both stud-
silica-based adsorbent with a high positive surface charge ies reported that the main adsorption driving force was the
via functionalization with poly-diallyl-dimethylammonium electrostatic interaction between the anionic surface charge
chloride. Based on the study, efficient dye uptake was of the respective drugs and the protonated adsorbent sur-
achieved following a complex formation between the oxygen face. Besides, Jodeh et al. (2022) recorded high adsorptive
atoms on the sulfonic group of the azo dye and the adsor- capacity while adsorbing trimethoprim onto a chelating
bents’ amine groups. Al-Shehri et al. (2021) investigated the matrix synthesized via a reaction between 1.5-dimethyl-
impact of incorporating neodymium into the three-dimen- 1H-pyrazole-3-carbaldehyde, 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysi-
sional structure of mesoporous silica. The results show an lane and silica gel. According to the study, efficient drug
improved adsorption capacity via electrostatic interaction, binding occurred via complexation between the nitrogen
as the surface modification introduced a large number of atoms of the adsorbent and π-electrons originating from
negative binding sites that are necessary for adsorbing the the benzene and pyrimidine rings in the drug. Also, low
positively charged nitrogen atoms of the dye species. Also, adsorption enthalpy values were recorded throughout the
the possible formation of a coordination bond between the entire sorption process due to the hydrogen bond forma-
nitrogen lone pairs of the neutral amino groups and the neo- tion and the formation of a water bridge between the nitro-
dymium atoms was further postulated. Therefore, irrespec- gen/oxygen-containing groups of the trimethoprim and
tive of the nature of the silica-based adsorbent, the solution the amine groups of the adsorbent (Jodeh et al. 2022).
pH, which directly influences the degree of electrostatic Dipyridyl-based organo-silica nanosheets were success-
interaction, plays a crucial role during dye uptake. fully synthesized and utilized for adsorbing clofibric acid,

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2363

ketoprofen, and naproxen sodium from wastewater (Guo Zeolite

et al. 2020). It was noted that the adsorption of naproxen
sodium occurred via π–π interaction, while partition and Zeolites are porous materials with improved ion exchange
π–π stacking predominated during the ketoprofen adsorp- capacity, mainly composed of hydrated aluminosilicate min-
tion. Conversely, clofibric acid uptake was controlled by erals (El-Nahas et al. 2020). This class of adsorbent exhibit a
multiple interaction mechanisms, including hydroxyl-π negatively charged framework, which stems from substitut-
interaction, partition, π–π interaction, and π–π stacking. In ing tetra atomic silicate cation for aluminium cation within
conclusion, the adsorption of PPCPs and other emerging the structural backbone. Unmodified zeolite adsorbents
organic contaminants reportedly occurred mainly through have proven efficient for adsorbing different classes of dyes,
various physical interactions between the respective drug except the anionic dyes, due to the anionic nature of the zeo-
molecules and the adsorbent’s surface functional groups. lite surface. However, different functional groups and com-
The adsorption of different radionuclides such as plexes have been successfully incorporated into the zeolite
cesium (Bu et al. 2019; El-Shazly et al. 2021b; Zhurav- structural framework for improved dye adsorption capacity.
lev et al. 2022), uranium (Tripathi et al. 2018), europium Gollakota et al. (2020) investigated the potential adsorp-
(Garcia et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2020b), cobalt (El-Shazly tion of rhodamine 6G onto a novel zeolite material. During
et al. 2021a), and strontium (Zhuravlev et al. 2022) onto the study, two main sorption mechanisms were identified:
raw and modified silica-based adsorbent has been reported. electrostatic interaction between the deprotonated silanol
Bu et al. (2019) investigated the adsorption of cesium ions groups and the cationic dye species and hydrogen bonding
onto the tobermorite 9 Å, tobermorite 14 Å, and jennite. due to the interactions between the silanol and amine func-
Accordingly, cesium adsorption onto tobermorite 14 Å tional groups of zeolite and the cationic dye species. Simi-
and tobermorite 9 Å, respectively, occurred via the ionic larly, while adsorbing basic fuchsin dye onto tetra propyl
adsorption at the octahedral hexaaqua calcium (II) com- ammonium bromide-modified magnetic zeolite, Mohammed
plex surface and cation exchange at the tetrahedral silicate et al. (2020) observed the deprotonated silanol, silicon oxide
surface. Similarly, electrostatic interaction via complexa- groups of the adsorbent interacted with the cationic dye spe-
tion with surface hydroxyl groups controlled the cesium cies, to entrench efficient uptake at increasing pH up to pH
adsorption onto jennite (Bu et al. 2019). The influence 5.0. Meanwhile, between pH 5.0–9.0, efficient dye uptake
of the cation exchange mechanism was also highlighted was achieved following the complexation between the neu-
during cesium adsorption onto insoluble ferrocyanide tral silanol groups of the adsorbent and electrons lone-pair
composites (El-Shazly et al. 2021b). Tripathi et al. (2018) from primary amine groups. Also, a robust electrostatic
evaluated the feasibility of uranium adsorption onto hol- attraction was reported as the predominant mechanism dur-
low amorphous silicon oxide nanotubes. A robust electro- ing the sorption of acid red 66 dye onto Linde-type A zeolite
static attraction was established between the deprotonated (Al-dahri et al. 2022), methylene blue dye onto synthetic
silicon oxide nanotube surface and the uranyl hydroxyl cat- zeolite mixture (Youssef et al. 2021), methyl orange dye
ion during uptake. Using sodium lauryl sulfonate-modified onto pillar(5)arene modified zeolite (Yang et al. 2019b) and
silicon dioxide adsorbent, Wang et al. (2020b) reported methylene blue dye onto zeolite/cerium oxide nanocom-
that the oxygen-containing functional groups from sulfur posite (Nyankson et al. 2020). Furthermore, Phouthavong
trioxide were responsible for the europium ions adsorp- et al. (2020) reported the efficient binding of methylene blue
tion. According to Jose et al. (2020), the europium ions species onto the 3-dimensional pore system of silica-rich
often interact with sulfur trioxide anion in preference to magnetic zeolite via a pore-filling mechanism. Thus, the
the sodium lauryl sulfonate chain. It is thus concluded that solution pH regulates the extent of dissociations and charge
the adsorbent’s surface charge, solution pH and structural distributions of the zeolite functional groups.
orientation significantly impact the type of the dominant Different studies have successfully investigated and estab-
sorption mechanism during radionuclide sorption. lished raw and modified zeolite's heavy metal adsorption
Overall, surface complexation, hydrogen bonding, capacity. Meanwhile, the strong influence of the electrostatic
and electrostatic interaction are the primary mechanism attraction mechanism during the cation binding was reported
responsible for pollutant binding onto silica adsorbents. by most authors. Gollakota et al. (2023) evaluated the poten-
Furthermore, efficient binding of organic pollutants tial adsorption of cadmium and zinc ions onto ionic liquid
occurred via complexation between the silicate groups of functionalized zeolite X. They affirmed the dominance of
the adsorbent and π-electrons originating from the benzene electrostatic attraction to complexation between the silanol
and pyrimidine rings in the respective organic pollutants. groups of the adsorbent and the cationic species. Accord-
ing to Guo et al. (2023), a coordination interaction with the
nitrogen/oxygen-containing groups of the functionalized
zeolitic imidazole frameworks-functionalized resulted in

13
2364 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

efficient sequestration of lead and copper ions. Similarly, the with a crystal size of 2 μm showed better adsorption capacity
exchange of ions within the zeolitic structure by the heavy and selectivity for strontium ions than those with smaller
metal cations was also reported during the adsorption of crystal sizes of 100 nm and 500 nm. Li et al. (2020c) blended
copper (Dasgupta et al. 2021) and chromium ions (Huang the aspartic acid molecules with the bilayer cetyltrimethyl-
et al. 2022) onto zeolite. However, the mechanism of heavy ammonium bromide cations onto zeolite Y. The modified
metal adsorption onto zeolite is mainly via cation exchange zeolite Y adsorbent was utilized for adsorbing cesium, stron-
within the zeolitic structure and silanol groups-assisted elec- tium, and uranium ions. It was, however, reported that the
trostatic interactions. monovalent cesium ions were adsorbed better and faster than
The adsorption of PPCPs and other emerging organic the bivalent strontium and uranium ions. Notably, higher
contaminants onto zeolite-based adsorbents has been consumption of aspartic acid ligands occurred during the
reported mainly through hydrophobic and electrostatic formation of a coordination compound with bivalent ions
interaction mechanisms (Belviso et al. 2021; Goyal et al. than with monovalent ions, hence the decreased adsorption
2018). However, a zeolite-based adsorbent capable of effi- capacity. However, the crystal size significantly affects the
cient adsorption of different organic pollutants was generally affinity between the zeolite adsorbent and radionuclides.
synthesized via chemical functionalization. Smiljanić et al. In conclusion, zeolites exhibit a negatively charged
(2020, 2021) comparatively investigated the adsorption of framework due to substituting tetra atomic silicate cation for
ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac sodium, and ketoprofen onto aluminium cation within the structural backbone. The silanol
natural zeolites that are respectively loaded with monolayer and amine functional groups of zeolites facilitate the occur-
and bilayer of cationic surfactant. During sorption onto the rence of hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction,
loaded zeolite, the anionic drug species interact electrostati- which are the two main identified sorption mechanisms.
cally with the cationic surfactant head. The alkyl chains of
surfactants complex with the hydrophobic heads of the drugs Peat and humic soil
via hydrophobic interaction. Asides from the interactions
mentioned above, there was an ionic exchange between the Peats and humus are soil materials mainly comprising
counter chloride anion on the surfactant molecule and the decaying organic matter, detrital minerals, and plant debris
anionic drug species in the case of zeolite with a bilayer of such as lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose. Its different
surfactant (Smiljanić et al. 2020). Using a two-step compu- constituents' polar organic functional groups confer high
tational analysis, Lin et al. (2020b) investigated the possi- pollutant adsorption and ion exchange capacity on peat
ble adsorption of four linear siloxanes and derivates onto a soil. It has been shown that the predominant physical and
myriad of hypothetical pure-silica zeolites. It was observed chemical properties of any given peat soil are a function of
that the most robust adsorption energy and electrostatic the origin and nature of the decayed plant materials and the
interaction were recorded for the compound with the small- moisture relations during and after the peat formation (Kolay
est particle sizes and significant electronegativity differences and Taib 2018).
between the bonded atoms. The dominance of hydropho- The presence of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin com-
bic interactions was also reported during the adsorption of pounds, originating from decaying plant biomass makes for
ketoprofen, hydrochlorothiazide, and atenolol in their neutral the efficient uptake of dye molecules by peat soil. Rahma-
state with high-silica commercial zeolites (Sarti et al. 2020). yanti et al. (2021) studied the adsorption of naphthol blue
Thus, the affinity of zeolite-based adsorbents for organic black and indigo sol blue dyes onto peat soil humin. The
and nonpolar molecules could be improved through surface dominance of electrostatic interaction via protonation of
modification with the right reagent, noting that the adsorp- the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups of the peat humin was
tion of organic and non-polar molecules is a function of the recorded between pH 2.0 and 5.0. At the same time, the
adsorbent’s physicochemical properties. hydrogen bonding mechanism predominated between pH
The effectiveness of zeolite in the adsorption of different 7.0 to pH 8.0. Dzieniszewska et al. (2019) adsorbed five
radionuclides has been established in the literature, and elec- different dyes: reactive blue 19, reactive blue 81, reactive
trostatic interaction was noted as the major sorption mecha- black 5, acid black 1, and acid blue 9, onto low-moor peat
nism involved (Li et al. 2022a). Salam et al. (2020) and Ai in the presence of sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, and
et al. (2022) investigated the sorption of uranium ions from ethanoic acid auxiliaries within the adsorbate solution. In
wastewater. They observed that the complexation of thiol the presence of ethanoic acid, the peat surface charges proto-
and hydroxyl with uranyl ions between pH 5.0–6.0 facili- nated, thus enhancing the anionic dye adsorption via an elec-
tated sorption. Adsorption of strontium radionuclide onto trostatic interaction mechanism (Dzieniszewska et al. 2019).
microporous Linde Type A zeolites of varying crystal sizes Similarly, the reactive dye species' increased intermolecu-
also proceeded with predominant electrostatic interaction lar force and dimerization were observed in the presence
(Kwon et al. 2020). The study also observed that adsorbents of salts. The dominance of the electrostatic interaction and

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2365

ion exchange mechanisms was also highlighted during the of the sulfamethazine antibiotics, which act as π-electron-
adsorption of malachite green dye onto coco peat (Kumari acceptors, and the benzene rings on the adsorbent ensured
and Dey 2019) and modified sphagnum peat moss samples efficient sorption. Chen et al. (2017) investigated the adsorp-
(Abu-Saqer and Lubbad 2019). Therefore, it is concluded tion of sulfamethoxazole and sulfapyridine antibiotics onto
that the different functional groups inherent in the peat soil's peat. For the neutral sulfamethoxazole species, the dominant
cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose content are responsi- mechanism was the hydrophobic partitioning between the
ble for both electrostatic and non-electrostatic interactions sulfonamide group of the adsorbate and the organic matter
involved during the uptake of different classes of dyes. of the peat soil. At the same time, cation bridging and slight
Different studies have successfully investigated and estab- contribution of van der Waals forces controlled the sorption
lished the heavy metal adsorption capacity of raw and modi- of deprotonated sulfamethoxazole species (Chen et al. 2017).
fied peat soil. Kasiuliene et al. (2019a) studied the adsorp- Furthermore, the dispersive and electrostatic interactions
tion of hexavalent chromium, trivalent chromium, copper, between the sulfapyridine's pyridine group and the peat's
arsenic, and zinc onto raw and iron-modified peat. It was aromatic carbon ring were responsible for efficient adsorp-
reported that peat magnetization negatively impacted the tion. Only a few earlier studies were found on the adsorp-
adsorption of chromium, copper, and zinc due to the screen- tion of PPCPs and other emerging organic contaminants on
ing/shielding effect of the iron coating on some surface peat and humic-based adsorbent. This observation could
organic groups and active sites. Conversely, due to their high be related to the fact that this class of adsorbent is open to
affinity for iron hydroxide and improved surface area, arsenic and compatible with a wide range of surface functionaliza-
was better adsorbed onto the iron-modified peat. Further- tion required for the efficient sorption of structurally com-
more, the solution pH for optimal adsorption of hexavalent plex pollutants such as PPCPs and other emerging organic
chromium, trivalent chromium, copper, and zinc was estab- contaminants.
lished at pH 1.5–3.0, 4.0–5.5, 5.0, and 7.0–9.0, respectively. Due to the abundant presence of carboxyl and phenolic
Bartczak et al. (2018) recorded the optimum adsorption of hydroxyl groups on peat and humic soil, the adsorption of
nickel and lead ions onto peat at pH 5.0. The electrostatic varying radionuclides mainly occurs via cation exchange
attraction between the negative surface charge on the peat and electrostatic interaction mechanisms (Belousov et al.
and the metal cations, as well as the progressive exchange 2021). Komissarov and Ogura (2019) and Belousov et al.
of adsorbent cations by the nickel and lead ions, was also (2021) observed a variation in the adsorption of cesium and
highlighted in the study. Asides from magnetization, Pere- strontium radionuclides onto different peat soils at varying
lomov et al. (2021) also observed that the oxidation of peat solution pH. The studies reported enhanced uptake via elec-
soil humin with potassium persulfate improved its capacity trostatic attraction between the sorbent's deprotonated car-
for adsorbing zinc, lead, copper, and nickel. According to the boxyl and phenolic functional group and the radionuclides
study, the oxidative treatment increased the amount of car- cations at acidic pH ranges. Meanwhile, when the solution
boxylic, ketone, and quinoid groups on the adsorbent struc- pH was increased beyond pH 6.0, Belousov et al. (2021)
ture. In addition to the already stated studies, other literature recorded a decreased adsorption for both radionuclides due
on the successful adsorption of iron (Ashraf et al. 2019), to decreasing adsorbate-adsorbent bond strength. Similarly,
chromium (Ashraf et al. 2019), nickel (Ashraf et al. 2019), the possible formation of stable complexes between the oxy-
copper (Lodygin 2019; Naymushina and Gaskova 2019), gen-based groups of the peat soil and the respective radionu-
zinc (Lodygin 2019), lead (Lodygin et al. 2020; Pelinsom clide cations was postulated (Belousov et al. 2021). Bordelet
Marques et al. 2020), and cadmium (Lodygin et al. 2020; et al. (2018) also highlighted the key role of carboxylic and
Pelinsom Marques et al. 2020) onto peat-based adsorbent phenolic functional groups of peat soil during the adsorp-
still exist. In summary, heavy metal adsorption potentials of tion of uranium and radium radionuclides. The study further
raw and modified peat mostly occur via ion exchange and/ reported that the optimum uptake of uranium and radium
or electrostatic interaction mechanisms. However, a proper onto peat soil occurred between pH 3.0 to 6.0. This observa-
pH adjustment on the respective heavy metal wastewater can tion aligns with the result obtained by Belousov et al. (2021).
greatly enhance uptake. Thus, the interaction of the deprotonated groups on the peat
The adsorption of PPCPs and other emerging organic soil and the cationic species of the radionuclide remains the
contaminants onto peat and humic-based adsorbents is dominant sorption mechanism.
primarily a function of the available functional groups In summary, the polar organic functional groups of the
and organic carbon content of the peat soil, as well as the peat adsorbent's cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin con-
adsorbate speciation and solution pH (Chen et al. 2017). stituents are responsible for high pollutant adsorption and
Guo et al. (2017b) reported the successful adsorption of ion exchange capacity. Also, the main adsorption mecha-
sulfamethazine antibiotics onto peat soil humin. During nisms are the electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bond
the study, the interactions between the sulfonamide group formation, and possible formation of stable complexes

13
2366 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

between the oxygen-based groups of the peat soil and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm
respective pollutants.
The Langmuir isotherm model, one of the fundamental
empirical models, presumes the pollutant and adsorbent
material in a standard method utilized for homogenous sur-
Adsorption isotherms faces (Al-Ghouti and Da'ana 2020). A further supposition
of this model is the reversibility of the adsorption–desorp-
Isotherm modeling is an applicable technique for expect- tion process (Langmuir 1916, 1918). The Langmuir isotherm
ing adsorption behaviors and studying the correlation could be gained from this equation, inferring that:
between adsorbents and contaminants at an equilibrium
qml
medium. A comprehensive understanding of the isotherm qe = × K ⋅ Ce
1 + K ⋅ Ce
models would significantly enhance the behavior of the
adsorption method and pollutant-adsorbent design (Dada where qm, L is the maximum adsorption amount of Lang-
et al. 2021). Moreover, isotherm modeling could provide muir isotherm (mg ­g−1), and k is Langmuir isotherm con-
insight into the removal method of pollutants, such as stant ­(dm3 ­mg−1).
maximum adsorption capacity, strength, and adsorption Due to its simplicity and homogenous monolayer adsorp-
state (Majd et al. 2021). Adsorption isotherms are pro- tion, Langmuir is the most frequently used optimal isotherm
duced when an adsorbent and an adsorbate come across in the adsorption of heavy metals. Most of the heavy metal
for a sufficiently extended period for the interface con- adsorption research described in the literature used mon-
centration to be in equilibrium with the absorption of olayer chemisorption techniques. Chitosan aerogel was syn-
the contaminant at a constant temperature (Al-Ghouti and thesized by Fan et al. (2021) to remove copper from contam-
Da'ana 2020). Adsorption isotherm is critical for funda- inated water, and the equilibrium data were compared using
mental studies for designing, optimizing, and trouble- Langmuir and Freundlich models. The outcome showed that
shooting manufacturing adsorption experiments. Various the Langmuir model is the most appropriate one to describe
factors could be influenced during the adsorption pro- the adsorption process. Using Pinewood sawdust biochar,
cess, such as pH, temperature, initial concentration, and naphthalene, phenanthrene, and anthracene compounds were
adsorbent characteristics (Ahmad et al. 2022; Huang et al. effectively removed from the contaminated aqueous solu-
2021b). These impacting parameters affect the adsorption tion. The isotherm models revealed the complete success
modeling. For instance, temperature, pollutant dosage, of the Langmuir equation in elucidating the contaminants’
and adsorbent properties could completely influence the uptake (Rashad et al. 2022).
level of selecting the proper isotherm model (Duan et al.
2020).
Various isotherm models with differing factors have Freundlich adsorption isotherm
been established and utilized in a broad series of manu-
facturing removal methods via adsorption involving oil The Freundlich isotherm model is a broadly applied practical
and gas factories, food manufacturing, and water reme- principle that relies on tentative findings since it explicitly
diation activities. The proper isotherm model affords the explains the removal of organic/inorganic toxins on numer-
necessary details for evaluating the adsorbent acts, incor- ous adsorbent materials. Herbert Freundlich initially sug-
porating the adsorption mechanism, adsorption capacity, gested the model in 1906 (Freundlich 1907) as an expansion
and fundamental characteristics of the removal method. of Henry's standard. The primary assumption in enhancing
Numerous adsorption isotherm models have been applied the Freundlich adsorption isotherm model in 1906 is that the
throughout the previous years to review the thermody- adsorbent material has a heterogeneous surface comprising
namic equilibrium correlation among pollutants and adsor- numerous active adsorption sites. Following this perspec-
bents at steady temperatures. tive, the quantity removed is the amount of adsorption on all
Following the sum of factors, adsorption models are active sites until the adsorption capacity reduces exponen-
categorized as one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor tially at the end of the adsorption process. The Freundlich
models. The isotherm model is regularly employed to model could also be employed for multilayer adsorption.
study adsorption processes, capability, and adsorbent When chemisorption is the major adsorption mechanism, the
characteristics in different pollutants studies. Nevertheless, Freundlich model describes monolayer adsorption, whereas
because of some model constraints, not all isotherm mod- it explains multilayer adsorption when physisorption is the
els could be suitable for expressing the data and explaining major mechanism. The Freundlich isotherm model has both
the pollutant’s adsorption method. linear and nonlinear models, which are defined as follows:

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2367

1
mercury's physical and chemical adsorption utilizing the
qe = K ⋅ CeN Dubinin- Radushkevich model.

