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Breathing and exchange of gases

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DR. ANSUMAN MUKHOPADHYAY is a renowned Senior Consultant

Pulmonologist with over 20 years of experience in Respiratory Medicine.
After finishing his DTCD training where he topped the university, Dr.
Mukhopadhyay went on to finish his MD in Tuberculosis and Respiratory
Disease, and DNB in Respiratory Medicine. He has also been a postgraduate
teacher and trained quite a few respiratory professionals who are also
established names in the speciality.
Completed training interventional bronchoscopy especially endobronchial
ultrasonography by the American College of Chest Physicians.
He is a Professional Member of:

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 Indian Chest Society
 Association of Physicians of India
 Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine
 European Respiratory Society
 Association of Chest Physicians of West Bengal

DR. MOHANKUMAR THEKKINKATTIL, MD., AB., DSc., DPPR., FCCP., FAARC.,

FNCCP., FIAB, FIASM Present Position: HOD & Chief Consultant, Institute Of
Pulmonary Medicine And Research, Sri Ramakrishna Hospital, Coimbatore.
First Indian to get MD and DPPR from Nancy University, Francez o Published
& Written Articles in Indian / Foreign Jou
Experience:
 Worked as Assistant Professor & Research Fellow, Nancy University
(France) - till 1984
 Assistant Surgeon, Kerala Government Service-till 1987
 Chief, Pulmonology Department, Kovai Medical Center, Coimbatore- till 1992
 Chief, Institute of Pulmonary Medicine and Research, Sri Ramakrishna Hospital, Coimbatore- till
date
 Visiting consultant to various hospitals in Coimbatore.
 Visiting Professor, School of Medicine, West Verginia University, Morgan town, USA.

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BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

01. INTRODUCTION
 Oxygen (O2) is utilised by the organisms to indirectly
 Introduction
break down of nutrient molecules like glucose and to
 Respiratory Organs derive energy for performing various activities. Carbon
 Mechanism of Breathing dioxide (CO2) which is harmful is also released during
the above catabolic reactions. It is, therefore, evident
 Exchange of Gases
that O2 has to be continuously provided to the cells
 Transport of Gases and CO2 produced by the cells have to be released out.
 Regulation of Respiration This process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere
 Disorders with CO2 produced by the cells is called breathing,

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of Respiratory
System commonly known as Respiration.
 Respiration is for energy liberation.

02. RESPIRATORY ORGANS

 Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly on their
habitats and levels of organisation.
 Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates(Hydra), flatworms(Tapeworm), etc., exchange
O2 with CO2 by simple diffusion over their entire body surface.
 Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to
transport atmospheric air within the body.
 Special vascularised structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods and
molluscs.
 Vascularised bags called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases.
 Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs.
 Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin also (Mainly during hibernation and
aestivation).
 Mammals have a well-developed respiratory system.

Respiration through gills is called Respiration through skin is called

gill/branchial respiration cutaneous respiration
Respiration through lungs is called Respiration through trachea is called
pulmonary respiration tracheal respiration
Respiration through buccopharyngeal cavity is called buccopharyngeal respiration

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NAME OF THE RESPIRATORY NAME OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGAN
ORGANISM ORGAN ORGANISM
1 PROTOZOA Respiratory 10 MOLLUSCA Gills (Ctinidia)
2 PORIFERA organs are 11 ECHINODERMATA Body surface
3 COELENTERATA absent but 12 FISHES Gills
4 CTENOPHORA respiration 13 TADPOLE Gills
takes place by
5 PLATYHELMINTHES 14 FROG Lungs /skin/
general body
buccopharyngeal cavity
surface
6 ASCHELMINTHES 15 REPTILES Lungs
7 ANNELIDA Moist cuticle 16 BIRDS Lungs
(EARTHWORM)
8 Insect (eg. Cockroach, Trachea 17 MAMMALS Lungs
Silkworm) Gills

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Aquatic arthropods
9. Arachnida Book lungs
(eg. Spider)

BEGINNER’S BOX INTRODUCTION AND RESPIRATORY ORGANS

1. Site of gaseous exchange in tadpole larva is

(1) Skin (2) Gills
(3) Lungs (4) Buccapharyngeal cavity
2. Respiratory organ of insect is -
(1) Lungs (2) Gills (3) Trachea (4) Pulmonary sac
3. Respiratory organs in frog (adult) are :-
(a) Lungs (b) Gills (c) Moist skin (d) Buccal cavity
(1) a, b (2) b, c (3) a, c & d (4) only a & d
4. Given below that list of animals -
Cockroach, Prawn, Spiders, Fishes, Frog, Earthworm, Tadpole larva, snakes.
How many are respire through "Gills" ?
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) Five
5. Respiration through skin is known as -
(1) Branchial respiration
(2) Cutaneous respiration
(3) Pulmonary respiration
(4) Tracheal respiration
6. A process by which we intake O2 rich air and expel out the CO2 rich air is known as -
(1) Respiration (2) Inspiration (3) Breathing (4) Expiration