1
log qe = log Kf +
N
logCe Temkin isotherm

where Kf (mg ­L−1) and N are the Freundlich isotherm mod- The Temkin model presumes a multi-layer chemosorp-
el's coefficients for the adsorption removal and strength tion process containing a parameter that reflects relations
coefficients, respectively, the infinite surface coverage that between the adsorbent and the pollutant (Temkin 1940).
is anticipated mathematically indicates multilayer adsorption Temkin isotherm model disregards great and little concen-
on the surface since the Freundlich model does not expect tration amounts while accounting for adsorbent-contaminant
the overload of the adsorbent. The value 1/N is temperature- contact. The Temkin isotherm is merely appropriate to spe-
dependent and depends on the adsorption conditions like cific ion concentrations. This model assumes that the bind-
surface heterogeneity or adsorption capacity (Febrianto et al. ing energy is uniformly distributed and that the adsorption
2009). heat of all molecules in the layer drops linearly rather than
To examine experimental data of chromium, arsenic, logarithmically when the surface coverage upsurges as a
cadmium, and lead adsorption with graphene oxide, Abbasi function of temperature (Elgarahy et al. 2022). The Temkin
et al. (2021) employed linear and nonlinear regression of model equation is stated as follows.
Freundlich models. The data analysis revealed that the non-
linear Freundlich adsorption isotherm model outperformed RT ( )
qe = ln A × Ce
the linear form in estimating the quantity of heavy metals b
removed by graphene oxide. where A (L ­g−1) is the constant of equilibrium binding; b
(J ­mol−1) is the adsorption heat constant. The above-men-
tioned equation can be solved by plotting qe versus lnCe,
Dubinin–Radushkevich isotherm which yields a straight line, and A and b can be calculated
from the slope and intercept.
The Dubinin–Radushkevich isotherm model presupposes Cadmium, Nickel, Copper, lead, and Zinc metal ions
a multilayer structure with van Der Waal's forces relevant were discarded from the contaminated solution utilizing
to physical adsorption (Al-Ghouti and Da'ana 2020). The crab shell-derived chitin, and the experimental findings
Dubinin–Radushkevich adsorption model, an empirical iso- were modeled using the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin,
therm, depicts the adsorption of vapors and gases via a pore- and D-R isotherms to describe the adsorption mechanisms.
filling mechanism on micropore adsorbent surfaces, such as It was revealed that the Temkin model successfully fitted
biochar, activated carbon, and metal–organic framework. To the adsorption method. The heat of adsorption value from
explain the pore size, adsorption capacity, and removal of the Temkin isotherm shows that the chitin and heavy metal
microporous non-polar contaminants, Dubinin and Radush- interaction is likely physisorption rather than ionic interac-
kevich designed the Dubinin–Radushkevich formula in 1946 tion (Boulaiche et al. 2019).
(Dubinin 1947). The Dubinin and Radushkevich model is
beneficial for different water pollutants removal applications,
including measuring adsorption capability, evaluating the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller isotherm
mechanism of the adsorption method, and figuring out the
average adsorption energy (Chen et al. 2022b). The Dubinin In 1938, Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller suggested a theoreti-
and Radushkevich isotherm model depends on temperature cal isotherm model that relied on multimolecular adsorption.
variations. The following formula can be used to apply the This model was first applied in gas–solid equilibrium tech-
Dubinin and Radushkevich adsorption model: niques (Brunauer et al. 1938). The Brunauer, Emmett, and
Teller isotherm model is a Langmuir version with several
additional assumptions, such as (1) the adsorption method
( )
1
𝜀 = RT ln 1 +
Ce is multilayer homogeneous; (2) the first layer's adsorption
force is persistent (i.e., The adsorption energy of each addi-
𝜀 (kJ ­mol−1) is Polanyi potential, R is the gas constant tional layer is equivalent to the heat of condensation. The
8.314 J ­mol−1 ­K−1, and T(K) is the absolute temperature. interactions between the adsorbent and the adsorbate have
Elgarahy et al. (2020) inspected the subsequent remedia- no impact on the fusion heat that is used to generate this
tion of Congo red anionic dye and copper metal ions on the energy.), and (3) adsorption and desorption rates are equal
multifunctional alginate beads. Calculating the mean sorp- (Wang and Guo 2020). There are numerous variations of
tion energy permitted researchers to differentiate between the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller isotherm model, but the

13
2368 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

following describes its extinction model at the liquid–solid these kinetic models. The first is that the pseud-first-order and
interface: Pseudo second order models that are most commonly applied
are empirical models with no apparent physical implication.
qmBET CBET Ce
qe = ( With these empirical kinetic models, examining the molecule
)[ )( C )]
removal routes is difficult. It is essential to create the physi-
(
Cs − Ce 1 + CBET − 1 Ce
cal importance of observed kinetic patterns. The following is
s

where qmBET (mg ­g−1) is the maximum adsorption capacity that while the physical implications of the differential kinetic
of Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller isotherm; Cs (mg ­L−1) is models, such as the phenomenological external/internal and
the adsorbate solubility; CBET (mg ­L−1) is the Brunauer, adsorption in active sites models, are well defined, the methods
Emmett, and Teller isotherm adsorption constant, a param- for explaining them are challenging. The mass transfer systems
eter related to the binding intensity for all layers. consuming these models have not been carefully examined.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae that had been chemically and The complex explaining methods impede the applications of
thermally modified was used by De Rossi et al. (2018) to these models. The third one is that in some published papers,
examine chromium removal from contaminated solution. the kinetic models are employed in inappropriate manner due
The Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller isotherm was effectively to some statistical interference.
applied to model the chemically treated bio-sorption iso- Three phases make up the adsorption molecules transfer
therms. The BET isotherm posits that the adsorbent mate- kinetics. External diffusion comes first. In this stage, the pol-
rial was soaked with chromium following the Langmuir lutant invades the aqueous medium around the adsorbent mate-
isotherm; therefore, the monolayer had become saturated, rial—the concentration variations between the surface of the
and more biosorption took place on the numerous layers adsorbent and the overall contaminated solution fuel the exter-
of the material, resulting in a more remarkable ability to nal diffusion. Internal diffusion is the second phase. Internal
absorb chromium. Nevertheless, relatively than a feasible diffusion defines the diffusion of the pollutant in the apertures
adsorption isotherm, Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller isotherm of the used material. The third step is the adsorption of water
model is currently considered a technique for characterizing pollutants in the active pore volumes of the adsorbent material
various biosorbents (Majd et al. 2021). Additionally, it has (Elgarahy et al. 2021).
been utilized to investigate the specific surface area, total
pore volume, and pore size of various carbonaceous materi- Pseudo‑first‑order reaction kinetic
als (Najaflou et al. 2021; Zeng et al. 2020).
This model is the utmost applied for the liquid–solid adsorp-
Adsorption kinetics tion method and relies on the pseudo-first-order equation
(Lagergren 1898). The pseudo-first-order model identifies the
Kinetic models help to define the functional performance, adsorption kinetics of molecules in an adsorbent surface by
comprehend the adsorbent-pollutant correlations, and the following ordinary first-order differential equation Eq. (35)
afford perceptions into the multifaceted adsorption method. (Rodrigues and Silva 2016):
Despite several compound equations that have been estab- ( ) ( )
lished, e.g., Elovich, Avrami, Bangham, or layer diffusion ln Qe − Qt = ln Qe − K1 t
models, the utmost applied models are the pseudo-first-order
where Qe: the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbent at equi-
and pseudo-second-order equations. The kinetic explanation
librium (mg ­g−1); Qt: the amount of adsorbate in the adsor-
is a critical dynamic process by removing different pollut-
bent at time t (mg ­g−1); K1: constant rate of Lagergren’s first
ants from contaminated solutions since it could describe the
order; and t: time of contact (min).
equilibrium period, reaction order, and reaction side and
consequently define the behavior and the rate-governing
Pseudo‑second‑order reaction kinetic
phase of the contaminant catching from the wastewater onto
the adsorbent material. Kinetic models stipulate vision with
Adsorption takes place on two surface sites in pseudo-second
result data essential for operating a successful biosorption
order kinetics (some authors call it ‘‘Blanchard’s model”), and
model.
therefore, can be expressed by the following second-order dif-
Generally, the biosorption method that relies basically on
ferential equation Eq. (37) (Naderi et al. 2018).
time could be categorized into different kinetic models such as
pseudo-first-order (Lagergren 1898), pseudo-second-order (Ho t 1 1
= + t
and McKay 1999), Weber and Morris model (Weber Jr and Qt K2 × Q2e Qe
Morris 1963), Boyd model (Okewale et al. 2013), Bingham’s
model (Malana et al. 2011), and Elovich model (Zeldowitsch where Qe is the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbent at
1934). Nevertheless, some challenges occur in the use of equilibrium (mg ­g−1); Qt is the amount of adsorbate in the

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2369

adsorbent at time t (mg ­g−1); K2 is a constant rate of the considered spontaneous, while ΔG° > 0 suggests non-spon-
pseudo-second-order; and t: time of contact (min). taneity, demonstrating that the method involves energy from
the environments to be expatriate to the equilibrium (Guo
Intraparticle diffusion model et al. 2017a).
Generally, the contaminant-biosorbent systems are
In general, the adsorption process by porous carbonaceous spontaneous because an absorption slope mostly rules the
materials involves four stages; (1) the border layer sur- adsorption process. Henceforth, its Gibbs-free energy is fur-
rounding the particle receives the solute from the aqueous ther beneficial in defining whether adsorption is preferred at
solution, (2) transfer of the solute to the adsorbent surface advanced or lesser temperatures. Consequently, the enthalpy
from the boundary layer, (3) the solute is transported to the change indicates the outcome energy or the consumed
adsorbent sites by diffusion in the micro- and macropores, energy. Adsorption is endothermic if the shift in Enthalpy
and (4) interactions between the particles of the solute and is more significant than zero, while it is exothermic when it
the active sites of the adsorbent: Adsorption, complexation, becomes less than zero (Vilela et al. 2019).
and precipitation. The following equation could interpret Most of the reactions are exothermic; nonetheless, one
this model: practicable identification of the endothermic mechanism is
√ that when particles are nearby to be attached to the adsorbent
Qt = KID t + I material, they miss a portion of their hydration cover. This
dehydration method uses energy that surpasses the exother-
Qt is the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbent at time t
mic behavior of connecting particles to the surface (Anas-
(mg ­g−1); KID is the constant rate of intraparticle diffusion;
topoulos and Kyzas 2016). Ultimately, entropy change des-
t: time of contact (min); and I is the intercept of intraparticle
ignates if the haphazardness rises or declines, subsequently,
diffusion kinetic model. To test this isotherm, it is suitable to
the adsorption method (Dirbaz and Roosta 2018). Gibbs free
graph Qt as a function of the square root of the contact time
energy and Van’t Hoff models are the furthermost applied
and to note the coefficient of determination R2.
equations to evaluate thermodynamic factors (Akram et al.
2017; Lombardo and Thielemans 2019; Maity et al. 2018;
Elovich model Marques et al. 2019). The Clausius-Clapeyron model is not
commonly applied because the change in enthalpy value
In recent years, the adsorption of contaminants from aque- could be deviated upon its use. Nevertheless, it is used
ous solutions and the kinetics of gas adsorption on solids has favored in the solid–gas adsorption methods (Li et al. 2019a;
been extensively described using the Elovich equation (Ho Wang et al. 2018d).
2006). This model matches the following equation (Chien Accurately calculating the thermodynamic values is
and Clayton 1980). essential for determining more details about the nature of
Qt = 𝛽 ln (𝛼𝛽) − ln (t) the contaminant adsorption method (endothermic/exother-
mic/spontaneous/viability). Gibb’s free energy variation,
where Qt: the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbent at time enthalpy, and entropy could be calculated at various tem-
t (mg g­ −1); b: the number of sites available for adsorption; peratures by the following equations;
a: the initial adsorption rate (mg ­g−1 min); and t: time of
Cs
contact (min). Kc =
Ce

Cs and Ce represent the equilibrium value of the contami-

Adsorption thermodynamics nant onto the adsorbent surface and in aqueous media, cor-
respondingly. In contrast, an equilibrium constant, Kc, states
Thermodynamics provides insight into the intrinsic ener- the proportion of pollutant concentration on the adsorbent to
getic variations connected to the adsorption method, which the dissolved in an aqueous medium.
is essential to explain the method's adsorption behavior,
irreversibility, and naturalness. The thermodynamic param-
eters, ΔG°, ΔH°, and ΔS°, are typically assessed after imple-
menting equilibrium tests at changed heats, which include a Mechanistic understanding of biosorption
vast quantity of tentative studies, restraining the obtainable
information for thermodynamic factor approximation. The Biosorption as a multidimensionally successful method has
description of these thermodynamic functions is the follow- become emerging recently. It is elaborated as an advanced
ing: Gibbs free energy is essential for identifying the sponta- substitute to other traditional approaches for wastewa-
neity of the system. When ΔG° is negative, the adsorption is ter treatment (Demey et al. 2019).In the physicochemical

13
2370 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

phenomenon, the sorbate particles (pollutants) gather on to eradicate various toxins from wastewater (Priya et al.
another particle (sorbent) surface, as shown in Fig. 9. High- 2022). There is a critical demand for more diverse excellent
quality effluents are generated in this manner. The term qualities that are described by biosorbents. This involves
"biosorption" is also defined simply, even though the "bio" its excellent stability, high removal efficacy toward the tar-
prefix indicates a biological entity's involvement. geted contaminants, and ease of regeneration (SafaÇelik
Regarding the sorption mechanism, both bioabsorption et al. 2022). Regeneration and biosorbent adaptation to sev-
and biosorption dimensions are implicated. A material in eral models (such as batch and fixed bed reactors) would
such a state combined with another substance in a different be heavily considered. Accessible waste should receive the
state over absorption. It also covers the uptake of gases or utmost attention based on the concept of waste as wealth.
liquids by solids or water. However, adsorption remains in a Due to their environmental friendliness, their use offers sev-
physical connection wherein a sorbent and sorbate interact to eral advantages. It is economically advantageous because it
form a contact (Maksoud et al. 2020). Biosorption requires solves disposal issues and brings in money for several sec-
all aspects of the interaction between some pollutants and tors. The abundant biological materials have structural dif-
the biological environment and is a submissive, metaboli- ferences that are notable (Sayin et al. 2021). Various ligands,
cally independent process (biosorbent). It is essential to including alcohol, aldehydes, carboxylic, hydroxyl, phos-
numerous processes that naturally take place throughout sev- phate, thiol, ketones, phenolic, and ether compounds, make
eral scientific fields (Elgarahy et al. 2021; Tee et al. 2022). up their structure. Due to their variable levels of presence,
they can interact with target pollutants in a variety of ways.
Selection of biosorbents A potential replacement for traditional methods is biosorp-
tion (Yaashikaa et al. 2021). It depends on how bio-wastes
The most crucial factor influencing the choice of biosorbent are used to remove various types of water pollutants. Its
is well known to be its compatibility. An essential factor to theory is designed to get two uses out of such bio-pollutants.
consider when choosing a biosorbent is the cost and source This is accomplished by reusing them to actively contribute
of the biomass. Dead biomass is preferred over living bio- to trash minimization and maximize their usefulness (Gupta
mass when making various biosorbents (Adewuyi 2020). et al. 2019). As a result, it permits achieving the reduction
Utilizing dead biomass has several advantages. It can be concentrations supported by global or domestic rules and the
summed up as follows; (1) no need for growth requirements World Health Organization (Hespanhol and Prost 1994). It
to remain included in the aqueous solution (e.g., media, distinguishes itself by exceptional qualities, including low
nutrients); (2) no toxicity restrictions; (3) potential for reuse production and running costs, adaptability, simplicity, and
of exhausted adsorbent and pollutants, respectively, and (4) great efficiency. Several biosorbents based on activated car-
simpler statistical modeling of contaminants removal (Chan bon (Boulika et al. 2022), agriculture wastes (Bushra et al.
et al. 2022; Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2021). The selected 2021), bio-calcium carbonate (Arslanoğlu 2021), biochar
biosorbent would also meet several other requirements, (Xiang et al. 2022), bio-nanocomposites (Motaghi et al.
including eco-friendliness, ease of application, feasibility, 2021), bio-hydrogels (Wan et al. 2022), chitosan (Chen et al.
and sustainability. This guarantees its prospective capacity 2022a), macroalgae (Elgarahy et al. 2019), and microalgae

Fig. 9  Adsorption mechanisms

of biosorbents. This figure
depicts the accumulation of pol-
lutant molecules on the surface
of an adsorbent. The bond
strength between the adsorbent
and adsorbate, which occurs
through specific mechanisms,
will influence the number of
cycles required in the adsorp-
tion and desorption processes

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2371

(Shalaby et al. 2021) were used to purify different water contaminated solutions (Amin and Chetpattananondh 2019).
pollutants. Many trials on the efficacy of cobalt eradication employing
For the treatment of wastewater, marine algae are biochar have been implemented in a batch scheme. The equi-
regarded as an effective and alternative base sorbent. It con- librium numbers matched the Freundlich, Temkin, and D-R
siders the availability of renewable resources worldwide. isotherm models. The Langmuir biosorption amount became
Based on its hue and colloid content, it can be grouped. 1.117 mg ­g−1 (Bordoloi et al. 2017). It has been identified
Oceans typically contain three basic kinds of organisms that biochar synthesized from water hyacinths (Eichhornia
algal phyla, Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta crassipes) was a successful sorbent to remove several heavy
(Mokhtar et al. 2017). Recent research has shown that using metals from contaminated water and prevent the harmful
microalgae is a sustainable substitute. Afshariani and Roosta effects of the existing invasive species. The further value of
(2019), for instance, researchers identified the batch and harvesting aqueous hyacinth medium as biomass for biochar
continuous removal of methylene blue in a contaminated is that it has fewer invading species effect on delicate aquatic
solution. The ultimate sorption stayed attained at pH 9 and environments. The cadmium removal from a contaminated
30 °C, reaching 87.69 3.22 mg ­g−1. To find a more effective medium by applying biochar-alginate capsules was stud-
leather dye adsorbent, defatted microalgae biomass (also ied, with maximal sorption amounts varying from 24.2 to
known as microalgae biofuel waste) was inspected (da Fon- 45.8 mg ­g−1 (Liu et al. 2020a).
toura et al. 2017). Acid Blue 161 solutions were applied Recently, batch biosorption of the rare-earth element
in biosorption analyses. At room temperature and 40 °C, ytterbium from the aqueous media using alginate and
respectively, the highest concentration of a dye adsorbed sericin particles chemically crosslinked with poly(vinyl
was 75.78 mg ­g−1 and 83.2 mg ­g−1. The findings showed that alcohol) was explored. The equilibrium point revealed that
biomass remarkably eliminated the dye amounts in real tan- at 55 °C, ytterbium had a maximum biosorption capacity of
nery waste effluents by 76.65%. Alginate, carrageenan, and 0.642 mmol ­g−1. Calcium carbonate was used as the pore-
polycolloid comprise the algal cell wall, primarily made up forming agent to create sodium alginate-based beads with
of polysaccharides. These ingredients are capable of remov- varying amounts of the pore-forming agent to increase algi-
ing several types of water contaminants (Daneshvar et al. nate gel beads' sorption capabilities. According to the exper-
2017). imental findings, copper (II) adsorption's capability rose by
Macro and microalgae were used as strong contend- at least twofold (from 13.69 to 33.88 mg ­g−1). Alginate-PEI
ers for eradicating heavy metals and synthetic dyes from beads were functionalized by phosphorylation and used
aquatic systems (Chen et al. 2019a; da Rosa et al. 2018). for the sorption of neodymium (III) and molybdenum in
Enteromorpha flexuosa, a green macroalga, was tested for its another recent method of alginate modification (VI). While
capacity to absorb crystal violet and methylene blue cationic the phosphorylation of molybdenum (VI) significantly limits
dyes from aqueous media (Elgarahy et al. 2019). The find- the enhancement, it considerably increases the sorption of
ings demonstrated that the removal efficacy of 90.3% and neodymium (III). Because molybdate species have a strong
93.4% under ideal variable circumstances, respectively, were affinity for amine groups, the phosphorylation of alginate-
attained. The primary component of green algae is cellulose, polyethyleneimine (PEI) beads enhanced neodymium(III)
coupled with many proteins and polysaccharides to form maximal sorption capacity from 0.61 to 1.46 mmol ­g−1.
glycoproteins (Jayakumar et al. 2014). These compounds However, the neodymium (VI) uptake increase is much less
have several functional groups (e.g., amino, hydroxyl, pronounced (from 1.46 to 2.09 mmol ­g−1).
carbonyl, and carboxyl). They are interestingly crucial to Chitin is a precursor of chitosan. It is primarily extracted
sorption (Rangabhashiyam et al. 2016). Brown algae are from waste shellfish, such as crab or shrimp shells (Elwa-
distinguished by having a wide variety of metabolites, keel et al. 2018). Chitosan sorbent can be cross-linked by
including halogenated substances, polyphenols, terpenoids, different crosslinking agents either (e.g., citric acid, sodium
laminarins, fucoidans, mannitol, and alginates (Saravana tripolyphosphate, and polyaspartic acid sodium salt) or cova-
et al. 2018; Farghali et al. 2023). Salts of calcium, phos- lent (e.g., epichlorohydrin, trimethylo propane, and triglyci-
phate, and sodium make up alginates. The primary naturally dyl ether) to improve its stability (Jóźwiak and Filipkowska
occurring components of the cell wall of brown seaweed 2020). The Reactive Black 5 dye removal efficacy was sig-
are sodium salts. Its weight is almost between 30 and 40%. nificantly impacted by ionic crosslinking using the chitosan
These polysaccharides are linear anionic and water-soluble hydrogel. After 24 h of the sorption procedure, chitosan
(Fernando et al. 2019). For extracting alginate from brown cross-linked with sodium citrate and sulfosuccinate had a
seaweed, various pre-extraction treatment techniques were greater sorption capacity of 46.7% and 37.2%, respectively,
employed (Saravana et al. 2018). Numerous researchers have than chitosan, which had not been cross-linked. Moreover,
tested the usage of biochar synthesized from microalgae as after 24 h of sorption, it was noticed that the removal effi-
another type of sorbent for removing heavy metals from ciency of the chitosan cross-associated with glutaraldehyde

13
2372 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

and trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether reduced to 35.3% To effectively eradicate chromium from wastewater,
and 26.6% lesser than that of unmodified chitosan. The Luo et al. (2021) produced fluorescent chitosan built on
unmodified chitosan displayed the maximum sorption hydrogel that contained titanate and cellulose nanofibers
removal (2307.0 mg ­g−1) once the sorption equilibrium had improved with carbon dots. The sorbent's increased capacity
been reached. for adsorbing chromium of 228.2 mg ­g−1 may be primarily
In comparison, the sorption potential of the crosslinked attributable to its porous design and the addition of titan-
hydrogels (ionically/covalently) ranged from 2005 to ate and cellulose nanofibers treated with carbon dots. By
2164 mg ­g−1 and from 2083.0 to 2183.0 mg ­g−1, respec- inserting co-polymerization on the surface of the chitosan/
tively (Jóźwiak and Filipkowska 2020). Chitosan-based iron oxide composite, a sequence of magnetically modified
magnetic sorbent decorated with polypyrrole was synthe- chitosan adsorbents in conjunction with core-brush topology
sized to remove anionic methyl orange and cationic crystal was produced. These sorbents were consequently applied to
violet dye from wastewater. The removal performance was remove two water contaminants (e.g., diclofenac sodium and
measured at 88.11% and 92.89% under optimized opera- tetracycline hydrochloride) from the contaminated medium
tional conditions for crystal violet and methyl orange dyes. (Zhang et al. 2016).
Though the pseudo-first-order kinetic model more closely Calcium carbonate is regarded as one of the most adapt-
matched methyl orange, the pseudo-second-order better- able substances ever created by humans. It is pervasive and
reflected crystal violet adsorption. The results from the reac- makes up more than 4% of the earth's crust. The common
tion equilibrium for the two dyes closely fitted the Langmuir forms of calcium carbonate include chalk, marble, and lime-
isotherm model, which owned a maximum sorption capacity stone. The primary source of bio-calcium is the skeletons of
of 62.89 and 89.29 mg ­g−1 for crystal violet and methyl some marine creatures, such as shellfish, crustacean shells,
orange dyes, respectively. Chitosan can also be altered by coral, seaweed, bivalves, and snails (Elwakeel et al. 2020).
becoming immobilized on another polymer. For instance, Aragonite, calcite, and vaterite are the three primary types
ethoxy-functionalized 4-methyl-2-(naphthalen-2-yl)-N- of carbonate (Hoque et al. 2013). Even though the chemical
propylpentanamide efficaciously modified chitosan (Jabli makeup of all these forms is similar, they differ in terms
2020) and then examined for the presence of methylene blue of whiteness, homogeneity, thickness, and purity. Calcium
and acid blue. After applying multiple beads, the adsorption carbonate has a distinctive white hue and is widely used in
capacity increased 1.4 times for acid blue 25 and three times cement. In coatings features, including plastics, dyes, and
for methylene blue, in comparison with the capacity of the paper productions, it has a wide range of purposes as a pad-
original chitosan beads. ding and/or coating material (Thilagan et al. 2015). Addi-
Adding tiny volumes of chitosan and Yttrium trivalent to tionally, due to its antacid qualities, calcium carbonate is
the acid-based fly ash created another chitosan hybrid com- utilized in industrial locations to neutralize acidic mediums
posite with a saturation adsorption amount of 627 mg ­g−1 (Li in soil and water (Correa et al. 2013).
et al. 2020a). The researchers put much effort into improv- A different fast-developing class of materials called
ing chitosan's selectivity towards metal ions. For instance, MXenes is based on carbides or nitrides of transition
developing highly selective sorbents is possible by grafting metals (e.g., Titanium, Niobium, and Vanadium) and is
2-mercapto benzimidazole onto chitosan microparticles. applied for various purposes. MXenes have a large spe-
Another tactical component for the feasible recovery pro- cific surface area, are chemically stable, and have vari-
cess of small chitosan particles is the integration of mag- ous effective adsorption sites originating from external
netite particles (Elwakeel et al. 2021). The sorbent demon- functional groups such as hydroxyl (Jeon et al. 2020).
strated high eligibility for valued metals over base metals. Due to its negative surface charge and robust-sheet-like
Chitosan and 2-mercapto benzimidazole can create a very structure, which contains plenty of active surface areas,
effective sorbent for recovering valuable metals from acidic titanium carbide ­( Ti 3C 2Tx), for example, removed 180
leachates. Batch experiments were performed to estimate the and 225 mg ­g−1 of barium and strontium ions in fractur-
adsorption capacities of the heavy metal pollutants (man- ing effluent. Metal–organic frameworks are crystalline
ganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc) on chitosan hybrid inorganic–organic compounds. They have incred-
relative to their comparable anions, sulfate, chloride, and ibly high specific surface areas reaching up to 6500 ­m2 ­g−1
nitrate (Weißpflog et al. 2020). The various heavy metal ions (Wang et al. 2015). They are excellent contenders for the
removal efficacy was analyzed using column tests. Upon adsorption of contaminants because they have a conveni-
comparison, the chloride anions and nitrate salts, respec- ent pore volume and a spatial topology with an arranged
tively, the heavy metal cations of the sulfate salts and the porous composition originating from positive metal ions,
sulfate ions adsorb to a substantially greater amount (Weißp- metal groups, and organic connections (Huang et al.
flog et al. 2020). 2021a). Metal–organic frameworks are unstable in moist
environments, but this can be remedied by changing the