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7. Match the column-I and II and select the correct answer ?
Column-I Column-II
(Name of animal) (Respiratory organ)
(i) Earthworm (a) Trachea
(ii) Cockroach (b) General body surface
(iii) Lizards (c) Moist cuticle
(iv) Sponges (d) Gills
(v) Dog fish (e) Lungs
(1) i–c, ii–a, iii–e, iv–b, v–d (2) i–d, ii–a, iii–b, iv–c, v–e
(3) i–c, ii–a, iii–b, iv–d, v–e (4) i–b, ii–c, iii–d, iv–e, v–a
8. Oxygen (O2) is utilised by an organism to -

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(1) directly breakdown the nutrient molecules
(2) indirectly breakdown the nutrient molecules
(3) obtain nourishment from the food
(4) burn the organic compounds indirectly
9. O2 exchange with CO2 by simple diffusion over the entire body surface takes place in -
I. sponges II. coelenterates III. flatworms
Select the correct option to complete the given statement.
(1) I and II (2) II and III (3) I and III (4) All of the above.

03. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

(1) NOSE AND NASAL CHAMBER
Human have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lip.
External nares open in vestibule region present in anterior part of nasal passage.
Vestibule posteriorly connected with nasal chambers.
Nasal passage is functionally divided into 3 regions :
(A) Vestibular region : Skin, hair, sebaceous glands.
(B) Respiratory region : Lined by PSCCGE.
(C) Olfactory region : Lined by Neurosensory epithelium (Olfactory epithelium/Schneidarian
membrane)
The nasal chamber opens into nasopharynx, through internal nostrils (Choanae).
Nasopharynx is a portion of pharynx (the common passage for food and air). Nasopharynx
opens into oropharynx which opens through glottis of the larynx region into the trachea.

(2) LARYNX
Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production and hence called the sound box.
During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to
prevent the entry of food into the larynx.

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On the basis On the basis of shape On the basis
of number of origin
THYROID HYALINE
ONE (Largest cartilage of larynx / Ventrally broad / laterally narrow/ CARTILAGE
dorsally absent/C shaped cartilage/In human males, ventral
surface of thyroid cartilage make a process called as ADAM’S
APPLE which is a secondary sexual character of males)
ONE CRICOID HYALINE
(Signet ring shape cartilage /dorsally broad /laterally narrow/ CARTILAGE
ventrally fibre like/)
TWO ARYTENOID HYALINE
(Conical shaped cartilage) CARTILAGE
TWO CARTILAGE OF SANTORINI ELASTIC
(Spherical cartilage on Arytenoids cartilage/smallest cartilage CARTILAGE

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of larynx)
Larynx is the sound producing organ in which two types of vocal cords are present
(i) False (ii) True
False vocal cords provide moisture to the true vocal cords. Whereas true vocal cords are
helpful in phonation (Sound production)

Epiglottis
Cuneiform cartilage

Cartilage of
Santorini
Thyroid cartilage
Arytenoid
cartilage
Cricoid cartilage

Ventral Dorsal

Sagittal plane

(3) TRACHEA
Trachea is a straight tube (diameter 2.5 cm) (length 12 cm) extending up to the mid-thoracic
cavity, which divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left primary bronchi.
Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi and
bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles. The tracheae, primary, secondary and
tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings. On the
dorsal side of rings, "trachealis muscles" are present. These are involuntary muscles and are
helpful in forcible breathing and to dilate the trachea. Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a
number of very thin, irregular walled and vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli. The
branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs.
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Bronchial Tree (B.T.) and Respiratory Tree (R.T.)
There are two zones.
The part starting with the external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the
conducting part whereas the alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the
respiratory system.
The conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli, clears it from foreign
particles, humidifies and also brings the air to body temperature.
Presence of 'C' shaped cartilagenous rings :- From Trachea to Initial Bronchiole.
Due to anatomical dead space (150 ml), pulmonary ventilation is always more than alveolar
ventilation.