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2373

surface with appropriate functionalization, such as water- such as heavy metals and synthetic dyes (Mashkoor and
balanced. Metal–organic framework with a great specific Nasar 2020; Sarkar et al. 2018).
surface area (1288 ­m2 ­g−1) called MIL-53 (MIL stands for A distinct category of carbon nanomaterials comprising
Matériaux de l'Institut Lavoisier) was applied to remove functionalized carbon nanotubes is the diatomite-carbon
amoxicillin, which from the primary concentration of nanotubes made through acid modification and chemical
150 mg ­L−1, at a quantity of 0.1 g ­L−1 (Imanipoor et al. vapor deposition. It had a specific surface area of 50 ­m2 ­g−1
2020). Another study found that a mercaptosuccinic-func- and demonstrated two different adsorption capabilities. The
tionalized zirconium-based metal–organic framework with high thermal and chemical steadiness, nano-composition,
an adsorption amount of 1080 mg ­g−1 for Mercury ions uniform pore size, great specific surface area, easiness of
and 510 mg ­g−1 for lead ions at pH 4.0 might potentially functionalization, and tube-shaped construction of carbon
adsorb the harmful metals from wastewater (Wang et al. nanotubes are altogether intriguing properties that result in
2020a). Along with the substances mentioned overhead, a significant number of adsorption sites for contaminants
carbonaceous materials such as carbon aerogels (Kalotra like metal ions and dyes.
and Mehta 2022), carbon hydrogels (Yang et al. 2020b),
and carbon xerogels (Girgis et al. 2012) also reported for
the elimination of pollutants. These materials would share Regeneration of spent adsorbents
characteristics including an enormous specific surface
area, great porosity, and organized structures even if they Adsorbents that exhibit superior aquatic permanence can be
were created using various synthesis processes. easily separated from wastewater effluents after removing
Graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide, which are contaminants. The potential of exhausted adsorbents to be
the graphene compound derivatives, own special sheet- recovered, decontaminated, and regenerated will decide how
like constructions, stand out among the numerous carbon useful they can be again (Yang et al. 2020a). A quality sorb-
nanostructures for their elevated specific surface area, high ent can be recycled and recovered for manufacturing, greatly
thermal stability, mechanical stability, and unique func- reducing the cost of making adsorbents (Gupta et al. 2020).
tional groups (Thakur et al. 2019). Although such materials The restoration of used adsorbents can be done repeatedly;
exhibit strong adsorption capability, a significant problem nevertheless, the restored adsorbent's adsorption capacity
that prevents various active sites from being available for is lesser than that of recent adsorbents (Reddy et al. 2017).
contaminant remediation is their propensity to agglomerate. The effectiveness of the contaminant's desorption can be
Aggregation is handled by including functional groups, such increased using the appropriate regeneration procedure. The
as oxygenated functional groups, or insertion constituents viability of the industrial-scale application relies on numer-
amongst graphene sheets (Baig et al. 2019). As an illustra- ous aspects, involving the sort of adsorbent, the pollutant,
tion, the reusability findings of fixed-bed removal revealed the adsorbent's stability, the toxicity of used adsorbents, and
that a silica gel/graphene oxide-based adsorbent with an the expense and energy supplies of the recyclability method.
adsorption dosage of 147 mg ­g−1 for indium ions demon- Several methods involving magnetic separation (Tamjidi
strated successful regeneration (Li et al. 2021). The elec- et al. 2019), filtration (Da’na and Awad 2017), thermal
trical characteristics, oxygen content, and interactions with regeneration (Hwang et al. 2020), solvent reusability (Jiang
contaminants of both graphene oxide and reduced graphene et al. 2018), microwave treatment (Zhang et al. 2014b),
oxide-based adsorbents remain significantly influenced by supercritical fluid restoration (Shahadat and Isamil 2018),
structural intactness, which is sensitive to uncertain environ- advanced oxidation method (Acevedo-García et al. 2020),
ments such as temperature, radiation, and specific pH media. and microbial-assisted pathway (Abromaitis et al. 2016) are
The adsorption capacity of lead ­(Pb2+) improved with irra- used to recover the saturated adsorbents. Evaluating various
diation doses. Nevertheless, an opposite tendency happened recovery and regeneration procedures is crucial to recognize
for chromium hexavalent, according to a rapid, substantial- the ultimate recycling and dumping of exhausted adsorbents.
ion-band and electron-beam radiation that altered the oxygen Regeneration efficiencies of different sorbents in removing
content of graphene oxide (Bai et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2021). heavy metals, dyes or other contaminants and their adsorp-
Another derivative of carbon nanomaterials is carbon tion efficiency are summarized in Tables 6, 7 and 8.
nanotubes, comprising functionalized carbon nanotubes.
Carbon nanotubes have fascinating structures, for instance, Regeneration methods
elevated thermal constancy, great chemical steadiness,
nano-composition, uniform pore volume, exclusive specific Thermal regeneration
surface area, ease of functional group formation, and tube-
shaped construction, all of which produce great records of Thermal desorption is a new technique for recovering metal
adsorption pore sites for removing different contaminants from the used adsorbent. Thermal regeneration involves

13
2374 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Table 6  Regeneration efficiencies of adsorbents after adsorbing heavy metals from wastewater
Pollutant Exhausted adsorbent Regeneration method Regeneration conditions Removal% References

Copper Activated carbon Filtration and acid treat- pH = 5.5, tem- 87% (number of Da’na and Awad (2017)
ment perature = 60 °C, cycles = 10)
time = 1 h, batch type,
and 6M HCl/0.1M
NaOH
Copper Peat-based adsorbent Hydrothermal carboni- Temperature = 230 °C, 25% Kasiuliene et al. (2019b)
zation time = 3 h, batch type,
and aqua regia
Copper Biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, and 0.1M 87% (number of Salvador et al. (2015)
NaOH cycles = 6)
Copper Rice husk Thermal treatment pH = 6, tem- 98% (number of Akhtar et al. (2006)
perature = 25 °C, cycles = 5)
time = 2 h, batch type,
and methanol, HCl &
NaOH
Copper Pineapple leaf biochar Chemical regeneration pH = 4.5, tem- 96% (number of Iamsaard et al. (2022)
perature = 25 °C, cycles = 6)
time = 20 h, batch type,
and 1M HCl
Copper Crosslinked carboxym- Chemical regeneration pH = 5, tem- 99% (number of Yan et al. (2011)
ethyl chitosan beads perature = 25 °C, cycles = 1)
time = 24 h, batch type,
and 0.1M HCl
Copper Biochar/pectin/alginate Chemical regeneration pH = 6, tem- 81% (number of Zhang et al. (2020)
hydrogel beads perature = 30 °C, cycles = 5)
time = 24 h, batch type,
and 0.2M HCl
Copper Chitosan coated sand Chemical regeneration pH = 1, tem- 99% (number of Wan et al. (2010)
perature = 25 °C, cycles = 1)
time = 4 h, batch type,
and 1.0 N HCl
Copper Binary modified biochar Chemical regeneration Time = 12 h, batch type, 98.76% (number of Liu et al. (2021a)
and ethylenediamine- cycles = 5)
tetraacetic acid diso-
dium salt (EDTA-2Na)
solutions (0.1 mol ­L−1)
Copper Polyaniline/chitosan Chemical regeneration pH = 4, tem- 97% (number of Igberase et al. (2014)
beads perature = 25 °C, cycles = 3)
time = 3 h, batch type,
and 0.01–0.5M HCl/
HNO3 eluent
Copper Eichhornia crassipes Chemical regeneration Temperature = 30 °C, 41% (number of Lin et al. (2020a)
biochar batch type, and cycles = 10)
0.5 mol ­L−1 HCl
Copper Calcite-modified biochar Chemical regeneration batch type, and 1M 97.87% (number of Wang et al. (2021)
NaOH cycles = 4)
Copper Triphosphate crosslinked Chemical regeneration pH = 1, tem- 88.7% (number of Laus and De Favere
chitosan perature = 25 °C, cycles = 1) (2011)
time = 3 h, batch type,
and 1.0M ­HNO3 and
ethylenediaminetet-
raacetic acid
Copper Magnetic biochar Chemical regeneration Fixed-bed column, 0.1M 85% (number of Pan et al. (2020)
NaOH cycles = 2)
Copper Hydroxyapatite-biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, 0.2M HCl 98% (number of Wang et al. (2018b)
cycles = 5)

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2375

Table 6  (continued)
Pollutant Exhausted adsorbent Regeneration method Regeneration conditions Removal% References

Zinc Pineapple leaf biochar Chemical regeneration pH = 4.5, tem- 89% (number of Iamsaard et al. (2022)
perature = 25 °C, cycles = 6)
time = 20 h, batch type,
and 1M HCl
Zinc Chitosan/ferric- Chemical regeneration pH = 6, tem- 98% (number of Maleki et al. (2015)
hydroxyapatite perature = 25 °C, cycles = 3)
time = 20 h, batch type,
and 0.2–0.8M HCl
Zinc Oxidized Eichhornia Chemical regeneration Temperature = 30 °C, 47.5% (number of Lin et al. (2020a)
crassipes biochar batch type, and cycles = 10)
0.5 mol ­L−1 HCl
Zinc Hydroxyapatite-biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, and 0.2M 95% (number of Wang et al. (2018b)
HCl cycles = 5)
Cadmium Chitosan with epichlo- Chemical regeneration Temperature = 25 °C, 89.9% Laus et al. (2010)
rohydrin and triphos- time = 48 h, batch type,
phate and 0.1M HCl and
­HNO3
Cadmium Eichhornia crassipes Chemical regeneration Temperature = 25 °C, 44.5% (number of Lin et al. (2020a)
biochar batch type, and cycles = 10)
0.5 mol ­L−1 HCl
Cadmium Alginate beads with Chemical regeneration Temperature = 55 °C, Number of cycles = 5 Wang et al. (2018c)
attapulgite time = 1 h, batch type,
and 0.2M HCl
Cadmium Modified biochar-based Chemical regeneration Batch type, 0.3M 9.3% (number of Wu et al. (2020)
porous hydrogel ­HNO3 + 0.03M NaOH cycles = 5)
Cadmium Virgin biochar hydrogel Chemical regeneration Batch type, 0.3M 0.13% (number of Wu et al. (2020)
­HNO3 + 0.03M NaOH cycles = 5)
Cadmium Carboxymethyl Chemical regeneration 0.01M ­HNO3/0.1M Number of cycles = 4 Badruddoza et al. (2013)
βcyclodextrin polymer
Cadmium Modified biochar Chemical regeneration 1M NaOH 15.3% (number of Wu et al. (2021)
cycles = 5)
Cadmium Chitosan/iron- Chemical regeneration pH = 6, time = 20 h, 99% (number of Maleki et al. (2015)
hydroxyapatite batch type, and 0.6M cycles = 3)
HCl
Cadmium Magnesium oxide- Chemical regeneration pH = 5, batch type, and 40% (number of Cheng et al. (2022)
modified Crofton weed 1M NaOH cycles = 3)
biochar
Cadmium Ethylene glycol Chemical regeneration 2M ­HNO3 99% (number of Zhao et al. (2013)
tetraacetic acid cycles = 10)
(EGTA)-chitosan
Cadmium Potassium hydroxide- Chemical regeneration pH = 6, tem- 13% (number of Herath et al. (2021)
activated biochar perature = 25 °C, cycles = 6)
time = 1 h, batch type,
and 0.1M HCl
Cadmium Peanut shell biochar Chemical regeneration pH = 5, tempera- 85% (number of Wan et al. (2018)
ture = 25 °C, and 0.2M cycles = 5)
HCl + 4% calcium
chloride
Nickel Chitosan-Laminaria Chemical regeneration Batch type, HCl 71.73% (number of Fan et al. (2011)
japonica cycles = 1)
Nickel Pineapple leaf biochar Chemical regeneration pH = 4.5, tem- 33% (number of Iamsaard et al. (2022)
perature = 25 °C, cycles = 6)
time = 20 h, batch type,
and 1M HCl

Several methods can be used for regeneration, including chemical, thermal, hydrothermal, and microwave treatments. However, chemical regen-
eration is the most widely used method for desorption due to its popularity and cost-effectiveness. HCl, NaOH, and H
­ NO3 are hydrochloric acid,
sodium hydroxide, and nitric acid, respectively

13
2376 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Table 7  Regeneration efficiencies of adsorbents after adsorbing dyes from wastewater

Pollutant Exhausted adsorbent Regeneration method Regeneration condi- Removal% References
tions

Basic blue 12 Wood residue biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, and 0.3M 25.3% (number of do Nascimento et al.
HCl cycles = 3) (2021)
Methylene blue Raw jujube shells Chemical regeneration Temperature = 24 °C, 73.12% (number of Bereksi et al. (2018)
time = 50 min, batch cycles = 4)
type, and 0.5M
­HNO3
Methylene blue Sulfuric acid-modified Chemical regeneration Temperature = 24 °C, 84% (number of El Messaoudi et al.
jujube shells time = 50 min, batch cycles = 4) (2021)
type, and 0.5M
­HNO3
Methylene blue Glomerata-based Chemical regeneration Batch type, and 0.1M 90% (number of Parsa et al. (2019)
biochar HCl cycles = 5)
Methylene blue Cellulose/graphene Chemical regeneration Temperature = 30 °C, 93% (number of Parsa et al. (2019)
oxide time = 2 h, batch cycles = 3)
type, and dilute
NaOH solution
Methylene blue Durian shell and jack- Microwave treatment Temperature = 120 °C, 81.63% (number of Foo and Hameed (2012)
fruit peel activated time = 3 h, column cycles = 5)
carbon reactor type
Reactive yellow 81 Porifera biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, NaOH 99.3% (number of Foo and Hameed (2012)
cycles = 3)
Malachite green Sulfur-treated tapioca Chemical regeneration Batch type, 0.1 NaOH 57% (number of Vigneshwaran et al.
peel cycles = 5) (2021b)
Congo red Switchgrass-biochar Chemical regeneration Batch type, 3% HCl 46% (number of Iqbal et al. (2021)
cycles = 5)
Cibacron blue Activated empty fruit Chemical regeneration Batch type, 0.3M HCl 91% (number of Jabar and Odusote
fibers biochar cycles = 7) (2020)

Chemical regeneration is also widely used for adsorbent regeneration. However, it is worth noting that most experiments have been conducted on
a batch scale, which means that column bed systems need to be utilized to confirm the experimental results. HCl, NaOH, and ­HNO3 are hydro-
chloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and nitric acid, respectively

raising a sorbent's temperature to a specified point to break human health can be observed in the emission of Polycyclic
the chemical and physical bonds that hold sorbate and sorb- aromatic hydrocarbons and dioxin as process byproducts.
ent together (Shahadat and Isamil 2018). Activated carbon As a result, the benefit of biochar in carbon immobiliza-
is regenerated using this process on an industrial and com- tion is eradicated (Toński et al. 2021). Multi-walled car-
mercial scale. bon nanotubes were effectively recycled, and it was used to
The carbon format and its volatile components will be remove cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, and 5-fluorouracil
eliminated from biochar when heated in the atmosphere along with a superior adsorption potential. For the greatest
at temperatures lower than 500 °C (Zhang et al. 2019a). recovery of carbon nanotubes, the temperature and duration
Discarded-painting paper biochar with a superior pre- of the thermal recyclability requirements are varied, and the
servative matter reduced lead metal ions from liquid media ideal circumstances are discovered to be 300 °C for 2 h.
with the highest adsorption volume of 1555 mg ­g−1 (Xu Findings further demonstrate that the adsorption capacity
et al. 2017). Moreover, the wasted biochar was pyrolyzed is unaffected even after 5 sets of adsorption and desorption.
at around 350 °C, which assisted in the gain of lead metal In a further analysis, heat-treated gilsonite was utilized as
ions and subsequent conversion to lead oxide nanoparticles an efficient adsorbent for removing toluene from wastewater
on the nano-biochar’s surface with higher purity (greater (Saffarian Delkhosh et al. 2021). After four thermal recy-
than 96%). Turning exhausted adsorbents into beneficial clability sets, 250 °C and 20 min are used for regeneration,
products over thermal regeneration has received relatively with adsorption effectiveness of 62.12%. Thermal regenera-
little attention up to this point and is still in its beginning. tion demonstrated a higher toluene removal efficiency than
However, the process's discharge of volatile compounds acetone and ethanol washing. However, due to its quick-
into the atmosphere could be a potential cause of second- ness, selectivity, and regulated heating, microwave treatment
ary pollution. Potential impacts towards the ecosystem and technology is currently used to replace thermal regeneration

13
 Table 8  Adsorption efficiencies of adsorbents towards different contaminants from wastewater
Pollutant Adsorbent Operational parameters Adsorption mechanism Adsorption capacity-removal% References

Copper Ethylenediamine-functionalized Sorbent mass = 50 mg; Electron exchange, sharing, and 243.90 mg ­g−1 Ahmadijokani et al. (2021)
zirconium metal–organic frame- C0 = 100 mg L­ −1.; pH = 1.5–7, covalent interactions
work contact time = 20–360 min)
Lead Ethylenediamine-functionalized Sorbent mass = 3 g ­L−1; Electron exchange, sharing, and 243.90 mg ­g−1 Ahmadijokani et al. (2021)
zirconium metal–organic frame- C0 = 140 mg L­ −1; pH = 6, contact covalent interactions
work time = 360 min
Cadmium Ethylenediamine-functionalized Sorbent mass = 100 mg; Electron exchange, sharing, and 217.9 mg ­g−1 Ahmadijokani et al. (2021)
zirconium metal–organic frame- C0 = 20–300 mg L ­ −1; pH = 7, covalent interactions
work contact time = 24 h
Copper Metal–organic framework modi- Sorbent mass = 1 g; C0 = 1 g ­L−1; Coordination, ion exchange, and 200.6 mg ­g−1, 100% Li et al. (2020b)
fied bacterial cellulose/chitosan pH = 6, contact time = 24 h electrostatic interaction
composite aerogel
Copper Magnetic metal–organic frame- Sorbent mass = 10 mg; Ion-exchange and coordination 301.33 mg ­g−1 Jiang et al. (2021b)
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

work—core–shell composite C0 = 20 mg ­L−1; pH =  < 2.5, reactions

contact time = 1 h
Chromium Hydroxypropyl chitosan/poly- Sorbent mass = 1 g; Chemical adsorption 95.31 mg ­g−1 Cao et al. (2021)
acrylamide/polyvinyl alcohol C0 = 100 mg L ­ −1; pH = 2, contact
time = 48 h
Copper Chitosan/orange peel hydrogel Sorbent mass = 4 g; Not mentioned 181.884 mg ­g−1, − 82.47% Pavithra et al. (2021)
composite C0 = 100 mg L ­ −1; pH = 5, contact
time = 360 min
Copper Functionalized cotton charcoal/chi- Sorbent mass = 0.01 g; C0 = 25 mg ­ Surface complexation and electro- 678.04 mg ­g−1 (Fan et al. 2022)
tosan biomass-based hydrogel L−1; pH = 6, contact time = 48 h static attraction
Copper Chitosan–montmorillonite compos- C0 = 22.5 mg L ­ −1; pH = 6, contact Cation exchange 98.21%, 86.95 mg ­g−1 Ye et al. (2021)
ite aerogel time = 50 min
Copper Nanocomposite beads (chitosan Sorbent mass = 0.1 g; Physical diffusion and chemical 114.6 mg ­g−1 Xu et al. (2022)
with paper sludge) C0 = 100 mg L ­ −1; pH = 4–8, sorption
contact time = 5 h
Lead Magnetic metal–organic frame- Sorbent mass = 10 mg; Ion exchange and coordination 719.42 mg ­g−1 Jiang et al. (2021b)
work (Fe3O4@ ZIF-8) core–shell C0 = 20 mg ­L−1; pH = 2.5–3, reactions
composite contact time = 1 h
Lead Zirconium metal–organic frame- Sorbent mass = 1.8 g; Ion-exchange 629 mg ­g−1 Tanihara et al. (2021)
work C0 = 1000 mg L ­ −1; contact
time = 30 min
Lead Zirconium metal–organic frame- Sorbent mass = 1 g ­L−1; C0 = 10, Electrostatic, π–π, and surface 937 mg ­g−1, − 99.5% Ahmad et al. (2021a)
work 15 and 20 ppm; pH = 6.5, contact interactions
time = 120 min
Lead Chitosan-assisted metal–organic C0 = 0.1 mol ­L−1; pH = 6, contact Ion exchange, electrostatic adsorp- 555.56 mg ­g−1 Hu et al. (2022)
framework time = 2 h tion, and coordination reactions
Lead Modified magnetic-metal organic Sorbent mass = 10 mg; C0 = 100 mg ­ Intraparticle diffusion 397 mg g­ −1, − 95 to 99% Ragheb et al. (2022)
framework L−1; pH = 6, contact time = 20 min

13
2377
 Table 8  (continued)
2378

Pollutant Adsorbent Operational parameters Adsorption mechanism Adsorption capacity-removal% References

13
Lead Alginate-modified graphitic carbon Sorbent mass = 0.02 g; Chemisorption 383.4 mg ­g−1 Shen et al. (2020)
nitride C0 = 500 mg L ­ −1; pH = 6, contact
time = 110 min
Lead Calcium carbonate C0 = 0.1 μM; pH = 5.4, contact Heterogeneous nucleation and 100% Fiorito et al. (2022)
time = 24 h surface co-precipitation
Lead Amino-modified chitosan/gold tail- Sorbent mass = 20 mg; Complexation, electrostatic inter- 192.78 mg ­g−1 Zhang et al. (2022d)
ings composite C0 = 200 mg L ­ −1; pH = 5, contact actions, and ion exchange
time = 24 h
Cadmium Modified magnetic-metal organic Sorbent mass = 10 mg; Intra-particle diffusion and liquid 393 mg ­g−1, − 95 to 99% Ragheb et al. (2022)
framework C0 = 0.5 mol ­L−1; pH = 6, contact film diffusion
time = 30 min
Cadmium Network nanostructured calcium Sorbent mass = 20 mg; Diffusion-controlled process 86.69% Tao et al. (2021)
alginate C0 = 10 mg ­L−1; pH = 5, contact
time = 40 min
Cadmium Iron and manganese oxides modi- Sorbent mass = 4 g L ­ −1; Ion exchange, redox, electrostatic 120.77 mg ­g−1 Tan et al. (2022)
fied biochar C0 = 2 g ­L−1; pH = 5.0 ± 0.1, attraction, and cation–π interac-
contact time = 30–60 min tion
Cadmium Lanthanum-iron incorporated Sorbent mass = 0.5 g L ­ −1; Chemical interaction 35.5 mg ­g−1, − 80% Lan et al. (2022)
chitosan beads C0 = 0.2 mg ­L−1; pH = 6.5, con-
tact time = 24 h
Cadmium Tin oxide-formaldehyde-chitosan Sorbent mass = 0.05 mg; Heterogeneous surface complexa- 1050 μmol ­g−1, − 99.2% Mahmoud et al. (2022b)
C0 = 1500 μmol ­g−1; pH = 6, tion
contact time = 10 s
Uranium Oxidized rice straw biochar Sorbent mass = 0.01 g; Surface complexation 242.65 mg ­g−1 Ahmed et al. (2021c)
C0 = 50 mg ­L−1; pH = 5.5, contact
time = 4 h
Uranium Magnetite-graphene oxide-chitosan Sorbent mass = 15 mg; Surface complexation 504 mg ­g−1, − 84.39% Sharma et al. (2022)
C0 = 50 ppm; pH = 6, contact
time = 30 min
Thorium Chitosan-based aerogel Sorbent mass = 0.1 g L ­ −1; Electrostatic interactions, surface 526.2 mg ­g−1, − 99.4% Chen et al. (2022a)
−1
C0 = 4 mg ­L ; pH = 4, contact complexation, and cation–π
time = 20 min effect
Congo red Microporous photoresponsive C0 = 100–400 mg L ­ −1.; pH = 4, Chemisorption 456.6 mg ­g−1 Mogale et al. (2022)
azobenzene dicarboxylate metal– contact time = 24 h
organic framework
Congo red Magnetic chitosan Sorbent mass = 0.045 g; Electrostatic interaction, hydrogen 727.8 mg ­g−1, − 98.4% Wang et al. (2022)
C0 = 100 mL, 200 mg ­L−1; bond
pH = 4, contact time = 2 h
Tetracycline Light-responsive iron benzene Sorbent mass = 20 mg; Electrostatic interactions 97.05% Zhang et al. (2022c)
dicarboxylate C0 = 50 mg ­L−1; contact
time = 6 h
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398
 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2379

(Falciglia et al. 2018). This method entails the transforma-

The adsorption mechanism involves several processes, including electron exchange, covalent interactions, ion exchange, π–π interactions, and surface interactions. This illustrates the non-
selective behavior of various adsorbents and their ability to utilize different mechanisms in the adsorption process. The mechanism employed depends on various parameters, such as the reaction
tion of microwave radiation into heat at the molecular phase
using adsorbent material (Falciglia et al. 2017). The sorbent

Minisy et al. (2021)

Bryan et al. (2022)
Turan et al. (2022)

Sahu et al. (2020)

is uniformly heated by microwave treatment from the exte-
Dai et al. (2020)

rior to the interior.

conditions, the type of pollutant (organic or inorganic), the characteristics of the adsorbent, and the interaction between the adsorbent and adsorbate. C0 is the initial concentration
Adsorption capacity-removal% References

In contrast to traditional thermal heating, microwave heat-

ing preserved the sorbent's porous feature and the adsorbate's
properties (Dai et al. 2019). Microwave irradiation technol-
ogy effectively utilizes controlled heating to regenerate used
sorbents. This technique takes advantage of the interaction
between the delocalized electrons of activated carbon, the
adsorbent material, and the microwave electrons. These
111 mg ­g−1, − 98%

interactions can facilitate the regeneration of activated car-

104.17 mg ­g−1
Hydrogen bonding and pore-filling 98.33 mg ­g−1

124.5 mg ­g−1
bon exhausted by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl sub-
stances. The dielectric properties of activated carbon, com-
99.36%

bined with the high volatility of the organic contaminants,

contribute to the success of this regeneration process. In
addition to being expensive to set up the plant, using micro-
Electrostatic force of interaction,

wave irradiation on an industrial scale to thermally desorb

hydrogen bonding interaction,

adsorbents is also an energy-intensive procedure. However,

further research is necessary to determine whether micro-
Adsorption mechanism

Electrostatic attraction

and pi–pi interaction

wave treatment may regenerate used sorbents (Gagliano

Electron exchange

et al. 2020).
Cross-linking

Recently, pollutants loaded onto the exhausted adsor-

bents have been dissolved using a thermal process, produc-
effect

ing a new material with a different porous composition and

surface-chemical properties. Following this heat treatment
of the used adsorbent, the resultant adsorbent was used to
C0 = 50 mg ­L−1; pH = 6, contact

reabsorb similar contaminants with slightly reduced elimi-

C0 = 20 mg ­L−1; pH = 4, contact

C0 = 0.35 M; pH = 10, contact

C0 = 50 mg ­L−1; pH = 3–10,

­ −1,

nation capacities. For instance, Sonmez Baghirzade et al.

­ −1; contact
Sorbent mass = 1250 mg L

(2021) suggested a thermally adjusted method for efficiently

contact time = 120 min
Operational parameters

Sorbent mass = 30 mg;

Sorbent mass = 50 mg;

Sorbent mass = 0.05 g;

reusing granular activated carbon loaded with perfluoroalkyl

and polyfluoroalkyl materials. This method involves min-
C0 = 100 mg L
time = 50 min

time = 45 min

eralizing the persistent Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl

time = 24 h

time = 2 h

Substances to recover the used granular activated carbon.

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances have been
shown to desorb and volatilize at temperatures as low as
175 °C. However, they can also be mineralized at much
Alkali-acid modified magnetic rice

Modified Chitosan with zirconium

higher temperatures, up to 700 °C (Xiao et al. 2020). High-

Methylene blue dye Chitosan–montmorillonite/poly-
Methylene blue dye Graphene oxide-chitosan com-

temperature thermal desorption, in particular, leads to sig-

Methylene blue dye Lychee seed-based biochar

nificant energy requirements that impede its sustainable use

and applicable industrial manufacture. Thermally treated,
wasted granular activated carbon may exhibit a growth in
straw biochar

specific surface area and micropore size with temperature,

and perlite

although extremely high temperatures (over 1200 °C) may

Adsorbent

aniline
posite

permanently damage the pore structure. Following remov-

ing the antidepressant medication contaminant amitripty-
line, Chang et al. (2021) used a 600 °C modification for
Table 8  (continued)

2 h to renew a montmorillonite substance. The regenerated

adsorbent's physicochemical characteristics changed, show-
Tetracycline

Tetracycline

ing a removal of amitriptyline of 71.7 mg ­g−1, or around

Pollutant

26% of the original montmorillonite. Therefore, using the

thermal decomposition approach, it is crucial to use the

13
2380 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

right temperature and treatment conditions (such as a gase- regenerated phenol from the phenol-loaded sorbent material
ous atmosphere) to successfully regenerate an adsorbent. and achieved effectiveness levels of about 100% (Salvador
Future research is necessary for scientific advancement and et al. 2013). The use of supercritical water has benefits and
process scaling because the thermal treatment settings can drawbacks. For example, it has a short process time, signifi-
fluctuate based on the nature of adsorbents, pollutants, and cantly lowering costs. Still, it also requires elevated pressure,
the intent of the resulting product. which raises the method's cost and limits its industrial appli-
cation. Supercritical water regeneration can only be used
Chemical regeneration on a small scale. Zhang et al. (2019b) used an alkali metal
catalyst and supercritical water regeneration to regenerate
Chemical regeneration is one of the most common methods activated carbon using hydrogen peroxide. With a recycla-
for renewing adsorbent materials (Alsawy et al. 2022; Wu bility efficacy of 107%, the supercritical water regenerated
et al. 2020). It primarily depends on the concentration of trials had improved specific surface area (813 ­m2 ­g−1), con-
the adsorbate and the forces interacting with the adsorbent. trary to the original samples (765 ­m2 ­g−1). Additionally, it
Chemical regeneration may better suit organic adsorbents has been revealed that the restoration temperatures (385 °C,
with low boiling points and limited thermal stability (Dai 405 °C, and 425 °C), the hydrogen peroxide concentration,
et al. 2019). Solvents and chemical reagents are used in the and the base metal behaving as a catalyst all impact the
chemical regeneration process. Acids and alkalis like phos- phenol contamination's capability to fasten to surfaces. In a
phoric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, ethylenediaminetet- unique study, Granular activated carbon is restored utilizing
raacetic acid, calcium nitrate, sodium hydroxide, and sodium supercritical carbon dioxide (Carmona et al. 2014). Here,
nitrate have been employed as regenerating solvents (Gupta the pressure (e.g., 6, 15, 20, 31 MPa) and temperature (e.g.,
et al. 2020; Hassan et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2020a). Baig et al. 45 °C, 60 °C) influenced the desorption yield of the contami-
(2014) demonstrated that applying 0.5 M sodium hydrox- nants. Intended for phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 4-chlorophenol,
ide allowed arsenic ions to be regenerated from magnetic and 2,4-dichlorophenol, respectively, desorption yields of
sorbent materials and subsequent magnetic sorbents to be up to 97.9%, 68.3%, 71.5%, and 64.5% were achieved at
recycled (Baig et al. 2014). A sizable desorption efficiency 31 MPa and 45 °C. To remove salicylic acid from bentonite
is monitored when acids are employed as regeneration sol- that has been biologically functionalized, salgn used ethanol
vents. In an acidic environment, adsorbent renewals and (Salgın et al. 2004). When no ethanol was used, the desorp-
causes metals desorption from the surface of the adsorbent. tion efficiency was 76%, and when 10% (v/v) ethanol was
Notably, the sorbent should have chemical stability as the applied, it was 98%. These results demonstrate the possible
adsorbent structure may be distorted by the chemical's action contribution of supercritical fluid desorption and the purpose
(Dai et al. 2019). of a co-solvent in the regeneration of toxins and recyclability
of exhausted adsorbents. Nevertheless, for this procedure to
Supercritical fluid desorption be used on an industrial scale, creative methods for lowering
the cost must be discovered.
A substance is transformed into a supercritical fluid when
heated over its critical temperature and squeezed past its crit- Chemical versus thermal regeneration
ical pressure (Shahadat and Isamil 2018). Supercritical fluid
desorption to regenerate used adsorbents is widespread and The adsorption capabilities of such exhausted carbona-
is considered a replacement for chemical-solvent and incin- ceous material are best enhanced by combining thermal
eration methods (Efaq et al. 2015). The supercritical fluid and chemical regeneration. Compared to the temperature
desorption behaves as a typical solvent in the soil matrix settings, acidic medium, and both treatment-washing steps,
and speeds up the process of pollutant desorption. The pol- the latter brought more encouraging results in the regen-
lutant is further condensed by lowering the pressure until it eration process than the other recyclability treatments. The
can eventually be collected into a small container. Due to method was repeated five times to assess the consistency
its incombustibility, non-hazardousness, and affordability, and removal efficacy of the carbonaceous material. The
carbon dioxide is the most preferred for supercritical fluid effectiveness and efficiency of the recycled adsorbent for
desorption and is commonly utilized (Noman et al. 2020). removing various contaminants were demonstrated by the
Additionally, supercritical fluid desorption exhibits fact that this substance has nearly equal adsorption stabil-
a rapid mass transfer rate and reduced surface tension. ity measurements and kinetic rate (Nahm et al. 2012). By
Despite its advantages, carbon dioxide has a lower capacity using chemical, thermal, and electrochemical methods, the
for regeneration with phenol-loaded adsorbents (Humayun recyclability tests of phenol adsorbed on carbon-rich mate-
et al. 1998). To tackle this problem, authors substituted rial (activated carbon) have been studied and evaluated. The
carbon dioxide with supercritical water, which completely sodium hydroxide-based alkaline medium improved phenol

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2381

desorption efficiency compared to pure water. A clearance decreased the capacity for desorption. The block influence
efficacy of greater than 60% cannot be attained with this of the potassium hydroxide in the medium was blamed for
procedure. In this work, the phenol compounds were elimi- the reduced removal capacity (Song et al. 2017).
nated after 3 h of electrochemical exposure; however, ther-
mal recyclability requires at least 450–600 °C to produce Exhausted adsorbent management and disposal
equivalent results. This study found that, when run under
ideal operational parameters, electrochemical regeneration Secondary contamination is the primary restriction on chem-
could remove particles with an efficiency of about 80% and ical regeneration. It should be thought about managing used
produce surfaces with more functionality and surface area adsorbents sustainably to protect the environment. Disposal
than thermal regeneration testing (77%). As a result, it might methods were suggested for reuse, incineration, and landfill-
be suggested that chemical regeneration (in the electric field) ing (Baskar et al. 2022; Lata et al. 2015). The old adsorbents
is a better method than thermal regeneration (Berenguer can be recycled for soil fertilizers, energy transfer, storage
et al. 2010). When Enteromorpha Porifera-derived bio- devices, capacitors, and catalyst/catalyst support. Findings
char polluted with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon com- showed that nutrient-enriched biochar is an organic ferti-
pound (Pyrene) was regenerated at 80, 150, and 200 °C, the lizer that might replace synthetic fertilizers (Liu et al. 2019).
renewal effectiveness was 35%, 45%, and 48%, respectively, Shortly, metal-impregnated green materials could replace
indicating a correlation between the heat and the removal carbon nanotubes and be utilized as supercapacitors or to
capability. remove tar (Baskar et al. 2022). When exhausted adsorbent
In experiments using iron-based biochar to remove micro- material is applied as a supplier of thermal power rather
cystin-LR from polluted aqueous media, quartet sets of per- than coal, incinerating waste results in less corrosiveness
sulfate recyclability experiments achieved a removal efficacy and harmful gas emissions. This process is known as waste-
of 92.81% and a regeneration efficiency of 82.89% in lake to-energy (Martín-Lara et al. 2016). Landfilling is a method
water. Furthermore, increasing the temperature from 20 to for disposing of exhausted adsorbents, where the concentra-
50 °C significantly enhanced microcystin-LR oxidation and tion of pollutants in the used adsorbent is identified before
the impact of persulfate during the persulfate recyclability dumping to determine the acceptability of this method. For
tests on iron-based biochar (Zeng and Kan 2022). A perox- materials contaminated with heavy metals, pretreatment is
ymonosulfate-enhanced novel electrochemical method was required before landfilling. Other strategies, such as micro-
used to regenerate rice-based biochar. Regeneration was suc- wave irradiation, phyto-capping, and phytoremediation,
cessfully achieved under suboptimal conditions using a 75:1 could also be applied (Alsawy et al. 2022; Fuke et al. 2021).
ratio of peroxy monosulfate (PMS) to fluoxetine, 150 mA
of appropriate current, and 0.15 mM of citric acid. Multiple
adsorption–desorption cycles were completed successfully Perspective
with minimal heat while maintaining the biochar's consist-
ency. This technique demonstrates the applicability of chem- In order to release wastewater into the environment, it must
ical regeneration, which can be used under optimal condi- first undergo a cleaning process to remove various organic
tions without external heat (Escudero-Curiel et al. 2021). and inorganic impurities. Adsorption using organic and
The regeneration process using the (water cleans- inorganic adsorbent materials such as charcoal, activated
ing + nitrogen purging + alkali soaking) method was suc- carbon, clay minerals, and zeolite is a standard method for
cessful. The iron-copper-potassium hydroxide/biochar removing unwanted substances from wastewater. Exhausted
reusability test was conducted under medium conditions of adsorbents can often be recycled for the circular economy
500 °C and 13% potassium hydroxide soaking matter. After through various techniques, including filtration, chemical
three cycles of this test, the findings showed that the sulfur and thermal regeneration, and advanced oxidation methods.
desorption had reached 42.64 mg sulfur ­g−1, close to the The recovery and regeneration approaches are significantly
adsorbent's initial removal capability of 48.58 mg sulfur ­g−1. impacted by the type of pollutant and the adsorbent used.
The nitrogen-wide approach reduced the ferric sulfate Regenerated samples perform exceptionally well in terms
­(Fe2(SO4)3) into ferric oxide (­ Fe2O3), recovering a sizable of wastewater adsorption. There is a growing interest in
amount of pre-diameter and effective components. However, developing advanced, high-capacity adsorbents for extract-
the oxidation of the used-up biochar at a high temperature ing and recovering pollutants from wastewater. Researchers
decreased regeneration effectiveness. The alkaline soaking are also focusing on the cost and safety of the adsorption
procedure supplied the hydroxyl group. It reclaimed its alka- process. The recovery of sorbed pollutants after disposing of
line strength, which helped with the desorption of sulfur. end-of-life adsorbents has been a significant challenge until
However, the high alkalinity levels in the medium resulted recently. The adsorbents can now be recycled as catalysts,
in the clogging of the pores of the employed biochar. It thus

13
2382 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

capacitors, or soil amendments, or they can be safely dis- • Previous experiments have demonstrated the effective-
posed of through incineration or landfilling. ness of using certain adsorbents to extract and recover
Reusing used adsorbents not only reduces application precious metals from wastewater, but the scale of these
costs but also has environmental benefits. Chitosan-based experiments was limited. Therefore, further research is
materials have many applications, including tissue engineer- needed to scale up the use of adsorbents in wastewater
ing, medication delivery, bioimaging, and wound healing treatment and to strengthen the technical feasibility of the
(Ahmad et al. 2017, 2019, 2021b). Repurposing used chi- adsorption/desorption process.
tosan-based materials for such applications would be inter- • The oxidative breakdown of organic contaminants is nec-
esting. Life cycle analysis is a valuable tool for assessing essary for chemical regeneration, but it is still unclear
a system's environmental and financial viability, including whether harmful by-products may be produced. Thus,
wastewater treatment. This method considers both positive further research is required to ensure the safety and envi-
and negative effects, considering waste management, cost, ronmental impact of the regeneration process.
energy use, and safety. For example, a life cycle analysis
was conducted on activated carbon from discarded cherry
and sour cherry kernels (Vukelic et al. 2018). This complex
process involves various components: transportation, man- Conclusion
agement, chemical handling, water and acid usage, energy
consumption, rinsing, waste paper utilization, and wastewa- The success of biosorbents depends on their physical and
ter treatment. The results indicate that utilizing waste cherry surface chemistry characteristics, and understanding the
and sour cherry kernels for this process is economically removal mechanisms of each class of adsorbent is crucial to
and environmentally feasible, with minimal environmental ensure high adsorption performance. The use of raw indus-
impact when implemented at a production scale. Researchers trial waste and its functionalization offers a promising strat-
must focus on life cycle analysis, especially for new adsor- egy for sanitation and water reuse, aligning with sustainable
bents, to better understand their environmental impact. In development objectives. This review has discussed various
order to successfully implement the regeneration technol- preparation and modification techniques to produce efficient
ogy for practical applications, several challenges need to be biosorbents using various materials, including wood, bac-
addressed in future research works: teria, algae, herbaceous materials, agricultural waste, and
animal waste. The preparation method to control the mag-
• Many studies have focused on using adsorbents to remove netic sorbents' shape, morphology, magnetic property, and
a single contaminant from synthetic wastewater, which is particle size was also discussed.
impractical for real-world applications. Therefore, future Adsorption processes using different adsorbents were
studies should consider using genuine sewage wastewater evaluated for removing various contaminants from waste-
with a mixture of contaminants to assess the effectiveness water and water, providing insights into isotherm and kinetic
of the regeneration method. models for optimizing adsorption behavior and designing
• Developing cost-effective technologies for recycling pol- effective pollutant-adsorbent systems. The review also cov-
lutants from used adsorbents should be a key research ers techniques for recovering, decontaminating, and regener-
focus. ating exhausted adsorbents, emphasizing the importance of
• Characterizing the adsorbent material (e.g., surface struc- maximizing their reuse. Finally, future recommendations on
ture, porosity, and functionality) after each regeneration biosorbents and magnetic sorbents are highlighted. Overall,
cycle is essential to fully understanding the regeneration this review emphasizes the crucial role of biosorbents and
process. Therefore, artificial intelligence technologies adsorption processes in promoting sustainable development
can be developed to predict optimal recovery conditions and the circular economy.
and facilitate the long-term use of the adsorbent in waste-
Acknowledgements Dr. Ahmed I. Osman and Prof. David W. Rooney
water treatment applications. wish to acknowledge the support of The Bryden Centre project (Project
• The surface of many adsorbents can be modified to ID VA5048), which was awarded by The European Union’s INTER-
enhance their adsorption capacity while reducing regen- REG VA Programme, managed by the Special EU Programmes
eration problems. Therefore, researchers should suggest Body (SEUPB), with match funding provided by the Department for
the Economy in Northern Ireland and the Department of Business,
further modification methods that could aid in the com- Enterprise and Innovation in the Republic of Ireland. The researcher
plete chemical regeneration of the adsorbent material. (Mohamed Hosny) is funded by a full scholarship (MM32/21) from
• The potential benefits of using biomass feedstocks in situ the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research rep-
for functionalization and material improvement should be resented by the Egyptian Bureau for Cultural & Educational Affairs
in London.
explored to reduce costs and improve sustainability.

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2383

Funding The authors have not disclosed any funding. Purif Technol 242:116796. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​seppur.​
2020.​116796
Declarations Adewuyi AJW (2020) Chemically modified biosorbents and their role
in the removal of emerging pharmaceutical waste in the water
Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. system. Water 12(6):1551. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​w1206​1551
Afshariani F, Roosta A (2019) Experimental study and mathematical
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- modeling of biosorption of methylene blue from aqueous solu-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion in a packed bed of microalgae Scenedesmus. J Clean Prod
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long 225:133–142. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2019.​03.​275
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Ahmad M et al (2017) Chitosan centered bionanocomposites for medi-
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes cal specialty and curative applications: a review. Int J Pharm
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are 529(1–2):200–217. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijpha​r m.​2017.​06.​
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated 079
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in Ahmad M et al (2019) Chitosan-based nanocomposites for cardiac,
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not liver, and wound healing applications. In: Inamuddin AM,
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will Mohammad-Asiri A (eds) Applications of nanocomposite mate-
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a rials in orthopedics. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 253–262. https://​
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​813740-​6.​00013-2
Ahmad K et al (2021a) Effect of metal atom in zeolitic imidazolate
frameworks (ZIF-8 & 67) for removal of Pb2+ & Hg2+ from
water. Food Chem Toxicol 149:112008. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
fct.​2021.​112008
References Ahmad S et al (2021b) Chitosan-based bionanocomposites in drug
delivery. In: Sharma S, Malik A, Gupta P (eds) Bionanocom-
Abbasi M et al (2021) Enhanced adsorption of heavy metals in ground- posites in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Elsevier,
water using sand columns enriched with graphene oxide: lab- Amsterdam, pp 187–203. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​
scale experiments and process modeling. J Water Process Eng 821280-​6.​00024-6
40:101961. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jwpe.​2021.​101961 Ahmad K et al (2022) Synthesis and evaluation of Ca-doped ferrihy-
Abdel Maksoud MIA et al (2020) Insight on water remediation applica- drite as a novel adsorbent for the efficient removal of fluoride.
tion using magnetic nanomaterials and biosorbents. Coord Chem Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(4):6375–6388. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Rev 403:213096. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ccr.​2019.​213096 1007/​s11356-​021-​16105-5
Abdel Maksoud MIA et al (2021) MoS2-based nanocomposites: Ahmadijokani F et al (2021) Ethylenediamine-functionalized Zr-based
synthesis, structure, and applications in water remediation and MOF for efficient removal of heavy metal ions from water. Che-
energy storage: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19(5):3645–3681. mosphere 264(Pt 2):128466. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​021-​01268-x sphere.​2020.​128466
Abdel Maksoud MIA et al (2022) Engineered magnetic oxides nano- Ahmed MJ (2016) Application of agricultural based activated carbons
particles as efficient sorbents for wastewater remediation: a by microwave and conventional activations for basic dye adsorp-
review. Environ Chem Lett 20(1):519–562. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ tion. J Environ Chem Eng 4(1):89–99. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
1007/​s10311-​021-​01351-3 jece.​2015.​10.​027
Abdelfatah AM et al (2021) Efficient adsorptive removal of tetracy- Ahmed W et al (2021a) Fabrication, characterization and U (VI) sorp-
cline from aqueous solution using phytosynthesized nano-zero tion properties of a novel biochar derived from Tribulus terrestris
valent iron. J Saudi Chem Soc. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jscs.​ via two different approaches. Sci Total Environ 780:146617.
2021.​101365 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2021.​146617
Abdić Š et al (2018) Adsorptive removal of eight heavy metals from Ahmed W et al (2021b) Oxidized biochar obtained from rice straw
aqueous solution by unmodified and modified agricultural waste: as adsorbent to remove uranium (VI) from aqueous solutions. J
tangerine peel. Int J Environ Sci Technol 15(12):2511–2518. Environ Chem Eng 9(2):105104. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13762-​018-​1645-7 2021.​105104
Abdullah H et al (2021) Bisphenol a removal by adsorption using waste Ahmed W et al (2021c) Oxidized biochar obtained from rice straw
biomass: isotherm and kinetic studies. Biointerface Res Appl as adsorbent to remove uranium (VI) from aqueous solutions. J
Chem 11(1):8467–8481. https://​doi.​org/​10.​33263/​BRIAC​111.​ Environ Chem Eng 9(2):105104. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​
84678​481 2021.​105104
Abromaitis V et al (2016) Biodegradation of persistent organics can Ahn S-K et al (2022) Adsorption mechanisms on perfluorooctanoic
overcome adsorption–desorption hysteresis in biological acti- acid by F ­ eCl3 modified granular activated carbon in aqueous
vated carbon systems. Chemosphere 149:183–189 solutions. Chemosphere. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​
Abu-Saqer KK, Lubbad SH (2019) Assessment of various treatment 2022.​134965
methods and reagents for cleanup and conditioning of sphagnum Ai Y et al (2022) Waste non-burn-free brick derived sulfhydryl func-
peat moss as sorbents in removal of malachite green as a cationic tioned magnetic zeolites and their efficient removal of uranium
organic dye probe from water. SN Appl Sci 1(1):1–10. https://​ (VI) ions. Appl Surf Sci 571:151241. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s42452-​018-​0021-z apsusc.​2021.​151241
Acemioğlu B (2022) Removal of a reactive dye using NaOH-activated Akar ST et al (2012) Biosorption potential of the waste biomaterial
biochar prepared from peanut shell by pyrolysis process. Int J obtained from Cucumis melo for the removal of Pb2+ ions from
Coal Prep Util 42(3):671–693. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​19392​ aqueous media: equilibrium, kinetic, thermodynamic and mecha-
699.​2019.​16443​26 nism analysis. Chem Eng J 185:82–90. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Acevedo-García V et al (2020) Synthesis and use of efficient adsor- cej.​2012.​01.​032
bents under the principles of circular economy: waste valorisa- Akbour RA et al (2020) Adsorption of anionic dyes from aqueous solution
tion and electroadvanced oxidation process regeneration. Sep using polyelectrolyte PDAD-PDADMAC-modified-montmorillonite

13
2384 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

clay. Desalin Water Treat 208:407–422. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​ Aniagor CO et al (2021) Evaluation of the aqueous Fe (II) ion sorption
2020.​26446 capacity of functionalized microcrystalline cellulose. J Environ
Akemoto Y et al (2021) Interpretation of the interaction between Chem Eng 9(4):105703. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2021.​
cesium ion and some clay minerals based on their structural fea- 105703
tures. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(11):14121–14130. https://​doi.​ Aniagor CO et al (2022) Preparation of amidoxime modified biomass
org/​10.​1007/​s11356-​020-​11476-7 and subsequent investigation of their lead ion adsorption prop-
Akhtar M et al (2006) Sorption potential of rice husk for the removal erties. Clean Chem Eng. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clce.​2022.​
of 2, 4-dichlorophenol from aqueous solutions: kinetic and ther- 100013
modynamic investigations. J Hazard Mater 128(1):44–52. https://​ Ansari MJ et al (2022) Synthesis and stability of magnetic nanoparti-
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2005.​07.​025 cles. BioNanoScience 12(2):627–638
Akram M et al (2017) Biocomposite efficiency for Cr (VI) adsorp- Arasi MA et al (2021) Production of mesoporous and thermally sta-
tion: kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamics studies. J Environ ble silica powder from low grade kaolin based on eco-friendly
Chem Eng 5(1):400–411. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.j​ ece.2​ 016.1​ 2.​ template free route via acidification of appropriate zeolite com-
002 pound for removal of cationic dye from wastewater. Sustain
Alamudy HA, Cho K (2018) Selective adsorption of cesium from an Chem Pharm 19:100366. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scp.​2020.​
aqueous solution by a montmorillonite-prussian blue hybrid. 100366
Chem Eng J 349:595–602. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​19392​699.​ Armah EK et al (2022) Biochar: production, application and the future.
2020.​17924​56 In: Bartoli M, Giorcelli M, Tagliaferro A (eds) Biochar-produc-
Albayati TM et al (2019) Adsorption of binary and multi heavy met- tive technologies, properties and application. IntechOpen, Lon-
als ions from aqueous solution by amine functionalized SBA-15 don. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5772/​intec​hopen.​105070
mesoporous adsorbent in a batch system. Desalin Water Treat Arora N, Sharma N (2014) Arc discharge synthesis of carbon nano-
151:315–321. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​2019.​23937 tubes: comprehensive review. Diam Relat Mater 50:135–150
Al-dahri T et al (2022) Preparation and characterization of Linde-type Arslanoğlu H (2021) Production of low-cost adsorbent with small par-
A zeolite (LTA) from coal fly ash by microwave-assisted synthe- ticle size from calcium carbonate rich residue carbonatation cake
sis method: its application as adsorbent for removal of anionic and their high performance phosphate adsorption applications. J
dyes. Int J Coal Prep Util 42(7):2064–2077. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Mater Res Technol 11:428–447
1080/​19392​699.​2020.​17924​56 Ashraf MA et al (2019) Treatment of Taman Beringin landfill leachate
Al-Ghouti MA, Da’ana DA (2020) Guidelines for the use and interpre- using the column technique. Desalin Water Treat 149:370–387.
tation of adsorption isotherm models: a review. J Hazard Mater https://​doi.​org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​2019.​23839
393:122383. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2020.​122383 Attallah OA et al (2016) Synthesis of non-aggregated nicotinic acid
Ali S (2018) Fabrication of a nanocomposite from an agricultural waste coated magnetite nanorods via hydrothermal technique. J Magn
and its application as a biosorbent for organic pollutants. Int J Magn Mater 399:58–63
Environ Sci Technol 15(6):1169–1178. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ Atun G, Bascetin E (2003) Adsorption of barium on kaolinite, illite
s13762-​017-​1477-x and montmorillonite at various ionic strengths. Radiochim Acta
Aljohani FS et al (2021) Water treatment from MB using Zn–Ag 91(4):223–228. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1524/​ract.​91.4.​223.​19964
MWCNT synthesized by double arc discharge. Materials Aziz K et al (2022) Enhanced biosorption of bisphenol A from waste-
14(23):7205. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma142​37205 water using hydroxyapatite elaborated from fish scales and camel
Alsawy T et al (2022) A comprehensive review on the chemical regen- bone meal: a RSM@BBD optimization approach. Ceram Int
eration of biochar adsorbent for sustainable wastewater treat- 48(11):15811–15823. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ceram​int.​2022.​
ment. npj Clean Water 5(1):1–21 02.​119
Al-Shehri BM et al (2021) A significant improvement in adsorption Badruddoza AZM et al (2013) Fe3O4/cyclodextrin polymer nano-
behavior of mesoporous TUD-1 silica through neodymium incor- composites for selective heavy metals removal from industrial
poration. J Rare Earths 39(4):469–476. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​ wastewater. Carbohydr Polym 91(1):322–332
jre.​2020.​07.​004 Bai J et al (2016) Oxygen-content-controllable graphene oxide from
Alver E, Metin AÜ (2012) Anionic dye removal from aqueous solutions electron-beam-irradiated graphite: synthesis, characterization,
using modified zeolite: adsorption kinetics and isotherm studies. and removal of aqueous lead [Pb (II)]. ACS Appl Mater Inter-
Chem Eng J 200:59–67 faces 8(38):25289–25296
Amabilis-Sosa LE et al (2022) Biochar-assisted bioengineered strat- Bai M et al (2023) Enhancing cadmium removal efficiency through
egies for metal removal: mechanisms, key considerations, and spinel ferrites modified biochar derived from agricultural waste
perspectives for the treatment of solid and liquid matrixes. Sus- straw. J Environ Chem Eng 11(1):109027. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
tainability 14(24):17049. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​su142​417049 1016/j.​jece.​2022.​109027
Amin M, Chetpattananondh P (2019) Biochar from extracted marine Baig SA et al (2014) Effect of synthesis methods on magnetic Kans
Chlorella sp. residue for high efficiency adsorption with ultra- grass biochar for enhanced As (III, V) adsorption from aqueous
sonication to remove Cr (VI), Zn (II) and Ni (II). Bioresour Tech- solutions. Biomass Bioenergy 71:299–310
nol 289:121578 Baig N et al (2019) Graphene-based adsorbents for the removal of
Amin FR et al (2016) Biochar applications and modern techniques toxic organic pollutants: a review. J Environ Manag 244:370–382
for characterization. Clean Technol Environ Policy 18(5):1457– Bartczak P et al (2018) Removal of nickel (II) and lead (II) ions from
1473. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10098-​016-​1218-8 aqueous solution using peat as a low-cost adsorbent: a kinetic
Amrhar O et al (2021) Removal of methylene blue dye by adsorp- and equilibrium study. Arab J Chem 11(8):1209–1222. https://​
tion onto Natural Muscovite Clay: experimental, theoretical and doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​arabjc.​2015.​07.​018
computational investigation. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://​ Baskar AV et al (2022) Recovery, regeneration and sustainable man-
doi.​org/​10.​1080/​03067​319.​2021.​18971​19 agement of spent adsorbents from wastewater treatment streams:
Anastopoulos I, Kyzas GZ (2016) Are the thermodynamic parameters a review. Sci Total Environ 822:153555
correctly estimated in liquid-phase adsorption phenomena? J Mol Bayramoglu G et al (2022) Preparation of effective green sorbents
Liq 218:174–185 using O. Princeps alga biomass with different composition

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2385

of amine groups: comparison to adsorption performances for orange and crystal violet. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp
removal of a model acid dye. J Mol Liq 347:118375. https://​doi.​ 596:124735. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​colsu​rfa.​2020.​124735
org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2021.​118375 Cao J et al (2021) Hydroxypropyl chitosan-based dual self-healing
Belousov P et al (2021) Sorption of 137Cs and 90Sr on organic sor- hydrogel for adsorption of chromium ions. Int J Biol Macromol
bents. Appl Sci 11(23):11531. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​app11​ 174:89–100
23115​31 Carmona M et al (2014) Adsorption of phenol and chlorophenols onto
Belviso C et al (2021) Efficiency in Ofloxacin antibiotic water remedia- granular activated carbon and their desorption by supercritical
tion by magnetic zeolites formed combining pure sources and CO2. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 89(11):1660–1667
wastes. Processes 9(12):2137. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.3​ 390/p​ r9122​ 137 Cavalcante EH et al (2022) 3-Aminopropyl-triethoxysilane-function-
Bensedira A et al (2022) Study of methylene blue dye elimination alized tannin-rich grape biomass for the adsorption of methyl
from water using polyaniline (PANI) and PANI/SiO2 composite. orange dye: synthesis, characterization, and the adsorption mech-
Polym Polym Compos 30:09673911221141747. https://​doi.​org/​ anism. ACS Omega 7(22):18997–19009. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 021/​
10.​1177/​09673​91122​11417​47 acsom​ega.​2c021​01
Benvenuti J et al (2020) Hybrid sol–gel silica adsorbent material based Çelebi H (2020) Recovery of detox tea wastes: usage as a lignocel-
on grape stalk applied to cationic dye removal. Environ Prog lulosic adsorbent in Cr6+ adsorption. J Environ Chem Eng
Sustain Energy 39(4):e13398. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​ep.​13398 8(5):104310. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2020.​104310
Bereksi ZS et al (2018) Effects of some operating parameters on sorp- Chan SS et al (2022) Recent advances biodegradation and biosorption
tion and desorption kinetics related to spotted golden thistle of organic compounds from wastewater: microalgae-bacteria
stalks and methylene blue; isotherm study at optimal pH and consortium—a review. Bioresour Technol 344:126159
sorbent regeneration. Prog React Kinet Mech 43(2):173–188 Chang P-H et al (2021) Unravelling the mechanism of amitriptyline
Berenguer R et al (2010) Comparison among chemical, thermal, and removal from water by natural montmorillonite through batch
electrochemical regeneration of phenol-saturated activated car- adsorption, molecular simulation and adsorbent characterization
bon. Energy Fuels 24(6):3366–3372 studies. J Colloid Interface Sci 598:379–387
Bergaya F, Lagaly G (2013) General introduction: clays, clay miner- Chatterjee S et al (2005) Adsorption of a model anionic dye, eosin Y,
als, and clay science. In: Developments in clay science, vol 5. from aqueous solution by chitosan hydrobeads. J Colloid Inter-
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S1572-​ face Sci 288(1):30–35. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.j​ cis.2​ 005.0​ 2.0​ 55
4352(05)​01001-9 Chauhan M et al (2020a) Enhancement in selective adsorption and
Bhatnagar A et al (2015) Agricultural waste peels as versatile biomass removal efficiency of natural clay by intercalation of Zr-pillars
for water purification—a review. Chem Eng J 270:244–271 into its layered nanostructure. J Clean Prod 258:120686. https://​
Bhatti HN et al (2007) Removal of Zn (II) ions from aqueous solution doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2020.​120686
using Moringa oleifera Lam. (horseradish tree) biomass. Process Chauhan M et al (2020b) Ti-pillared montmorillonite clay for adsorp-
Biochem 42(4):547–553 tive removal of amoxicillin, imipramine, diclofenac-sodium, and
Biglari H (2017) Removal of Acid Orange 7 dye from aqueous solu- paracetamol from water. J Hazard Mater 399:122832. https://d​ oi.​
tions by adsorption onto Kenya tea pulps. Electron Physician org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2020.​122832
9(5):4312–4321. https://​doi.​org/​10.​19082/​4312 Chen K-L et al (2017) Adsorption of sulfamethoxazole and sulfapy-
Bordelet G et al (2018) Chemical reactivity of natural peat towards U ridine antibiotics in high organic content soils. Environ Pollut
and Ra. Chemosphere 202:651–660. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ 231:1163–1171. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envpol.​2017.​08.​011
chemo​sphere.​2018.​03.​140 Chen B et al (2019a) A magnetically recyclable chitosan composite
Bordoloi N et al (2017) Biosorption of Co (II) from aqueous solution adsorbent functionalized with EDTA for simultaneous capture
using algal biochar: kinetics and isotherm studies. Bioresour of anionic dye and heavy metals in complex wastewater. Chem
Technol 244:1465–1469 Eng J 356:69–80
Boulaiche W et al (2019) Removal of heavy metals by chitin: equi- Chen H et al (2019b) Upcycling food waste digestate for energy and
librium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Appl Water Sci heavy metal remediation applications. Resour Conserv Recycl X
9(2):1–10 3:100015. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​rcrx.​2019.​100015
Boulika H et al (2022) Definitive screening design applied to cationic Chen S et al (2019c) Study on the adsorption of dyestuffs with differ-
& anionic adsorption dyes on Almond shells activated carbon: ent properties by sludge-rice husk biochar: adsorption capacity,
isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Mater Today Proc isotherm, kinetic, thermodynamics and mechanism. J Mol Liq
72:3336–3346 285:62–74. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2019.​04.​035
Brunauer S et al (1938) Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers. Chen T et al (2019d) Integrated comparisons of thorium (IV) adsorp-
J Am Chem Soc 60(2):309–319 tion onto alkali-treated duckweed biomass and duckweed-derived
Bryan MYK et al (2022) Graphene oxide-chitosan composite mate- hydrothermal and pyrolytic biochar. Environ Sci Pollut Res
rial as adsorbent in removing methylene blue dye from synthetic 26(3):2523–2530. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11356-​018-​3789-x
wastewater. Mater Today Proc 64:1587–1596 Chen B et al (2022a) High efficient adsorption for thorium in aque-
Bu J et al (2019) Adsorption mechanisms of cesium at calcium–sili- ous solution using a novel tentacle-type chitosan-based aero-
cate–hydrate surfaces using molecular dynamics simulations. J gel: adsorption behavior and mechanism. Int J Biol Macromol
Nucl Mater 515:35–51. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jnucm​at.​2018.​ 222:1747–1757
12.​007 Chen X et al (2022b) Isotherm models for adsorption of heavy metals
Bursztyn Fuentes AL et al (2022) Paracetamol and ibuprofen removal from water—a review. Chemosphere 307:135545
from aqueous phase using a ceramic-derived activated carbon. Cheng S et al (2022) High-efficiency removal of lead/cadmium from
Arab J Sci Eng 48:525–537 wastewater by MgO modified biochar derived from crofton weed.
Bushra R et al (2021) Current approaches and methodologies to Bioresour Technol 343:126081
explore the perceptive adsorption mechanism of dyes on low- Chien S, Clayton W (1980) Application of Elovich equation to the
cost agricultural waste: a review. Microporous Mesoporous kinetics of phosphate release and sorption in soils. Soil Sci Soc
Mater 319:111040 Am J 44(2):265–268
Cao G et al (2020) Asymmetric gemini surfactants modified vermicu-
lite-and silica nanosheets-based adsorbents for removing methyl

13
2386 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Chien CC et al (2011) Efficiency of moso bamboo charcoal and acti- Dai J et al (2020) Effects of modification and magnetization of rice
vated carbon for adsorbing radioactive iodine. CLEAN Soil Air straw derived biochar on adsorption of tetracycline from water.
Water 39(2):103–108. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​clen.​20100​0012 Bioresour Technol 311:123455
Chin AB, Yaacob II (2007) Synthesis and characterization of magnetic Daneshvar E et al (2017) A comparative study of methylene blue
iron oxide nanoparticles via w/o microemulsion and Massart’s biosorption using different modified brown, red and green mac-
procedure. J Mater Process Technol 191(1–3):235–237 roalgae—effect of pretreatment. Chem Eng J 307:435–446
Cho E et al (2020) Cesium ion-exchange resin using sodium dode- Das L et al (2021) Experimental and numerical modeling on dye
cylbenzenesulfonate for binding to Prussian blue. Chemosphere adsorption using pyrolyzed mesoporous biochar in Batch and
244:125589. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.c​ hemos​ phere.2​ 019.1​ 25589 fixed-bed column reactor: isotherm, thermodynamics, mass
Choudhary V, Philip L (2022) Sustainability assessment of acid-mod- transfer, Kinetic analysis. Surf Interfaces 23:100985. https://​doi.​
ified biochar as adsorbent for the removal of pharmaceuticals org/​10.​1016/j.​surfin.​2021.​100985
and personal care products from secondary treated wastewater. J Dasgupta S et al (2021) Copper and chromium removal from syn-
Environ Chem Eng 10(3):107592. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​ thetic textile wastewater using clay minerals and zeolite
2022.​107592 through the effect of pH. J Iran Chem Soc 18(12):3377–3386.
Chranioti C et al (2016) Comparison of spray, freeze and oven dry- https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13738-​021-​02273-1
ing as a means of reducing bitter aftertaste of steviol glycosides de Farias MB et al (2022) Natural and synthetic clay-based materials
(derived from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni plant)—evaluation of applied for the removal of emerging pollutants from aqueous
the final products. Food Chem 190:1151–1158 medium. In: Giannakoudakis DA, Meili L, Anastopoulos I
Chu TTH, Nguyen MV (2023) Improved Cr (VI) adsorption perfor- (eds) Advanced materials for sustainable environmental reme-
mance in wastewater and groundwater by synthesized magnetic diation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 359–392. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
adsorbent derived from F ­ e3O4 loaded corn straw biochar. Environ 1016/​b978-0-​323-​90485-8.​00012-6
Res 216:114764. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envres.​2022.​114764 de Queiroga LNF et al (2019) Functionalized bentonites for dye
Chwastowski J, Staroń P (2022) Influence of Saccharomyces cerevi- adsorption: depollution and production of new pigments. J
siae yeast cells immobilized on Cocos nucifera fibers for the Environ Chem Eng 7(5):103333. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​1 016/j.​
adsorption of Pb(II) ions. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp jece.​2019.​103333
632:127735. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​colsu​rfa.​2021.​127735 De Rossi A et al (2018) Chromium (VI) biosorption by Saccharomy-
Çiftçi H (2022) Removal of methylene blue from water by ultrasound- ces cerevisiae subjected to chemical and thermal treatments.
assisted adsorption using low-cost bentonites. Chem Phys Lett. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(19):19179–19186
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cplett.​2022.​139758 De Rossi A et al (2020) Synthesis, characterization, and application
Conde-Cid M et al (2019) Competitive adsorption/desorption of tetra- of Saccharomyces cerevisiae/alginate composites beads for
cycline, oxytetracycline and chlortetracycline on pine bark, oak adsorption of heavy metals. J Environ Chem Eng 8(4):104009.
ash and mussel shell. J Environ Manag 250:109509. https://​doi.​ https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2020.​104009
org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2019.​109509 del Mar Orta OM et al (2019) Adsorption of propranolol onto mont-
Contreras-Cortés AG et al (2019) Toxicological assessment of cross- morillonite: kinetic, isotherm and pH studies. Appl Clay Sci
linked beads of chitosan-alginate and Aspergillus australensis 173:107–114. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clay.​2019.​03.​015
biomass, with efficiency as biosorbent for copper removal. Poly- Demey H et al (2019) Boron removal from aqueous solutions by
mers 11(2):222 using a novel alginate-based sorbent: comparison with ­Al2O3
Corda NC, Kini MS (2018) A review on adsorption of cationic dyes particles. Polymers 11(9):1509
using activated carbon. In: MATEC web of conferences Dirbaz M, Roosta A (2018) Adsorption, kinetic and thermodynamic
Correa F et al (2013) Study of Co (II) and Cr (VI) adsorption studies for the biosorption of cadmium onto microalgae Para-
from aqueous solution by CaCO/sub 3. J Chem Soc Pak chlorella sp. J Environ Chem Eng 6(2):2302–2309
35(4):1088–1095 do Nascimento JM et al (2019) Biosorption Cu (II) by the yeast Sac-
Crini G et al (2019a) Conventional and non-conventional adsorbents for charomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Rep 21:e00315. https://​doi.​
wastewater treatment. Environ Chem Lett 17(1):195–213. https://​ org/​10.​1016/j.​btre.​2019.​e00315
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​018-​0786-8 do Nascimento BF et al (2021) Adsorption of reactive black 5 and
Crini G et al (2019b) Dye removal by biosorption using cross-linked basic blue 12 using biochar from gasification residues: batch
chitosan-based hydrogels. Environ Chem Lett 17(4):1645–1666. tests and fixed-bed breakthrough predictions for wastewater
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​019-​00903-y treatment. Bioresour Technol Rep 15:100767
da Fontoura JT et al (2017) Defatted microalgal biomass as biosorbent Dobe N et al (2022) Removal of amaranth dye by modified Ngassa
for the removal of Acid Blue 161 dye from tannery effluent. J clay: linear and non-linear equilibrium, kinetics and statistical
Environ Chem Eng 5(5):5076–5084 study. Chem Phys Lett. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cplett.​2022.​
da Rosa ALD et al (2018) Biosorption of rhodamine B dye from dyeing 139707
stones effluents using the green microalgae Chlorella pyrenoi- dos Reis GS et al (2021) Preparation and application of efficient
dosa. J Clean Prod 198:1302–1310 biobased carbon adsorbents prepared from spruce bark residues
Da’na E, Awad A (2017) Regeneration of spent activated carbon for efficient removal of reactive dyes and colors from synthetic
obtained from home filtration system and applying it for heavy effluents. Coatings 11(7):772. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​3 390/​c oati​
metals adsorption. J Environ Chem Eng 5(4):3091–3099 ngs11​070772
Dada AO et al (2021) Two–three parameters isotherm modeling, kinet- Duan S et al (2015) Effective removal of Pb (II) using magnetic
ics with statistical validity, desorption and thermodynamic stud- Co0. 6Fe2. 4O4 micro-particles as the adsorbent: synthesis
ies of adsorption of Cu (II) ions onto zerovalent iron nanoparti- and study on the kinetic and thermodynamic behaviors for its
cles. Sci Rep 11(1):1–15 adsorption. Colloids Surf A 469:211–223
Dai Y et al (2019) The adsorption, regeneration and engineering appli- Duan C et al (2020) Removal of heavy metals from aqueous solu-
cations of biochar for removal organic pollutants: a review. Che- tion using carbon-based adsorbents: a review. J Water Process
mosphere 223:12–27 Eng 37:101339

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2387

Dubinin M (1947) The equation of the characteristic curve of acti- Elgazzar A et al (2020) Preparation of various sorbents from agro waste
vated charcoal. Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR 55:327–329 to remove some radionuclides and organic species from aqueous
Dzieniszewska A et al (2019) Effect of auxiliary substances on the solutions. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 326(3):1733–1748. https://d​ oi.​
adsorption of anionic dyes on low-moor peat. Desalin Water org/​10.​1007/​s10967-​020-​07476-z
Treat 177:209–226. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​2020.​24933 Eltaweil A et al (2020) Mesoporous magnetic biochar composite for
Eberhardt TL, Min S-H (2008) Biosorbents prepared from wood enhanced adsorption of malachite green dye: characterization,
particles treated with anionic polymer and iron salt: effect adsorption kinetics, thermodynamics and isotherms. Adv Powder
of particle size on phosphate adsorption. Bioresour Technol Technol 31(3):1253–1263
99(3):626–630. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​biort​ech.​2006.​12.​037 Eltaweil AS et al (2022a) Recent developments in alginate-based adsor-
Efaq A et al (2015) Supercritical carbon dioxide as non-thermal bents for removing phosphate ions from wastewater: a review.
alternative technology for safe handling of clinical wastes. RSC Adv 12(13):8228–8248. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 039/d​ 1ra09​ 193j
Environ Process 2(4):797–822 Eltaweil AS et al (2022b) Synthesis of a new magnetic sulfacetamide-
El-Borady OM et al (2021) Antioxidant, anticancer and enhanced ethylacetoacetate hydrazone-chitosan Schiff-base for Cr (VI)
photocatalytic potentials of gold nanoparticles biosynthesized removal. Int J Biol Macromol. 222:1465–1475
by common reed leaf extract. Appl Nanosci. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Elwakeel KZ et al (2018) Efficient retention of chromate from indus-
1007/​s13204-​021-​01776-w trial wastewater onto a green magnetic polymer based on shrimp
El-Magied A et al (2021) Development of functionalized acti- peels. J Polym Environ 26(5):1–12
vated carbon for uranium removal from groundwater. Int Elwakeel K et al (2020) Microwave assist sorption of crystal violet
J Environ Res 15(3):543–558. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 007/​ and Congo red dyes onto amphoteric sorbent based on upcycled
s41742-​021-​00333-1 Sepia shells. J Environ Health Sci Eng 18(1):35–50
El-Monaem EMA et al (2021) Cobalt nanoparticles supported Elwakeel KZ et al (2021) 2-Mercaptobenzimidazole derivative of chi-
on reduced amine-functionalized graphene oxide for cata- tosan for silver sorption–contribution of magnetite incorporation
lytic reduction of nitroanilines and organic dyes. NANO and sonication effects on enhanced metal recovery. Chem Eng
16(04):2150039 J 403:126265
El-Monaem A et al (2022) Zero-valent iron supported-lemon derived Escudero LB et al (2019) Recent advances on elemental biosorption.
biochar for ultra-fast adsorption of methylene blue. Biomass Con- Environ Chem Lett 17(1):409–427
vers Biorefinery. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13399-​022-​02362-y Escudero-Curiel S et al (2021) Eco-approach for pharmaceutical
El-Nahas S et al (2020) Facile and affordable synthetic route of nano removal: thermochemical waste valorisation, biochar adsorption
powder zeolite and its application in fast softening of water hard- and electro-assisted regeneration. Electrochim Acta 389:138694
ness. J Water Process Eng 33:101104. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ Essebaai H et al (2022) Green and eco-friendly montmorillonite clay
jwpe.​2019.​101104 for the removal of Cr (III) metal ion from aqueous environment.
El-Shazly E et al (2021a) Kinetic and isotherm studies for the sorption Int J Environ Sci Technol 19(4):2443–2454. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
of 134Cs and 60Co radionuclides onto supported titanium oxide. 1007/​s13762-​021-​03303-4
J Radioanal Nucl Chem 330(1):127–139. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/​ Falciglia PP et al (2017) Remediation of Hg-contaminated marine
s10967-​021-​07956-w sediments by simultaneous application of enhancing agents and
El-Shazly E et al (2021b) Sorption of 134Cs radionuclide onto insol- microwave heating (MWH). Chem Eng J 321:1–10
uble ferrocyanide loaded silica-gel. J Radioanal Nucl Chem Falciglia PP et al (2018) A review on the microwave heating as a sus-
329(1):437–449. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10967-​021-​07789-7 tainable technique for environmental remediation/detoxification
El Kassimi A et al (2021) Removal of two cationic dyes from aque- applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 95:147–170
ous solutions by adsorption onto local clay: experimental and Fan W et al (2011) Biosorption of nickel ion by chitosan-immobi-
theoretical study using DFT method. Int J Environ Anal Chem. lized brown algae Laminaria japonica. Chem Biochem Eng Q
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​03067​319.​2021.​18733​06 25(2):247–254
El Messaoudi N et al (2017) Valorization and characterization of wood Fan S et al (2021) Fabrication of a CO2-responsive chitosan aerogel as
of the jujube shell: application to the removal of cationic dye an effective adsorbent for the adsorption and desorption of heavy
from aqueous solution. J Eng Sci Technol 12(2):421–436 metal ions. J Hazard Mater 416:126225
El Messaoudi N et al (2021) Desorption study and reusability of raw Fan X et al (2022) Functionalized cotton charcoal/chitosan biomass-
and ­H2SO4 modified jujube shells (Zizyphus lotus) for the meth- based hydrogel for capturing Pb2+, Cu2+ and MB. J Hazard
ylene blue adsorption. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://​doi.​org/​ Mater 423:127191. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2021.​
10.​1080/​03067​319.​2021.​19123​38 127191
El Naga AOA et al (2019) Fast removal of diclofenac sodium from Fan Q et al (2019) Radionuclides sorption on typical clay minerals:
aqueous solution using sugar cane bagasse-derived activated modeling and spectroscopies. In: Interface science and technol-
carbon. J Mol Liq 285:9–19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​ ogy, vol 29. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–38. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
2019.​04.​062 1016/​B978-0-​08-​102727-​1.​00001-7
Elgarahy AM et al (2019) Microwave-accelerated sorption of cationic Faraji M et al (2010) Magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization,
dyes onto green marine algal biomass. Environ Sci Pollut Res functionalization, characterization, and applications. J Iran Chem
26(22):22704–22722 Soc 7(1):1–37
Elgarahy A et al (2020) Multifunctional eco-friendly sorbent based Farghali M et al (2023) Seaweed for climate mitigation, wastewater
on marine brown algae and bivalve shells for subsequent uptake treatment, bioenergy, bioplastic, biochar, food, pharmaceuti-
of Congo red dye and copper (II) ions. J Environ Chem Eng cals, and cosmetics: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21(1):97–152.
8(4):103915 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​022-​01520-y
Elgarahy A et al (2021) A critical review of biosorption of dyes, heavy Febrianto J et al (2009) Equilibrium and kinetic studies in adsorption
metals and metalloids from wastewater as an efficient and green of heavy metals using biosorbent: a summary of recent studies.
process. Clean Eng Technol 4:100209 J Hazard Mater 162(2–3):616–645
Elgarahy AM et al (2022) Magnetically separable solid phase extractor Ferkous H et al (2022) The removal of a textile dye from an aqueous
for static anionic dyes adsorption from aqueous solutions. Surf solution using a biocomposite adsorbent. Polymers 14(12):2396.
Interfaces 30:101962 https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​polym​14122​396

13
2388 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Fernando IS et al (2019) Advances in functionalizing fucoidans and Gomaa H et al (2022) A hybrid mesoporous CuO@ barley straw-
alginates (bio) polymers by structural modifications: a review. derived SiO2 nanocomposite for adsorption and photocatalytic
Chem Eng J 355:33–48 degradation of methylene blue from real wastewater. Colloids
Fiorito E et al (2022) Calcium carbonate as sorbent for lead removal Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 644:128811. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
from wastewaters. Chemosphere 296:133897 1016/j.​colsu​r fa.​2022.​128811
Foo K, Hameed B (2012) A cost effective method for regeneration of Goswami R et al (2016) Characterization of cadmium removal from
durian shell and jackfruit peel activated carbons by microwave aqueous solution by biochar produced from Ipomoea fistulosa
irradiation. Chem Eng J 193:404–409 at different pyrolytic temperatures. Ecol Eng 97:444–451.
Franco DSP et al (2021) Conversion of the forest species Inga margi- https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ecole​ng.​2016.​10.​007
nata and Tipuana tipu wastes into biosorbents: dye biosorption Goyal N et al (2018) Removal of emerging contaminants daidzein
study from isotherm to mass transfer. Environ Technol Innov and coumestrol from water by nanozeolite beta modified with
22:101521. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​eti.​2021.​101521 tetrasubstituted ammonium cation. J Hazard Mater 344:417–
Freundlich H (1907) Über die adsorption in lösungen. Z Phys Chem 430. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2017.​10.​051
57(1):385–470 Guilhen SN et al (2019) Pyrolytic temperature evaluation of macauba
Frišták V et al (2017) Sorption separation of Eu and As from single- biochar for uranium adsorption from aqueous solutions. Bio-
component systems by Fe-modified biochar: kinetic and equi- mass Bioenergy 122:381–390. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​biomb​
librium study. J Iran Chem Soc 14(3):521–530. https://​doi.​org/​ ioe.​2019.​01.​008
10.​1007/​s13738-​016-​1000-1 Gul S et al (2019) A comprehensive review of magnetic nanomaterials
Fuke P et al (2021) Role of microbial diversity to influence the modern day theranostics. Front Mater 6:179
growth and environmental remediation capacity of bamboo: Gul S et al (2022) Efficient removal of methyl red dye by using bark of
a review. Ind Crops Prod 167:113567 hopbush. Water 14(18):2831. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.3​ 390/w ​ 14182​ 831
Gagliano E et al (2020) Removal of poly-and perfluoroalkyl sub- Guo J et al (2017a) Dynamic and thermodynamic mechanisms of TFA
stances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: role of PFAS chain adsorption by particulate matter. Environ Pollut 225:175–183
length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent Guo X et al (2017b) Sorption mechanisms of sulfamethazine to soil
regeneration. Water Res 171:115381 humin and its subfractions after sequential treatments. Environ
Gao Y et al (2021) Functional biochar fabricated from waste red Pollut 221:266–275. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envpol.​2016.​11.​
mud and corn straw in China for acidic dye wastewater treat- 073
ment. J Clean Prod 320:128887. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ Guo S et al (2020) Dipyridyl-based organo-silica nanosheets for three
ro.​2021.​128887 emerging micropollutants efficient removal: adsorption perfor-
Garcia D et al (2019) Sorption of Eu (III) on quartz at high salt mance and mechanisms. J Clean Prod 260:121149. https://​doi.​
concentrations. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2020.​121149
578:123610. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​colsu​r fa.​2019.​123610 Guo J et al (2023) Macro-constructing zeolitic imidazole frameworks
García-Rosero H et al (2022) Adsorption and thermal degradation functionalized sponge for enhanced removal of heavy metals: the
of Atenolol using carbon materials: towards an advanced and significance of morphology and structure modulation. J Colloid
sustainable drinking water treatment. J Water Process Eng Interface Sci 630:666–675. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jcis.​2022.​
49:102987. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jwpe.​2022.​102987 10.​019
Gaskin J et al (2008) Effect of low-temperature pyrolysis conditions Gupta NK et al (2019) Biosorption-a green method for the preconcen-
on biochar for agricultural use. Trans ASABE 51(6):2061–2069 tration of rare earth elements (REEs) from waste solutions: a
Gemeay AH et al (2020) Chemical insight into the adsorption of review. J Mol Liq 274:148–164
reactive wool dyes onto amine-functionalized magnetite/ Gupta S et al (2020) Latest trends in heavy metal removal from waste-
silica core-shell from industrial wastewaters. Environ Sci water by biochar based sorbents. J Water Process Eng 38:101561
Pollut Res 27(26):32341–32358. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​1 007/​ Gupta R et al (2022) Potential and future prospects of biochar-based
s11356-​019-​06530-y materials and their applications in removal of organic contami-
Gemici BT et al (2021) Removal of methylene blue onto forest nants from industrial wastewater. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag.
wastes: adsorption isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamic https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10163-​022-​01391-z
analysis. Environ Technol Innov 22:101501. https://​doi.​org/​ Gurav R et al (2021) Application of macroalgal biomass derived bio-
10.​1016/j.​eti.​2021.​101501 char and bioelectrochemical system with Shewanella for the
Giannakoudakis DA et al (2016) Multi-parametric adsorption effects adsorptive removal and biodegradation of toxic azo dye. Che-
of the reactive dye removal with commercial activated carbons. mosphere 264:128539. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​
J Mol Liq 213:381–389. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2015.​ 2020.​128539
07.​010 Guy M et al (2022) process parameters optimization, characterization,
Girgis BS et al (2012) Textural and adsorption characteristics of and application of KOH-activated Norway spruce bark graphitic
carbon xerogel adsorbents for removal of Cu (II) ions from biochars for efficient azo dye adsorption. Molecules 27(2):456.
aqueous solution. J Non Cryst Solids 358(4):741–747 https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​molec​ules2​70204​56
Goher ME et al (2015) Removal of aluminum, iron and manganese Hamad HN, Idrus S (2022) Recent developments in the application of
ions from industrial wastes using granular activated carbon and bio-waste-derived adsorbents for the removal of methylene blue
Amberlite IR-120H. Egypt J Aquat Res 41(2):155–164. https://​ from wastewater: a review. Polymers 14(4):783. https://​doi.​org/​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ejar.​2015.​04.​002 10.​3390/​polym​14040​783
Gollakota AR et al (2020) Synthesis of novel ZSM-22 zeolite from Hamed MM et al (2016) Preparation of activated carbon from doum
Taiwanese coal fly ash for the selective separation of Rhoda- stone and its application on adsorption of 60Co and 152+ 154Eu:
mine 6G. J Mater Res Technol 9(6):15381–15393. https://​doi.​ equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. J Environ Radi-
org/​10.​1016/j.​jmrt.​2020.​10.​070 oact 164:113–124. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.j​ envra​ d.2​ 016.0​ 7.0​ 05
Gollakota AR et al (2023) Ionic liquid [bmim][TFSI] templated Haounati R et al (2021) Elaboration and properties of a new SDS/
Na-X zeolite for the adsorption of (Cd2+, Zn2+), and dyes CTAB@ Montmorillonite organoclay composite as a superb
(AR, R6). Environ Res 216:114525. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ adsorbent for the removal of malachite green from aqueous
envres.​2022.​114525

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2389

solutions. Sep Purif Technol 255:117335. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Huang L et al (2021a) Adsorptive removal of pharmaceuticals from
1016/j.​seppur.​2020.​117335 water using metal-organic frameworks: a review. J Environ
Haque ANMA et al (2020) Physicochemical properties of film fabri- Manag 277:111389
cated from cotton gin trash. Mater Chem Phys 239:122009 Huang Q et al (2021b) Amorphous molybdenum sulfide mediated
Haque ANMA et al (2021) A review on cotton gin trash: sustainable EDTA with multiple active sites to boost heavy metal ions
commodity for material fabrication. J Clean Prod 281:125300 removal. Chin Chem Lett 32(9):2797–2802
Hashem A et al (2021a) Application of novel butane-1, 4-dioic acid- Huang T et al (2022) A comprehensive investigation of zeolite-rich
functionalized cellulosic biosorbent for aqueous cobalt ion tuff functionalized with 3-mercaptopropionic acid intercalated
sequestration. Cellulose 28(6):3599–3615. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ green rust for the efficient removal of HgII and CrVI in a binary
1007/​s10570-​021-​03726-9 system. J Environ Manag 324:116344. https://​doi.o​ rg/​10.​1016/j.​
Hashem A et al (2021b) Utilization of low-cost sugarcane waste for jenvm​an.​2022.​116344
the adsorption of aqueous Pb (II): kinetics and isotherm stud- Hugounenq P et al (2012) Iron oxide monocrystalline nanoflowers
ies. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem 4:100056. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ for highly efficient magnetic hyperthermia. J Phys Chem C
1016/j.​crgsc.​2021.​100056 116(29):15702–15712
Hashem A et al (2022a) Instrumental characteristics and acid blue 193 Humayun R et al (1998) Supercritical fluid extraction and temper-
dye sorption properties of novel lupine seed powder. Clean Chem ature-programmed desorption of phenol and its oxidative
Eng. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clce.​2022.​100011 coupling products from activated carbon. Ind Eng Chem Res
Hashem A et al (2022b) Lepidium sativum seed powder: a novel 37(8):3089–3097
biosorbent for acid orange 142 dye uptake. Environ Process Huo H et al (2022) Phosphorylated wood designed as a biosorbent
9(4):1–20. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s40710-​022-​00607-6 for effectively removing Ni2+ from wastewater. Ind Crops Prod
Hashem A et al (2022c) Apricot seed shell: an agro-waste biosorbent 188:115727. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​indcr​op.​2022.​115727
for acid blue193 dye adsorption. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. Husnain SM et al (2017) Recyclable superparamagnetic adsorbent
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13399-​022-​03272-9 based on mesoporous carbon for sequestration of radioactive
Hassan M et al (2020) Critical review of magnetic biosorbents: their Cesium. Chem Eng J 308:798–808
preparation, application, and regeneration for wastewater treat- Hwang SY et al (2020) Pre-treatment methods for regeneration of spent
ment. Sci Total Environ 702:134893 activated carbon. Molecules 25(19):4561
Heidarinejad Z et al (2020) Methods for preparation and activation of Iamsaard K et al (2022) Adsorption of metal on pineapple leaf biochar:
activated carbon: a review. Environ Chem Lett 18(2):393–415. key affecting factors, mechanism identification, and regeneration
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​019-​00955-0 evaluation. Bioresour Technol 344:126131
Herath A et al (2021) KOH-activated high surface area Douglas Fir Igberase E et al (2014) The adsorption of copper (II) ions by polyaniline
biochar for adsorbing aqueous Cr (VI), Pb (II) and Cd (II). Che- graft chitosan beads from aqueous solution: equilibrium, kinetic
mosphere 269:128409 and desorption studies. J Environ Chem Eng 2(1):362–369
Herrera-Barros A et al (2020) Cd (II) and Ni (II) uptake by novel Ighalo JO, Eletta OA (2020) Response surface modelling of the
biosorbent prepared from oil palm residual biomass and ­Al2O3 biosorption of Zn (II) and Pb (II) onto Micropogonias undulatus
nanoparticles. Sustain Chem Pharm 15:100216. https://​doi.​org/​ scales: Box–Behnken experimental approach. Appl Water Sci
10.​1016/j.​scp.​2020.​100216 10(8):1–12
Hespanhol I, Prost A (1994) WHO guidelines and national standards Ighalo JO et al (2022a) Recent advances in hydrochar application for
for reuse and water quality. Water Res 28(1):119–124 the adsorptive removal of wastewater pollutants. Chem Eng Res
Ho Y-S (2006) Review of second-order models for adsorption systems. Des. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cherd.​2022.​06.​028
J Hazard Mater 136(3):681–689 Ighalo JO et al (2022b) Utilization of avocado (Persea americana)
Ho S (2020) Removal of dyes from wastewater by adsorption onto acti- adsorbents for the elimination of pollutants from water: a review.
vated carbon: mini review. J Geosci Environ Prot 8(5):120–131. Biomass Deriv Mater Environ Appl. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​
https://​doi.​org/​10.​4236/​gep.​2020.​85008 B978-0-​323-​91914-2.​00016-7
Ho Y-S, McKay G (1999) Pseudo-second order model for sorption Ighalo JO et al (2022c) Adsorption of persistent organic pollutants
processes. Process Biochem 34(5):451–465 (POPs) from the aqueous environment by nano-adsorbents: a
Holt GA et al (2012) Fungal mycelium and cotton plant materials in the review. Environ Res 212:113123. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
manufacture of biodegradable molded packaging material: evalu- envres.​2022.​113123
ation study of select blends of cotton byproducts. J Biobased Igwegbe CA et al (2021) Environmental protection by the adsorptive
Mater Bioenergy 6(4):431–439 elimination of acetaminophen from water: a comprehensive
Hoque ME et al (2013) Processing and characterization of cockle shell review. J Ind Eng Chem 104:117–135. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
calcium carbonate (­ CaCO3) bioceramic for potential application jiec.​2021.​08.​015
in bone tissue engineering. J Mater Sci Eng 2(4):132 Imanipoor J et al (2020) Adsorption and desorption of amoxicillin
Hosny M et al (2021) Comparative study between Phragmites austra- antibiotic from water matrices using an effective and recyclable
lis root and rhizome extracts for mediating gold nanoparticles MIL-53 (Al) metal–organic framework adsorbent. J Chem Eng
synthesis and their medical and environmental applications. Adv Data 66(1):389–403
Powder Technol 32(7):2268–2279. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​apt.​ İmran A et al (2012) Removal of direct red 81 dye from aqueous
2021.​05.​004 solution by native and citric acid modified bamboo sawdust-
Hosny M et al (2022) Phytofabrication of bimetallic silver-copper/bio- kinetic study and equilibrium isotherm analyses. Gazi Univ J
char nanocomposite for environmental and medical applications. Sci 25(1):59–87
J Environ Manag 316:115238. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​ Iqbal MM et al (2021) Effective sequestration of Congo red dye with
an.​2022.​115238 ZnO/cotton stalks biochar nanocomposite: modeling, reusability
Hu S et al (2022) Chitosan-assisted MOFs dispersion via covalent and stability. J Saudi Chem Soc 25(2):101176
bonding interaction toward highly efficient removal of heavy Iwanow M et al (2017) Preparation of supported palladium catalysts
metal ions from wastewater. Carbohydr Polym 277:118809 using deep eutectic solvents. Chem A Eur J 23(51):12467–12470.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​chem.​20170​2790

13
2390 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Iwanow M et al (2020) Activated carbon as catalyst support: precur- modified with various ionic and covalent cross-linking agents. J
sors, preparation, modification and characterization. Beilstein J Environ Chem Eng 8(2):103564
Org Chem 16(1):1188–1202. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.3​ 762/b​ joc.1​ 6.1​ 04 Kakavandi B et al (2018) Efficient adsorption of cobalt on chemical
Jabar JM, Odusote YA (2020) Removal of cibacron blue 3G-A (CB) modified activated carbon: characterization, optimization and
dye from aqueous solution using chemo-physically activated modeling studies. Desalin Water Treat 111:310–321. https://​doi.​
biochar from oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber. Arab J Chem org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​2018.​22238
13(5):5417–5429 Kalkan E, Nadaroglu H (2021) Adsorptive removal of Acid Fuchsin
Jaber M et al (2013) Synthesis of clay minerals. In: Developments in dye using by-product silica fume and laccase-modified silica
clay science, vol 5. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 223–241. https://​ fume. Iran J Chem Chem Eng: IJCCE 40(2):551–564
doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​08-​098258-​8.​00009-2 Kalotra S, Mehta R (2022) Carbon aerogel and polyaniline/carbon aero-
Jabli M (2020) Synthesis, characterization, and assessment of cati- gel adsorbents for Acid Green 25 dye: synthesis, characterization
onic and anionic dye adsorption performance of functionalized and an adsorption study. Chem Eng Commun 209(6):757–773
silica immobilized chitosan bio-polymer. Int J Biol Macromol Kannan P et al (2021) Neutralization of Bayer bauxite residue (red
153:305–316 mud) by various brines: a review of chemistry and engineering
Jabłońska B (2021) Optimization of Ni (II), Pb (II), and Zn (II) ion processes. Hydrometallurgy 206:105758
adsorption conditions on pliocene clays from post-mining waste. Karaman C et al (2022) Congo red dye removal from aqueous environ-
Minerals 11(6):568. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​min11​060568 ment by cationic surfactant modified-biomass derived carbon:
Jadhav AC, Jadhav NC (2021) Treatment of textile wastewater using equilibrium, kinetic, and thermodynamic modeling, and fore-
adsorption and adsorbents. In: Sustainable technologies for casting via artificial neural network approach. Chemosphere
textile wastewater treatments. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 235– 290:133346. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.c​ hemos​ phere.2​ 021.1​ 33346
273. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​323-​85829-8.​00008-0 Karunakara N et al (2015) Evaluation of radon adsorption characteris-
Jalali R et al (2002) Removal and recovery of lead using nonliv- tics of a coconut shell-based activated charcoal system for radon
ing biomass of marine algae. J Hazard Mater 92(3):253–262. and thoron removal applications. J Environ Radioact 142:87–95.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S0304-​3894(02)​00021-3 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvr​ad.​2014.​12.​017
Jayakumar R et al (2014) Sorption of hexavalent chromium from Kasiuliene A et al (2019a) Treatment of metal (loid) contaminated
aqueous solution using marine green algae Halimeda gracilis: solutions using iron-peat as sorbent: is landfilling a suit-
optimization, equilibrium, kinetic, thermodynamic and desorp- able management option for the spent sorbent? Environ Sci
tion studies. J Environ Chem Eng 2(3):1261–1274 Pollut Res 26(21):21425–21436. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 007/​
Jayakumar V et al (2021) Sustainable removal of cadmium from s11356-​019-​05379-5
contaminated water using green alga—optimization, charac- Kasiuliene A et al (2019b) Hydrothermal carbonisation of peat-based
terization and modeling studies. Environ Res 199:111364 spent sorbents loaded with metal (loid) s. Environ Sci Pollut Res
Jeon M et al (2020) A review on MXene-based nanomaterials as 26:23730–23738
adsorbents in aqueous solution. Chemosphere 261:127781 Kaur H et al (2018) Effect of hydrophobicity of pharmaceuticals
Ji Y et al (2019) Single and simultaneous adsorption of methyl and personal care products for adsorption on activated car-
orange and p-chlorophenol on organo-vermiculites modified bon: adsorption isotherms, kinetics and mechanism. Environ
by an asymmetric gemini surfactant. Colloids Surf A Phys- Sci Pollut Res 25(21):20473–20485. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
icochem Eng Asp 580:123740. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​colsu​ s11356-​017-​0054-7
rfa.​2019.​123740 Keerthanan S et al (2020) Engineered tea-waste biochar for the removal
Jiang D et al (2018) Removal and recovery of phosphate from water of caffeine, a model compound in pharmaceuticals and personal
by Mg-laden biochar: batch and column studies. Colloids Surf care products (PPCPs), from aqueous media. Environ Technol
A 558:429–437 Innov 19:100847. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​eti.​2020.​100847
Jiang K et al (2021a) Adsorption of Pb (II) and Zn (II) ions on humus- Khandaker S et al (2018) Adsorptive removal of cesium from aque-
like substances modified montmorillonite. Colloids Surf, A ous solution using oxidized bamboo charcoal. Water Resour Ind
631:127706 19:35–46. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​wri.​2018.​01.​001
Jiang X et al (2021b) Magnetic metal-organic framework (­ Fe3O4@ Khandaker S et al (2021) Efficient cesium encapsulation from con-
ZIF-8) core-shell composite for the efficient removal of Pb (II) taminated water by cellulosic biomass based activated wood
and Cu (II) from water. J Environ Chem Eng 9(5):105959 charcoal. Chemosphere 262:127801. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Jodeh S et al (2022) Experimental and theoretical study for removal of chemo​sphere.​2020.​127801
trimethoprim from wastewater using organically modified silica Kim D-G et al (2022) Enhanced adsorption of tetracycline by ther-
with pyrazole-3-carbaldehyde bridged to copper ions. BMC mal modification of coconut shell-based activated carbon. Int
Chem 16(1):1–17. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s13065-​022-​00814-0 J Environ Res Public Health 19(21):13741. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Jose J et al (2020) Evaluation of selected solvent systems for the single- 3390/​ijerp​h1921​13741
cycle separation of Am (III) from Eu (III) using aqueous soluble Kolay PK, Taib SNL (2018) Physical and geotechnical properties
sulphonated bis-triazinylpyridine. J Mol Liq 306:112893. https://​ of tropical peat and its stabilization. IntechOpen, London, pp
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2020.​112893 93–106. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5772/​intec​hopen.​74173
Jose S et al (2022) Biochar from oil cakes: an efficient and economi- Komissarov M, Ogura S (2019) International soil and water conserva-
cal adsorbent for the removal of acid dyes from wool dye house tion research. Int Soil Water Conserv Res: ISWCR 8:56–65
effluent. Clean Technol Environ Policy. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ Koyuncu DDE, Okur M (2021) Investigation of dye removal ability
s10098-​021-​02253-2 and reusability of green and sustainable silica and carbon-silica
Joseph CG et al (2019) Application of modified red mud in envi- hybrid aerogels prepared from paddy waste ash. Colloids Surf
ronmentally-benign applications: a review. Environ Eng Res A Physicochem Eng Asp 628:127370. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
25(6):795–806. https://​www.​eeer.​org/​artic​les/​archi​ve.​phphttps://​ colsu​rfa.​2021.​127370
doi.​org/​10.​4491/​eer.​2019.​374 Kumar S et al (2022) Characterization of power ultrasound modified
Jóźwiak T, Filipkowska U (2020) Sorption kinetics and isotherm kappaphycus alvarezii biosorbent and its modeling by artificial
studies of a Reactive Black 5 dye on chitosan hydrogel beads neural networks. Water Air Soil Pollut 233(7):1–20

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2391

Kumari R, Dey S (2019) A breakthrough column study for removal of Li B et al (2020a) Superior adsorption of direct dye from aqueous
malachite green using coco-peat. Int J Phytorem 21(12):1263– solution by Y (III)-chitosan-doped fly ash composite as low-cost
1271. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15226​514.​2019.​16332​52 adsorbent. J Polym Environ 28(6):1811–1821
Kwikima MM et al (2021) Potentials of agricultural wastes as the ulti- Li D et al (2020b) Multifunctional adsorbent based on metal-organic
mate alternative adsorbent for cadmium removal from wastewa- framework modified bacterial cellulose/chitosan composite aero-
ter. A review. Sci Afr 13:e00934. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​sciaf.​ gel for high efficient removal of heavy metal ion and organic
2021.​e00934 pollutant. Chem Eng J 383:123127
Kwon S et al (2020) Selective and rapid capture of Sr2+ with LTA Li Y et al (2020c) Rapid removal of Sr2+, Cs+ and UO22+ from solu-
zeolites: effect of crystal sizes and mesoporosity. Appl Surf Sci tion with surfactant and amino acid modified zeolite Y. Micropo-
506:145029. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​apsusc.​2019.​145029 rous Mesoporous Mater 302:110244. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Lagergren S (1898) Zur theorie der sogenannten adsorption geloster micro​meso.​2020.​110244
stoffe. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar Li Y et al (2020d) Gradient adsorption of methylene blue and crystal
24:1–39 violet onto compound microporous silica from aqueous medium.
Lahiri SK, Liu L (2021) Fabrication of a nanoporous silica hydrogel ACS Omega 5(43):28382–28392. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acsom​
by cross-linking of ­SiO2–H3BO3–hexadecyltrimethoxysilane ega.​0c044​37
for excellent adsorption of azo dyes from wastewater. Langmuir Li M et al (2021) Experimental and DFT studies on highly selective
37(29):8753–8764. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acs.​langm​uir.​1c010​ separation of indium ions using silica gel/graphene oxide based
46 ion-imprinted composites as a sorbent. Chem Eng Res Des
Lan Z et al (2022) Lanthanum-iron incorporated chitosan beads for 168:135–145
adsorption of phosphate and cadmium from aqueous solutions. Li H et al (2022a) Comparison of adsorption capacity and removal
Chem Eng J 448:137519 efficiency of strontium by six typical adsorption materials. Sus-
Langmuir I (1916) The constitution and fundamental proper- tainability 14(13):7723. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​su141​37723
ties of solids and liquids. Part I. Solids. J Am Chem Soc Li W et al (2022b) Characterizing aqueous Cd2+ removal by plant
38(11):2221–2295 biochars from Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Water 14(24):4085. https://​
Langmuir I (1918) The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2018.​09.​259
glass, mica and platinum. J Am Chem Soc 40(9):1361–1403 Lin S et al (2020a) Recycling application of waste long-root Eichhor-
Largitte L et al (2016) Comparison of the adsorption of lead by acti- nia crassipes in the heavy metal removal using oxidized biochar
vated carbons from three lignocellulosic precursors. Micropo- derived as adsorbents. Bioresour Technol 314:123749
rous Mesoporous Mater 219:265–275. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​ Lin S et al (2020b) Machine-learning-assisted screening of pure-silica
1016/j.​micro​meso.​2015.​07.​005 zeolites for effective removal of linear siloxanes and derivatives.
Lata S et al (2015) Regeneration of adsorbents and recovery of heavy J Mater Chem A 8(6):3228–3237. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 039/C
​ 9TA1​
metals: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 12(4):1461–1478 1909D
Laus R, De Favere VT (2011) Competitive adsorption of Cu (II) Ling Y et al (2019) QSARs to predict adsorption affinity of organic
and Cd (II) ions by chitosan crosslinked with epichlorohydrin– micropollutants for activated carbon and β-cyclodextrin polymer
triphosphate. Bioresour Technol 102(19):8769–8776 adsorbents. Water Res 154:217–226. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Laus R et al (2010) Adsorption and desorption of Cu (II), Cd (II) watres.​2019.​02.​012
and Pb (II) ions using chitosan crosslinked with epichlo- Liu X et al (2019) Black liquor-derived calcium-activated biochar for
rohydrin-triphosphate as the adsorbent. J Hazard Mater recovery of phosphate from aqueous solutions. Bioresour Tech-
183(1–3):233–241 nol 294:122198
Lawchoochaisakul S et al (2021) Cationic starch intercalated mont- Liu C et al (2020a) Removal of Cadmium (II) using water hyacinth
morillonite nanocomposites as natural based adsorbent for dye (Eichhornia crassipes) biochar alginate beads in aqueous solu-
removal. Carbohydr Polym 253:117230. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ tions. Environ Pollut 264:114785
1016/j.​carbp​ol.​2020.​117230 Liu S et al (2020b) Preparation, surface functionalization and applica-
Lee LY et al (2016) Effective removal of Acid Blue 113 dye using tion of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles. Adv Colloid Interface
overripe Cucumis sativus peel as an eco-friendly biosorbent from Sci 281:102165
agricultural residue. J Clean Prod 113:194–203. https://​doi.​org/​ Liu J et al (2021a) Preparation of Si–Mn/biochar composite and dis-
10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2015.​11.​016 cussions about characterizations, advances in application and
Li K et al (2010) Characterization and lead adsorption properties of adsorption mechanisms. Chemosphere 281:130946
activated carbons prepared from cotton stalk by one-step H3PO4 Liu R et al (2021b) Reductive and adsorptive elimination of U (VI)
activation. J Hazard Mater 181(1–3):440–447. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.​ ions in aqueous solution by SFeS@ Biochar composites. Envi-
1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2010.​05.​030 ron Sci Pollut Res 28(39):55176–55185. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/​
Li D et al (2014) Aqueous 99Tc, 129I and 137Cs removal from con- s11356-​021-​14835-0
taminated groundwater and sediments using highly effective low- Liu T et al (2022a) Technologies for removing pharmaceuticals and
cost sorbents. J Environ Radioact 136:56–63. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ personal care products (PPCPs) from aqueous solutions: recent
1016/j.​jenvr​ad.​2014.​05.​010 advances, performances, challenges and recommendations for
Li H et al (2019a) Analytical model and experimental investigation of improvements. J Mol Liq 1:121144. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
the adsorption thermodynamics of coalbed methane. Adsorption molliq.​2022.​121144
25(2):201–216 Liu T et al (2022b) Recent developments in the utilization of modified
Li M et al (2019b) Synthesis of magnetic biochar composites for graphene oxide to adsorb dyes from water: a review. J Ind Eng
enhanced uranium (VI) adsorption. Sci Total Environ 651:1020– Chem. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jiec.​2022.​10.​008
1028. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2018.​09.​259 Liu T et al (2022c) Adsorption of cadmium and lead from aqueous
Li Y et al (2019c) Utilizing low-cost natural waste for the removal of solution using modified biochar: a review. J Environ Chem Eng
pharmaceuticals from water: mechanisms, isotherms and kinetics 10(1):106502. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2021.​106502
at low concentrations. J Clean Prod 227:88–97. https://​doi.​org/​ Liu Y et al (2023) Enhanced cadmium removal by biochar and iron
10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2019.​04.​081 oxides composite: material interactions and pore structure. J

13
2392 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Environ Manag 330:117136. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​ Mdlalose L et al (2021) Performance evaluation of polypyrrole–mont-

2022.​117136 morillonite clay composite as a re-usable adsorbent for Cr (VI)
Lodygin E (2019) Sorption of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions by humic acids of remediation. Polym Bull 78(8):4685–4697. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
tundra peat gley soils (histic reductaquic cryosols). Eurasian Soil 1007/​s00289-​020-​03338-6
Sci 52(7):769–777. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 134/S
​ 10642​ 29319​ 07009​ 3 Minisy IM et al (2021) Adsorption of methylene blue onto chitosan–
Lodygin ED et al (2020) Complexation of lead and cadmium ions with montmorillonite/polyaniline nanocomposite. Appl Clay Sci
humic acids from arctic peat soils. Environ Res 191:110058. 203:105993
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envres.​2020.​110058 Mittal N et al (2022) Adsorption studies on hydrophobic disperse dye
Lombardo S, Thielemans WJC (2019) Thermodynamics of adsorption using cellulose derived mesoporous activated carbon. Mater
on nanocellulose surfaces. Cellulose 26(1):249–279 Today Proc 62:7595–7599
López-Quintela MA et al (2004) Microemulsion dynamics and Mogale R et al (2022) Dye adsorption of aluminium-and zirconium-
reactions in microemulsions. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci based metal organic frameworks with azobenzene dicarboxylate
9(3–4):264–278 linkers. J Environ Manag 304:114166
Luo Q et al (2021) Fluorescent chitosan-based hydrogel incorporating Mohamed LA et al (2021) Isotherms and kinetic modelling of mycore-
titanate and cellulose nanofibers modified with carbon dots for mediation of hexavalent chromium contaminated wastewater.
adsorption and detection of Cr (VI). Chem Eng J 407:127050 Clean Eng Technol 4:100192. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clet.​
Lv Y et al (2009) Synthesis, characterization and growing mecha- 2021.​100192
nism of monodisperse F ­ e3O4 microspheres. J Cryst Growth Mohammad SG et al (2022) Removal of copper (II) ions by eco-
311(13):3445–3450 friendly raw eggshells and nano-sized eggshells: a comparative
Mahmoud AED et al (2022a) Biogenic synthesis of reduced graphene study. Chem Eng Commun 209(1):83–95
oxide from Ziziphus spina-christi (Christ’s thorn jujube) extracts Mohammed BB et al (2020) Fe-ZSM-5 zeolite for efficient removal
for catalytic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant potentialities. Envi- of basic Fuchsin dye from aqueous solutions: synthesis, char-
ron Sci Pollut Res 29:89772–89787 acterization and adsorption process optimization using BBD-
Mahmoud ME et al (2022b) The design of SnO2-crosslinked-chitosan RSM modeling. J Environ Chem Eng 8(5):104419. https://​doi.​
nanocomposite for microwave-assisted adsorption of aqueous org/​10.​1016/j.​clet.​2021.​100192
cadmium and mercury ions. Sustain Chem Pharm 28:100731 Mohanasrinivasan V et al (2014) Studies on heavy metal removal
Maia LC et al (2021) A review on the use of lignocellulosic materials efficiency and antibacterial activity of chitosan prepared from
for arsenic adsorption. J Environ Manag 288:112397. https://d​ oi.​ shrimp shell waste. 3 Biotech 4(2):167–175
org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2021.​112397 Mokhtar N et al (2017) Biosorption of azo-dye using marine
Maity JP et al (2018) Removal of fluoride from water through bacte- macro-alga of Eucheuma Spinosum. J Environ Chem Eng
rial-surfactin mediated novel hydroxyapatite nanoparticle and its 5(6):5721–5731
efficiency assessment: adsorption isotherm, adsorption kinetic Moloukhia H et al (2016) Removal of Eu3+, Ce3+, Sr2+, and Cs+
and adsorption thermodynamics. Environ Nanotechnol Monit ions from radioactive waste solutions by modified activated
Manag 9:18–28 carbon prepared from coconut shells. Chem Ecol 32(4):324–
Majd MM et al (2021) Adsorption isotherm models: a comprehen- 345. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​02757​540.​2016.​11390​89
sive and systematic review (2010–2020). Sci Total Environ Moreno-Marenco AR et al (2020) Adsorption of n-butylparaben from
812:151334 aqueous solution on surface of modified granular activated car-
Maksoud MA et al (2020) Insight on water remediation application bons prepared from African palm shell. Thermodynamic study
using magnetic nanomaterials and biosorbents. Coord Chem Rev of interactions. J Environ Chem Eng 8(4):103969. https://​doi.​
403:213096 org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2020.​103969
Malana MA et al (2011) Adsorption studies of arsenic on nano Motaghi H et al (2021) Simultaneous adsorption of cobalt ions, azo
aluminium doped manganese copper ferrite polymer (MA, dye, and imidacloprid pesticide on the magnetic chitosan/
VA, AA) composite: kinetics and mechanism. Chem Eng J activated carbon@ UiO-66 bio-nanocomposite: optimization,
172(2–3):721–727 mechanisms, regeneration, and application. Sep Purif Technol
Maleki A et al (2015) Ethyl acrylate grafted chitosan for heavy metal 284:120258
removal from wastewater: equilibrium, kinetic and thermody- Mundim HSDSL et al (2022) Optimization of Pb2+, Cd2+, Ni2+
namic studies. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 51:127–134 and Ba2+ adsorption onto light expanded clay aggregate
Marcińczyk M et al (2022) From waste to fertilizer: nutrient recovery (LECA). Ciência e Natura 44:e3. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5902/​21794​
from wastewater by pristine and engineered biochars. Chemos- 60X68​809
phere. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​2022.​135310 Muralikrishnan R, Jodhi C (2020) Biodecolorization of reactive dyes
Marques BS et al (2019) Adsorption of a textile dye onto piaçava fib- using biochar derived from coconut shell: batch, isotherm,
ers: kinetic, equilibrium, thermodynamics, and application in kinetic and desorption studies. ChemistrySelect 5(26):7734–
simulated effluents. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(28):28584–28592 7742. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​slct.​20200​1454
Martín J et al (2019) Evaluation of a modified mica and montmoril- Naderi P et al (2018) Efficient removal of crystal violet from aqueous
lonite for the adsorption of ibuprofen from aqueous media. Appl solutions with Centaurea stem as a novel biodegradable bio-
Clay Sci 171:29–37. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clay.​2019.​02.​002 adsorbent using response surface methodology and simulated
Martín-Lara M et al (2016) Kinetic study of the pyrolysis of pine cone annealing: kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies. Eco-
shell through non-isothermal thermogravimetry: effect of heavy toxicol Environ Saf 163:372–381
metals incorporated by biosorption. Renew Energy 96:613–624 Nagy E (2018) Basic equations of mass transport through a membrane
Mashkoor F, Nasar A (2020) Carbon nanotube-based adsorbents for layer. Elsevier, Amsterdam. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​
the removal of dyes from waters: a review. Environ Chem Lett 416025-​5.​00001-6
18(3):605–629 Nahm SW et al (2012) Thermal and chemical regeneration of spent
Mayakaduwa S et al (2017) Insights into aqueous carbofuran removal activated carbon and its adsorption property for toluene. Chem
by modified and non-modified rice husk biochars. Environ Eng J 210:500–509
Sci Pollut Res 24(29):22755–22763. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s11356-​016-​7430-6

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2393

Najaflou S et al (2021) Removal of Pb (II) from contaminated waters magnetic montmorillonite composite γ-Fe2O3@ Mt. J Mol Liq
using cellulose sulfate/chitosan aerogel: equilibrium, kinetics, 309:113142. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2020.​113142
and thermodynamic studies. J Environ Manag 286:112167 Pal D, Maiti SK (2020) An approach to counter sediment toxicity by
Naraghi B et al (2017) Removal of Acid Orange 7 dye from aqueous immobilization of heavy metals using waste fish scale derived
solutions by adsorption onto Kenya tea pulps; granulated shape. biosorbent. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 187:109833. https://​doi.​org/​
Electron Physician 9(5):4312. https://​doi.​org/​10.​19082/​4312 10.​1016/j.​ecoenv.​2019.​109833
Natrayan L et al (2022) Synthesis and analysis of impregnation on Pamphile N et al (2019) Synthesis of a novel core-shell-structure acti-
activated carbon in multiwalled carbon nanotube for Cu adsorp- vated carbon material and its application in sulfamethoxazole
tion from wastewater. Bioinorg Chem Appl. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ adsorption. J Hazard Mater 368:602–612. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1155/​2022/​74702​63 1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2019.​01.​093
Naymushina O, Gaskova O (2019) Adsorption of Cu (II) from aque- Pan J et al (2020) Waste-to-resources: green preparation of magnetic
ous solution using raw peat: preliminary results. In: E3S web of biogas residues-based biochar for effective heavy metal removals.
conferences Sci Total Environ 737:140283
Nayyar D et al (2022) Remediation of emerging contaminants by natu- Parsa M et al (2019) Biochars derived from marine macroalgae as a
rally derived adsorbents. New Trends Emerg Environ Contam. mesoporous by-product of hydrothermal liquefaction process:
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-​981-​16-​8367-1_​11 characterization and application in wastewater treatment. J Water
Nezhad MM et al (2021) Efficient removal and recovery of uranium Process Eng 32:100942
from industrial radioactive wastewaters using functionalized acti- Patsula V et al (2016) Superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles: syn-
vated carbon powder derived from zirconium carbide process thesis by thermal decomposition of iron (III) glucuronate and
waste. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(40):57073–57089. https://​doi.​ application in magnetic resonance imaging. ACS Appl Mater
org/​10.​1007/​s11356-​021-​14638-3 Interfaces 8(11):7238–7247
Nguyen T-B et al (2021) Mesoporous and adsorption behavior of algal Pavithra S et al (2021) Batch adsorption studies on surface tailored
biochar prepared via sequential hydrothermal carbonization and chitosan/orange peel hydrogel composite for the removal of Cr
­ZnCl2 activation. Bioresour Technol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ (VI) and Cu (II) ions from synthetic wastewater. Chemosphere
biort​ech.​2021.​126351 271:129415
Nindjio GFK et al (2022) Lignocellulosic-based materials from bean Pavón González E, Alba MD (2022) Insight into the role of temper-
and pistachio pod wastes for dye-contaminated water treatment: ature, time and pH in the effective zirconium retention using
optimization and modeling of indigo carmine sorption. Polymers clay minerals. J Environ Manag 308:114635. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
14(18):3776. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​polym​14183​776 1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2022.​114635
Noman E et al (2020) Qualitative characterization of healthcare wastes. Pelinsom Marques J et al (2020) Increase in Pb and Cd adsorption by
In: Al-Gheethi AA, Mohamed RM, Noman EA, Kassim AH the application of peat in a tropical soil. Water Air Soil Pollut
(eds) Prospects of fresh market wastes management in develop- 231(3):1–21. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11270-​020-​04507-z
ing countries. Springer, Berlin, pp 167–178 Peng X et al (2023) Recycling municipal, agricultural and industrial
Nyankson E et al (2020) Synthesis and kinetic adsorption characteris- waste into energy, fertilizers, food and construction materi-
tics of Zeolite/CeO2 nanocomposite. Sci Afr 7:e00257. https://​ als, and economic feasibility: a review. Environ Chem Lett
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​sciaf.​2019.​e00257 21(2):765–801. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10311-​022-​01551-5
Obradović M et al (2022) Ibuprofen and diclofenac sodium adsorption Perelomov L et al (2021) Trace elements adsorption by natural and
onto functionalized minerals: equilibrium, kinetic and thermo- chemically modified humic acids. Environ Geochem Health
dynamic studies. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 335:111795. 43(1):127–138. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10653-​020-​00686-0
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​micro​meso.​2022.​111795 Peres EC et al (2018) Treatment of leachates containing cobalt by
Okewale A et al (2013) Adsorption isotherms and kinetics models of adsorption on Spirulina sp. and activated charcoal. J Environ
starchy adsorbents on uptake of water from ethanol–water sys- Chem Eng 6(1):677–685. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2017.​
tems. Int J Appl Sci Technol 3(1):35–42 12.​060
Osman AI et al (2020a) The production and application of carbon nano- Pham TD et al (2020a) Adsorption characteristics of beta-lactam
materials from high alkali silicate herbaceous biomass. Sci Rep cefixime onto nanosilica fabricated from rice HUSK with surface
10(1):2563. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41598-​020-​59481-7 modification by polyelectrolyte. J Mol Liq 298:111981. https://​
Osman AI et al (2020b) Upcycling brewer’s spent grain waste into doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2019.​111981
activated carbon and carbon nanotubes for energy and other Pham TD et al (2020b) Adsorptive removal of antibiotic ciprofloxacin
applications via two-stage activation. J Chem Technol Biotechnol from aqueous solution using protein-modified nanosilica. Poly-
95(1):183–195. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​jctb.​6220 mers 12(1):57. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​polym​12010​057
Osman AI et al (2022a) Facile synthesis and life cycle assessment of Pham TD et al (2021) Adsorptive removal of anionic azo dye new
highly active magnetic sorbent composite derived from mixed coccine using silica and silica-gel with surface modification by
plastic and biomass waste for water remediation. ACS Sustain polycation. Polymers 13(10):1536. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.3​ 390/p​ olym​
Chem Eng 10(37):12433–12447. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acssu​ 13101​536
schem​eng.​2c040​95 Philipp T et al (2022) Effect of Ca (II) on U (VI) and Np (VI) retention
Osman AI et al (2022b) Biochar for agronomy, animal farming, anaer- on Ca-bentonite and clay minerals at hyperalkaline conditions-
obic digestion, composting, water treatment, soil remediation, new insights from batch sorption experiments and luminescence
construction, energy storage, and carbon sequestration: a review. spectroscopy. Sci Total Environ 842:156837. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Environ Chem Lett 20(4):2385–2485. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ 1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2022.​156837
s10311-​022-​01424-x Phouthavong V et al (2020) Magnetic BEA-type zeolites: preparation
Osman AI et al (2023) Biofuel production, hydrogen production by dry-gel conversion method and assessment of dye removal
and water remediation by photocatalysis, biocatalysis and performance. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 22(2):375–382.
electrocatalysis. Environ Chem Lett. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10163-​020-​00994-8
s10311-​023-​01581-7 Pirbazari AE et al (2014) ­Fe3O4–wheat straw: preparation, characteri-
Ouachtak H et al (2020) Experimental and molecular dynamics zation and its application for methylene blue adsorption. Water
simulation study on the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye on Resour Ind 7:23–37. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​wri.​2014.​09.​001

13
2394 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Praveen S et al (2021) Techno-economic feasibility of biochar as Sahu S et al (2020) Adsorption of methylene blue on chemically modi-
biosorbent for basic dye sequestration. J Indian Chem Soc fied lychee seed biochar: dynamic, equilibrium, and thermody-
98(8):100107. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jics.​2021.​100107 namic study. J Mol Liq 315:113743
Priya A et al (2022) Biosorption of heavy metals by microorganisms: Salam MA et al (2020) Effective decontamination of As (V), Hg (II),
evaluation of different underlying mechanisms. Chemosphere and U (VI) toxic ions from water using novel muscovite/zeolite
307:135957 aluminosilicate composite: adsorption behavior and mechanism.
Qi Y (2021) The neutralization and recycling of red mud—a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:13247–13260. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/​
In: Journal of physics: conference series s11356-​020-​07945-8
Qi G et al (2023) Microwave biochar produced with activated car- Salgın U et al (2004) Desorption of salicylic acid from modified ben-
bon catalyst: characterization and adsorption of heavy metals. tonite by using supercritical fluids in packed bed column. Sep Sci
Environ Res 216:114732. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envres.​2022.​ Technol 39(11):2677–2694
114732 Salishcheva O et al (2021) Analysis of kinetic and equilibrium adsorp-
Radi S et al (2019) New hybrid adsorbent based on porphyrin function- tion of heavy metals by natural materials. In: IOP conference
alized silica for heavy metals removal: synthesis, characteriza- series: earth and environmental science
tion, isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics studies. J Hazard Salleh MAM et al (2011) Cationic and anionic dye adsorption by
Mater 370:80–90. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.j​ hazma​ t.2​ 017.1​ 0.0​ 58 agricultural solid wastes: a comprehensive review. Desalination
Ragheb E et al (2022) Modified magnetic-metal organic framework 280(1–3):1–13
as a green and efficient adsorbent for removal of heavy metals. J Salvador F et al (2013) Regeneration of activated carbons contaminated
Environ Chem Eng 10(2):107297 by phenol using supercritical water. J Supercrit Fluids 74:1–7
Rahmayanti M et al (2021) Isolation, characterization and application Salvador F et al (2015) Regeneration of carbonaceous adsorbents. Part
of humin from sumatran peat soils as adsorbent for naphtol blue II: chemical, microbiological and vacuum regeneration. Micropo-
black and indigosol blue dyes. Molekul 16(1):67–74. https://​doi.​ rous Mesoporous Mater 202:277–296
org/​10.​20884/1.​jm.​2021.​16.1.​700 Sánchez-Duarte RG et al (2017) Síntesis de hidrogeles de quitosano a
Rai S et al (2013) Feasibility of red mud neutralization with seawa- partir de cáscara de camarón para ensayos de adsorción de cobre.
ter using Taguchi’s methodology. Int J Environ Sci Technol Revista Internacional De Contaminación Ambiental 33:93–98
10(2):305–314 Saravana PS et al (2018) Green and efficient extraction of polysac-
Rangabhashiyam S et al (2016) Equilibrium and kinetics studies of charides from brown seaweed by adding deep eutectic solvent in
hexavalent chromium biosorption on a novel green macroalgae subcritical water hydrolysis. J Clean Prod 198:1474–1484
Enteromorpha sp. Res Chem Intermed 42(2):1275–1294 Sari EO et al (2018) The 3 hours-hydrothermal synthesis of high sur-
Rashad E et al (2022) Pinewood sawdust biochar as an effective face area superparamagnetic ­Fe3O4 core–shell nanoparticles.
biosorbent for PAHs removal from wastewater. Biomass Con- Jurnal Sains Materi Indonesia 19(1):9–13
vers Biorefinery. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13399-​021-​02181-7 Sarkar B et al (2018) Designer carbon nanotubes for contaminant
Razak MR et al (2020) Phosphoric acid modified kenaf fiber (K-PA) removal in water and wastewater: a critical review. Sci Total
as green adsorbent for the removal of copper (II) ions towards Environ 612:561–581
industrial waste water effluents. React Funct Polym 147:104466. Sarma GK et al (2019) Removal of hazardous basic dyes from aqueous
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​react​funct​polym.​2019.​104466 solution by adsorption onto kaolinite and acid-treated kaolinite:
Reddy DHK et al (2017) Valorisation of post-sorption materials: kinetics, isotherm and mechanistic study. SN Appl Sci. https://​
opportunities, strategies, and challenges. Adv Coll Interface Sci doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s42452-​019-​0216-y
242:35–58 Sarti E et al (2020) High-silica zeolites as sorbent media for adsorption
Richards S et al (2019) The potential use of natural vs commercial and pre-concentration of pharmaceuticals in aqueous solutions.
biosorbent material to remediate stream waters by removing Molecules 25(15):3331. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​molec​ules2​
heavy metal contaminants. J Environ Manag 231:275–281. 51533​31
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2018.​10.​019 Sayin F et al (2021) Chitosan immobilization and Fe3O4 function-
Rodrigues AE, Silva CM (2016) What’s wrong with Lagergreen alization of olive pomace: an eco-friendly and recyclable Pb2+
pseudo first order model for adsorption kinetics? Chem Eng J biosorbent. Carbohydr Polym 269:118266
306:1138–1142 Sevim F et al (2021) Adsorption capacity, isotherm, kinetic, and ther-
Rout PR et al (2016) Nutrient removal from binary aqueous phase by modynamic studies on adsorption behavior of malachite green
dolochar: highlighting optimization, single and binary adsorp- onto natural red clay. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 40(1):e13471.
tion isotherms and nutrient release. Process Saf Environ Prot https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​ep.​13471
100:91–107. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​psep.​2016.​01.​001 Shahadat M, Isamil S (2018) Regeneration performance of clay-based
Rwiza MJ et al (2018) Comparative sorption isotherms and removal adsorbents for the removal of industrial dyes: a review. RSC Adv
studies for Pb(II) by physical and thermochemical modification 8(43):24571–24587
of low-cost agro-wastes from Tanzania. Chemosphere 195:135– Shahnaz T et al (2020) A comparative study of raw, acid-modified and
145. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​2017.​12.​043 EDTA-complexed Acacia auriculiformis biomass for the removal
Saad SA et al (2010) Chemically modified sugarcane bagasse as a of hexavalent chromium. Chem Ecol 36(4):360–381
potentially low-cost biosorbent for dye removal. Desalination Shalaby SM et al (2021) Green synthesis of recyclable iron oxide nan-
264(1):123–128. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​desal.​2010.​07.​015 oparticles using Spirulina platensis microalgae for adsorptive
SafaÇelik M et al (2022) Biosorption of Rhodamine B dye from aque- removal of cationic and anionic dyes. Environ Sci Pollut Res
ous solution by Rhus coriaria L. plant: equilibrium, kinetic, ther- 28(46):65549–65572
modynamic and DFT calculations. J Mol Struct 1272:134158 Shao P et al (2020) Evaluating the adsorptivity of organo-functional-
Saffarian Delkhosh A et al (2021) Heat-treated gilsonite as an efficient ized silica nanoparticles towards heavy metals: quantitative com-
natural material for removing toluene: a Box–Behnken experi- parison and mechanistic insight. J Hazard Mater 387:121676.
mental design approach. Sci Iran 28(3):1353–1365 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2019.​121676
Sahu MK et al (2013) Removal of Pb (II) from aqueous solution by Sharma M et al (2022) Selective removal of uranium from an aque-
acid activated red mud. J Environ Chem Eng 1(4):1315–1324 ous solution of mixed radionuclides of uranium, cesium, and

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2395

strontium via a viable recyclable GO@ chitosan based magnetic contaminated agricultural soil. Sci Total Environ 851:158252.
nanocomposite. Mater Today Commun 32:104020 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2022.​158252
Shen W et al (2020) Alginate modified graphitic carbon nitride com- Sun Q et al (2023a) Adsorption of Pb2+ and methylene blue by Al-
posite hydrogels for efficient removal of Pb (II), Ni (II) and Cu incorporated magadiite. Appl Clay Sci 231:106745. https://​doi.​
(II) from water. Int J Biol Macromol 148:1298–1306 org/​10.​1016/j.​clay.​2022.​106745
Shi Q et al (2018) Mechanistic study of lead adsorption on activated Sun Y et al (2023b) Copper ion removal from aqueous media using
carbon. Langmuir 34(45):13565–13573. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 021/​ banana peel biochar/Fe3O4/branched polyethyleneimine. Colloids
acs.​langm​uir.​8b030​96 Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 658:130736. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Shukla S, Dhiman N (2017) Characterization and adsorption of dis- 1016/j.​colsu​rfa.​2022.​130736
perse dyes from wastewater onto cenospheres activated carbon Sutivisedsak N et al (2012) Evaluation of cotton byproducts as fillers
composites. Environ Earth Sci 76(20):1–12. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ for poly (lactic acid) and low density polyethylene. Ind Crops
1007/​s12665-​017-​7030-x Prod 36(1):127–134
Siddiqui SI et al (2019) Nigella sativa seed based nanocomposite- Syeda HI, Yap P-S (2022) A review on three-dimensional cellulose-
MnO2/BC: an antibacterial material for photocatalytic degra- based aerogels for the removal of heavy metals from water. Sci
dation, and adsorptive removal of Methylene blue from water. Total Environ 807:150606. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​
Environ Res 171:328–340. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.e​ nvres.2​ 018.​ 2021.​150606
11.​044 Syeda HI et al (2022) Biosorption of heavy metals from aqueous solu-
Silva TL et al (2016) Mesoporous activated carbon from industrial tion by various chemically modified agricultural wastes: a review.
laundry sewage sludge: adsorption studies of reactive dye Rema- J Water Process Eng 46:102446. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jwpe.​
zol Brilliant Blue R. Chem Eng J 303:467–476. https://​doi.​org/​ 2021.​102446
10.​1016/j.​molliq.​2015.​07.​010 Szewczuk-Karpisz K et al (2022) Immobilization mechanism of
Silva RV et al (2021) Bioproducts from the pyrolysis of castor Cd2+/HCrO4-/CrO42-ions and carboxin on montmorillonite
seed cake: basic dye adsorption capacity of biochar and anti- modified with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv trifolii exopoly-
fungal activity of the aqueous phase. J Environ Chem Eng saccharide. J Hazard Mater 428:128228. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​
9(1):104825. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2020.​104825 1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2022.​128228
Slimani R et al (2014) Calcined eggshells as a new biosorbent to Tamjidi S et al (2019) Application of magnetic adsorbents for
remove basic dye from aqueous solutions: thermodynamics, removal of heavy metals from wastewater: a review study.
kinetics, isotherms and error analysis. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng Mater Res Express 6(10):102004
45(4):1578–1587. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jtice.​2013.​10.​009 Tan X et al (2016) Biochar-based nano-composites for the decontam-
Smiljanić S et al (2011) Study of factors affecting Ni2+ immobiliza- ination of wastewater: a review. Bioresour Technol 212:318–
tion efficiency by temperature activated red mud. Chem Eng 333. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​biort​ech.​2016.​04.​093
J 168(2):610–619 Tan W-T et al (2022) Enhancing Cd (II) adsorption on rice straw
Smiljanić D et al (2020) Removal of emerging contaminants from biochar by modification of iron and manganese oxides. Environ
water by zeolite-rich composites: a first approach aiming at Pollut 300:118899
diclofenac and ketoprofen. Microporous Mesoporous Mater Taneez M, Hurel C (2019) A review on the potential uses of red mud
298:110057. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​micro​meso.​2020.​110057 as amendment for pollution control in environmental media.
Smiljanić D et al (2021) Removal of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(22):22106–22125
drugs from water by zeolite-rich composites: the interference Tanihara A et al (2021) Insight into the mechanism of heavy metal
of inorganic anions on the ibuprofen and naproxen adsorption. removal from water by monodisperse ZIF-8 fine particles.
J Environ Manag 286:112168. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​ Inorg Chem Commun 131:108782
an.​2021.​112168 Tao X et al (2021) Green synthesis of network nanostructured cal-
Soliman MA et al (2019) Organo-modification of montmorillonite cium alginate hydrogel and its removal performance of Cd2+
for enhancing the adsorption efficiency of cobalt radionuclides and Cu2+ ions. Mater Chem Phys 258:123931
from aqueous solutions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(10):10398– Tee GT et al (2022) Adsorption of pollutants in wastewater via
10413. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11356-​019-​04478-7 biosorbents, nanoparticles and magnetic biosorbents: a review.
Song X et al (2017) Regeneration performance and mechanism of Environ Res 212:113248
modified walnut shell biochar catalyst for low temperature cat- Temkin M (1940) Kinetics of ammonia synthesis on promoted iron
alytic hydrolysis of organic sulfur. Chem Eng J 330:727–735 catalysts. Acta Physiochim URSS 12:327–356
Sonmez Baghirzade B et al (2021) Thermal regeneration of spent Tesfaye T et al (2017) Valorisation of chicken feathers: a review on
granular activated carbon presents an opportunity to break the recycling and recovery route—current status and future pros-
forever PFAS cycle. Environ Sci Technol 55(9):5608–5619 pects. Clean Technol Environ Policy 19(10):2363–2378
Southichak B et al (2006) Phragmites australis: a novel biosorbent Thakur K et al (2019) Graphene and graphene oxide-based compos-
for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution. Water ites for removal of organic pollutants: a review. J Chem Eng
Res 40(12):2295–2302. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​watres.​2006.​ Data 64(3):833–867
04.​027 Thilagan J et al (2015) Continuous fixed bed column adsorption of
Srivatsav P et al (2020) Biochar as an eco-friendly and economical copper (II) ions from aqueous solution by calcium carbonate.
adsorbent for the removal of colorants (dyes) from aqueous envi- Int J Eng Res Technol 4(12):413–416
ronment: a review. Water 12(12):3561. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ Thirumoorthy K, Krishna S (2020) Removal of cationic and anionic
w1212​3561 dyes from aqueous phase by Ball clay–Manganese dioxide
Stjepanović M et al (2021) From waste to biosorbent: removal of congo nanocomposites. J Environ Chem Eng 8(1):103582. https://​
red from water by waste wood biomass. Water 13(3):279 doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jece.​2019.​103582
Sun K et al (2017) Extending surfactant-modified 2: 1 clay minerals for Thirunavukkarasu A et al (2021) Continuous fixed-bed biosorption
the uptake and removal of diclofenac from water. J Hazard Mater process: a review. Chem Eng J Adv 8:100188
323:567–574. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jhazm​at.​2016.​05.​038 Thompson KA et al (2016) Environmental comparison of biochar
Sun L et al (2022) Modified chicken manure biochar enhanced the and activated carbon for tertiary wastewater treatment. Environ
adsorption for Cd2+ in aqueous and immobilization of Cd in

13
2396 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

Sci Technol 50(20):11253–11262. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acs.​ Wan M-W et al (2010) Adsorption of copper (II) and lead (II) ions from
est.​6b032​39 aqueous solution on chitosan-coated sand. Carbohydr Polym
Tonk S et al (2022) Effectiveness and characterization of novel min- 80(3):891–899
eral clay in Cd2+ adsorption process: linear and non-linear Wan S et al (2018) Enhanced lead and cadmium removal using bio-
isotherm regression analysis. Water 14(3):279. https://​doi.​org/​ char-supported hydrated manganese oxide (HMO) nanoparticles:
10.​3390/​w1403​0279 behavior and mechanism. Sci Total Environ 616:1298–1306
Toński M et al (2021) Regeneration and reuse of the carbon nano- Wan X et al (2022) Chitosan-based dual network composite hydrogel
tubes for the adsorption of selected anticancer drugs from for efficient adsorption of methylene blue dye. Int J Biol Mac-
water matrices. Colloids Surf A 618:126355 romol 222:725–735
Tran TN et al (2018) Adsorption mechanisms of manganese (II) Wang J, Guo X (2020) Adsorption isotherm models: classification,
ions onto acid-treated activated carbon. KSCE J Civ Eng physical meaning, application and solving method. Chemosphere
22(10):3772–3782. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12205-​018-​1334-6 258:127279
Tripathi S et al (2018) Removal of U (VI) from aqueous solution by Wang TC et al (2015) Ultrahigh surface area zirconium MOFs and
adsorption onto synthesized silica and zinc silicate nanotubes: insights into the applicability of the BET theory. J Am Chem
equilibrium and kinetic aspects with application to real sam- Soc 137(10):3585–3591
ples. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag 10:127–139. https://​ Wang G et al (2018a) Removal of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions by
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​enmm.​2018.​05.​003 Phytolacca americana L. biomass as a low cost biosorbent. Arab
Tuomikoski S et al (2019) Zinc adsorption by activated carbon J Chem 11(1):99–110. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​arabjc.​2015.​06.​
prepared from lignocellulosic waste biomass. Appl Sci 011
9(21):4583. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​app92​14583 Wang Y-Y et al (2018b) Competitive adsorption of Pb (II), Cu (II),
Turan B et al (2022) Adsorption of tetracycline antibiotics using and Zn (II) ions onto hydroxyapatite-biochar nanocomposite in
metal and clay embedded cross-linked chitosan. Mater Chem aqueous solutions. J Solid State Chem 261:53–61
Phys 279:125781 Wang Y et al (2018c) Alginate-based attapulgite foams as efficient and
Uasuf A, Becker G (2011) Wood pellets production costs and energy recyclable adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals. J Colloid
consumption under different framework conditions in Northeast Interface Sci 514:190–198
Argentina. Biomass Bioenerg 35(3):1357–1366 Wang Z et al (2018d) New insights from supercritical methane
Uddin MK (2017) A review on the adsorption of heavy metals by clay adsorption in coal: gas resource estimation, thermodynamics,
minerals, with special focus on the past decade. Chem Eng J and engineering application. Energy Fuels 32(4):5001–5009
308:438–462. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cej.​2016.​09.​029 Wang C et al (2020a) Development of mercaptosuccinic anchored
Ugwu EI, Agunwamba JC (2020) A review on the applicability of MOF through one-step preparation to enhance adsorption
activated carbon derived from plant biomass in adsorption capacity and selectivity for Hg (II) and Pb (II). J Mol Liq
of chromium, copper, and zinc from industrial wastewater. 317:113896
Environ Monit Assess 192(4):1–12. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ Wang J et al (2020b) Synthesis and characterization of sodium lau-
s10661-​020-​8162-0 rylsulfonate modified silicon dioxide for the efficient removal
Vareda JP et al (2020) Silica aerogels/xerogels modified with nitro- of europium. J Mol Liq 316:113846. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
gen-containing groups for heavy metal adsorption. Molecules molliq.​2020.​113846
25(12):2788. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​molec​ules2​51227​88 Wang Y et al (2020c) Removing Cd (II) from aqueous solution by
Vázquez-Durán A et al (2021) Potential of kale and lettuce residues as inverse opal hybrid ­SiO2. NANO 15(04):2050047. https://​doi.​
natural adsorbents of the carcinogen aflatoxin B1 in a dynamic org/​10.​1142/​S1793​29202​05004​72
gastrointestinal tract-simulated model. Toxins 13(11):771. Wang S et al (2021) Calcite modification of agricultural waste biochar
https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​toxin​s1311​0771 highly improves the adsorption of Cu (II) from aqueous solu-
Vidal-Vidal J et al (2006) Synthesis of monodisperse maghemite tions. J Environ Chem Eng 9(5):106215
nanoparticles by the microemulsion method. Colloids Surf A Wang H et al (2022) Effective adsorption of Congo red dye by magnetic
288(1–3):44–51 chitosan prepared by solvent-free ball milling. Mater Chem Phys
Vigneshwaran S et al (2021a) Fabrication of sulfur-doped biochar 292:126857
derived from tapioca peel waste with superior adsorption per- Weber WJ Jr, Morris JC (1963) Kinetics of adsorption on carbon from
formance for the removal of Malachite green and Rhodamine B solution. J Sanit Eng Div 89(2):31–59
dyes. Surf Interfaces 23:100920. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfin.​ Wee S-B et al (2017) Role of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone for preparation
2020.​100920 of ­Fe3O4@ ­SiO2 controlled the shell thickness. J Nanopart Res
Vigneshwaran S et al (2021b) Facile synthesis of sulfur-doped chitosan/ 19(4):1–8
biochar derived from tapioca peel for the removal of organic Weißpflog J et al (2020) Solubility and selectivity effects of the anion
dyes: isotherm, kinetics and mechanisms. J Mol Liq 326:115303 on the adsorption of different heavy metal ions onto chitosan.
Vilela PB et al (2019) Polyacrylic acid-based and chitosan-based hydro- Molecules 25(11):2482
gels for adsorption of cadmium: equilibrium isotherm, kinetic Wu W et al (2008) Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis
and thermodynamic studies. J Environ Chem Eng 7(5):103327 and surface functionalization strategies. Nanoscale Res Lett
Volesky B (1994) Advances in biosorption of metals: selection of bio- 3(11):397–415
mass types. FEMS Microbiol Rev 14(4):291–302 Wu Z et al (2020) A facile foaming-polymerization strategy to prepare
Vukelic D et al (2018) Eco-design of a low-cost adsorbent produced 3D ­MnO2 modified biochar-based porous hydrogels for efficient
from waste cherry kernels. J Clean Prod 174:1620–1628 removal of Cd (II) and Pb (II). Chemosphere 239:124745
Wakkel M et al (2019) Basic red 2 and methyl violet adsorption Wu J et al (2021) A novel modified method for the efficient removal
by date pits: adsorbent characterization, optimization by of Pb and Cd from wastewater by biochar: enhanced the
RSM and CCD, equilibrium and kinetic studies. Environ Sci ion exchange and precipitation capacity. Sci Total Environ
Pollut Res 26(19):18942–18960. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 007/​ 754:142150
s11356-​018-​2192-y Xiang W et al (2022) Performance of lignin impregnated biochar on
tetracycline hydrochloride adsorption: governing factors and
mechanisms. Environ Res 215:114339

13
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398 2397

Xiao F et al (2020) Thermal stability and decomposition of perfluoro- removal. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 328:111485. https://​
alkyl substances on spent granular activated carbon. Environ Sci doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​micro​meso.​2021.​111485
Technol Lett 7(5):343–350 Yu J et al (2008) Enhanced and selective adsorption of Pb2+ and
Xu C, Teja AS (2008) Continuous hydrothermal synthesis of iron oxide Cu2+ by EDTAD-modified biomass of baker’s yeast. Bioresour
and PVA-protected iron oxide nanoparticles. J Supercrit Fluids Technol 99(7):2588–2593. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​biort​ech.​
44(1):85–91 2007.​04.​038
Xu H et al (2012) Porous carbon spheres from energetic carbon precur- Yu M et al (2019) Single and simultaneous adsorption of rhodamine
sors using ultrasonic spray pyrolysis. Adv Mater 24(45):6028– B and congo red from aqueous solution by organo-vermicu-
6033. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​adma.​20120​1915 lites. J Mol Liq 292:111408. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​molliq.​
Xu X et al (2017) Waste-art-paper biochar as an effective sorbent for 2019.​111408
recovery of aqueous Pb (II) into value-added PbO nanoparticles. Zabulonov Y et al (2021) Effect of the surface hydration of clay
Chem Eng J 308:863–871 minerals on the adsorption of cesium and strontium from dilute
Xu K et al (2022) Efficient adsorption of heavy metals from wastewater solutions. Adsorption 27(1):41–48. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
on nanocomposite beads prepared by chitosan and paper sludge. s10450-​020-​00263-y
Sci Total Environ 846:157399. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​ Zein R et al (2020) Modification of rice husk silica with bovine
tenv.​2022.​157399 serum albumin (BSA) for improvement in adsorption of met-
Yaashikaa P et al (2021) Advances in biosorbents for removal of envi- anil yellow dye. J Iran Chem Soc 17(10):2599–2612. https://​
ronmental pollutants: a review on pretreatment, removal mecha- doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13738-​020-​01955-6
nism and future outlook. J Hazard Mater 420:126596 Zeldowitsch J (1934) Über den mechanismus der katalytischen
Yan H et al (2011) Enhanced and selective adsorption of copper (II) oxydation von CO an MnO2. Acta Physicochim URSS
ions on surface carboxymethylated chitosan hydrogel beads. 1:364–449
Chem Eng J 174(2–3):586–594 Zeng S, Kan EJC (2022) Thermally enhanced adsorption and per-
Yang KM et al (2014) Synthesis of water well-dispersed PEGylated sulfate oxidation-driven regeneration on FeCl3-activated bio-
iron oxide nanoparticles for MR/optical lymph node imaging. J char for removal of microcystin-LR in water. Chemosphere
Mater Chem B 2(21):3355–3364 286:131950
Yang J et al (2015) Adsorption of hexavalent chromium from aque- Zeng H et al (2020) Optimization and regeneration of chitosan-alginate
ous solution by activated carbon prepared from longan seed: hybrid adsorbent embedding iron-manganese sludge for arsenic
kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics. J Ind Eng Chem removal. Colloids Surf A 607:125500
21:414–422. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jiec.​2014.​02.​054 Zeng Z et al (2023) Preparation and characterization of sodium poly-
Yang S-S et al (2019a) Generation of high-efficient biochar for dye acrylate grafted montmorillonite nanocomposite for the adsorp-
adsorption using frass of yellow mealworms (larvae of Tene- tion of cadmium ions form aqueous solution. Colloids Surf A
brio molitor Linnaeus) fed with wheat straw for insect biomass Physicochem Eng Asp 656:130389. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
production. J Clean Prod 227:33–47. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ colsu​rfa.​2022.​130389
jclep​ro.​2019.​04.​005 Zhang D et al (2010) Synthesis of clay minerals. Appl Clay Sci
Yang Y et al (2019b) Preparation and characterization of cationic 50(1):1–11. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​clay.​2010.​06.​019
water-soluble pillar [5] arene-modified zeolite for adsorption Zhang W et al (2012) Adsorption of anionic dyes from aqueous
of methyl orange. ACS Omega 4(18):17741–17751. https://​doi.​ solutions using chemically modified straw. Bioresour Technol
org/​10.​1021/​acsom​ega.​9b021​80 117:40–47
Yang H et al (2020a) Utilization of biochar for resource recovery Zhang S et al (2014a) Protic ionic liquids and salts as versatile carbon
from water: a review. Chem Eng J 397:125502 precursors. J Am Chem Soc 136(5):1690–1693. https://​doi.​org/​
Yang K et al (2020b) Facile synthesis of novel porous graphene-like 10.​1021/​ja411​981c
carbon hydrogel for highly efficient recovery of precious metal Zhang X et al (2014b) Adsorption of anionic dye on magnesium
and removal of organic dye. Appl Surf Sci 528:146928 hydroxide-coated pyrolytic bio-char and reuse by microwave
Yang X et al (2021) Increased structural defects of graphene oxide irradiation. Int J Environ Sci Technol 11(5):1439–1448
compromised reductive capacity of ZVI towards hexavalent Zhang S et al (2016) Adsorption of pharmaceuticals on chitosan-based
chromium. Chemosphere 277:130308 magnetic composite particles with core-brush topology. Chem
Yang X et al (2022) Characteristics and aqueous dye removal ability Eng J 304:325–334
of novel biosorbents derived from acidic and alkaline one- Zhang P et al (2019a) Catalytic degradation of estrogen by persulfate
step ball milling of hickory wood. Chemosphere 309:136610. activated with iron-doped graphitic biochar: process variables
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​2022.​136610 effects and matrix effects. Chem Eng J 378:122141
Yap P-S, Priyaa V (2019) Removal of crystal violet and acid green 25 Zhang Y et al (2019b) Regeneration of phenol-saturated activated
from water using kaolin. In: IOP conference series: materials carbon by supercritical water: effect of ­H2O2 and alkali metal
science and engineering catalysts. J Environ Eng 145(12):04019083
Ye X et al (2021) Ultra-efficient adsorption of copper ions in chi- Zhang W et al (2020) Novel pectin based composite hydrogel derived
tosan–montmorillonite composite aerogel at wastewater treat- from grapefruit peel for enhanced Cu (II) removal. J Hazard
ment. Cellulose 28(11):7201–7212 Mater 384:121445
Yin Y et al (2019) Adsorption of arsenic by activated charcoal coated Zhang H et al (2021) The adsorption mechanism of montmorillonite for
zirconium-manganese nanocomposite: performance and mech- different tetracycline species at different ph conditions: the novel
anism. Colloids Surf A 575:318–328. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ visual analysis of intermolecular interactions. Water Air Soil Pol-
colsu​r fa.​2019.​04.​093 lut 232(2):1–15. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11270-​021-​05012-7
Younas F et al (2021) Current and emerging adsorbent technolo- Zhang M et al (2022a) Sorption of pharmaceuticals and personal care
gies for wastewater treatment: trends, limitations, and envi- products (PPCPs) from water and wastewater by carbonaceous
ronmental implications. Water 13(2):215. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ materials: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 52(5):727–
3390/​w1302​0215 766. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​10643​389.​2020.​18354​36
Youssef HF et al (2021) Preparation and characterization of different Zhang T et al (2022b) Ultrasound-assisted and hydroalcoholic-freezing
zeolites from andesite rock: product evaluation for efficient dye combination modification for the preparation of biomass sorbent

13
2398 Environmental Chemistry Letters (2023) 21:2337–2398

from waste peach wood branches to efficient removal of methyl- Zhou Q et al (2023) Synthesis of high-quality NaP1 zeolite from
ene blue. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ municipal solid waste incineration fly ash by microwave-assisted
s13399-​022-​03322-2 hydrothermal method and its adsorption capacity. Sci Total Envi-
Zhang X et al (2022c) Fabrication of new MIL-53 (Fe)@ TiO2 visible- ron 855:158741. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.s​ citot​ env.2​ 022.1​ 58741
light responsive adsorptive photocatalysts for efficient elimina- Zhuravlev IZ et al (2022) Zirconium phosphates deposited on the
tion of tetracycline. Chem Eng J 428:131077 granulated silica gel as adsorbents for the extraction of cesium,
Zhang Y et al (2022d) Amino-modified chitosan/gold tailings compos- strontium radioisotope ions. Sep Sci Technol 57(5):671–682.
ite for selective and highly efficient removal of lead and cadmium https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​01496​395.​2021.​19340​24
from wastewater. Chemosphere 308:136086 Zubair M et al (2022) Nano-modified feather keratin derived green and
Zhao F et al (2013) Adsorption of Cd (II) and Pb (II) by a novel EGTA- sustainable biosorbents for the remediation of heavy metals from
modified chitosan material: kinetics and isotherms. J Colloid synthetic wastewater. Chemosphere 308:136339. https://​doi.​org/​
Interface Sci 409:174–182 10.​1016/j.​chemo​sphere.​2022.​136339
Zhao YG et al (2021) Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of tetraethylene-
pentamine-modified graphene oxide/dispersive ­Fe3O4 composites Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
with enhanced adsorption capacity for allergenic disperse dyes jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
[Article]. J Iran Chem Soc 18(5):1113–1125. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/​s13738-​020-​02099-3
Zhou C et al (2016) Removal of Pb (II) and Zn (II) from aqueous solu-
tions by raw crab shell: a comparative study. Water Environ Res
88(4):374–383

Authors and Affiliations

Ahmed I. Osman1 · Eman M. Abd El‑Monaem2 · Ahmed M. Elgarahy3,4 · Chukwunonso O. Aniagor5 ·

Mohamed Hosny6 · Mohamed Farghali7,8 · Emanne Rashad9 · Marcel I. Ejimofor5 · Eduardo A. López‑Maldonado10 ·
Ikko Ihara7 · Pow‑Seng Yap11 · David W. Rooney1 · Abdelazeem S. Eltaweil2

1 7
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen’s Department of Agricultural Engineering
University Belfast, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, and Socio‑Economics, Kobe University, Kobe 657‑8501,
Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland, UK Japan
2 8
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria Department of Animal and Poultry Hygiene
University, Alexandria, Egypt and Environmental Sanitation, Faculty of Veterinary
3 Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
Egyptian Propylene and Polypropylene Company (EPPC),
9
Port Said, Egypt Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science,
4 Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Environmental Chemistry Division, Environmental Science
10
Department, Faculty of Science, Port Said University, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Autonomous
Port Said, Egypt University of Baja California, CP 22390 Tijuana,
5 Baja California, Mexico
Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe
11
University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria Department of Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool
6 University, Suzhou 215123, China
Green Technology Group, Environmental Sciences
Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University,
Alexandria 21511, Egypt

13