RESPIRATORY TRACT

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Nasal chamber
Nasopharynx
Pharynx (Common passage
for food and air)
External Nostril
Glottis (during swallowing covered

Conduction Zone
(1 pair)
by Epiglottis)

Trachea Thin elastic cartilaginous

T5 (Mid thorax)
Primary Prevent entry of food into larynx
Bronchial Tree

Bronchus
Secondary
Larynx (Cartilagenous box
Bronchus
Tertiary helps in sound production
Bronchus i.e. sound box)
Total Pulmonary
Bronchioles
Terminal
Bronchioles
Respiratory Bronchiole
Exchange Zone

Alveolar duct
Respiratory Tree

Atria
Alveolar sac

Alveoli
(Very thin, irregular walled,
vascularised Bag like structure)

DIAPHRAGM — Muscular Structure which separate thoracic cavity

from abdominal cavity
Hiatus

DIAPHRAGM IS THE MAIN MUSCLE OF BREATHING WHICH AID IN VENTILATION

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External nostrils

Vestibule/Passage

Nasal Chamber

Internal nares

Naso pharynx

Pharynx
Glottis
Larynx

Conducting Zone

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Trachea

Primary Bronchus
PSCCGE
Bronchial Secondary Bronchus
Tree
Tertiary/Segmental Bronchus

Total Pulmonary Bronchioles

Simple columnar ciliated
Terminal Bronchiole

Respiratory Bronchiole Simple cuboidal

to simple squamous
Alveolar Duct

ATRIA Exchange Zone

Alveolar Sac Respiratory tree

Alveoli

The trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles are supported by
incomplete cartilaginous rings.

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Terminal bronchiole

Pulmonary venule Pulmonary arteriole

Lymphatic vessel

Elastic connective Respiratory bronchiole

tissue

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Alveolar ducts

Alveoli

Pulmonary capillary

Visceral pleura Alveolar sac

Alveoli

Diagram of a portion of a lobule of the lung

(4) LUNGS
We have two lungs (right lung is
Epiglottis
three lobed whereas left lung is two Larynx
Trachea
lobed) which are covered by a
Bronchus
double layered pleura, with pleural
fluid between them. It reduces Cut end of rib Heart Pleural membranes
Alveoli
friction on the lung surface and act Lung Pleural fluid
Bronchiole
as a shock absorber. The outer Diaphragm

pleural membrane is in close Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system

(sectional view of the left lung is also shown)
contact with the thoracic lining NCERT XI Page No. 269, Figure No. 17.1

whereas the inner pleural

membrane is in contact with the lung surface. Intraplural pressure is lesser than intra
pulmonary pressure.

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Pulmonary vessels, bronchus and nerves enter or leave the lungs at the hilus.
Inflammation of pleural membrane is called pleurisy.
Problem in breathing due to pleurisy is called dyspnoea.
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-tight chamber.

The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral column, ventrally by the sternum,
laterally by the ribs and on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm.

The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the thoracic
cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. Such an arrangement is essential for
breathing, as we cannot directly alter the pulmonary volume.

Mammalian lungs are solid and spongy without muscles so power of self contraction and self

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relaxation is not present in mammalian lungs.

(5) ALVEOLI
Alveoli are structural and functional units of
Air
lungs. Alveoli consist of two types of cells called
Alveolar wall Basement
pneumocytes. Pneumocytes I are smaller cells (one-celled thick) substance
and helps in gaseous exchange whereas Alveolar cavity
pneumocytes II are larger cells which secrete a
Blood
phospholipid LECITHIN. Lecithin act as a capillary Red blood cell
surfactant reduces the surface tension of A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with
alveoli and keep alveoli always remain open for a pulmonary capillary.
NCERT XI Page No. 273, Figure No. 17.3
efficient gaseous exchange. On the outer side
of alveoli yellow fibrous connective tissue is present. The total number of alveoli present in both
the lungs of man is 300 million.
Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.
Respiration involves the following steps:
(A) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich
alveolar air is released out.
(B) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
(C) Transport of gases by the blood.
(D) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(E) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2. (Cellular
respiration)

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Thoracic Cavity :
Thoracic cage :- Coverings of thoracic cavity makes thoracic cage.
Anterior surface : Clavicle bones, Neck
Posterior surface : Diaphragm.
Dorsal surface : Vertebral column & ribs
Ventral surface : Sternum & ribs.
Lateral surface : Ribs

External Intercostals

Diaphragm :-
Internal Intercostals

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It is the muscular structure which separate thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity. It is made up
of muscles called radial muscles. Word related with diaphragm is phrenic. Diaphragm is the
principal muscle of breathing and aid in ventilation. Other functions of diaphragm are
parturition (child birth), micturition (passing out of urine) and defaecation (egestion). At the
time of inspiration, diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened so that antroposterior axis,
volume of thoracic cavity is increased. Phrenic nerve is for diaphragm contraction.
Intercoastal Muscles :
Spaces between two pair of ribs are called intercoastal spaces. Whereas muscles in these spaces
are called intercoastal muscles. There are two types of intercoastal muscles
(a) External intercoastal muscles (EICM)
(b) Internal intercoastal muscles (IICM)
Muscles which connect dorsal face of upper rib with ventral face of lower rib are called external
intercoastal muscles or inspiratory muscles.
Muscles which connect ventral face of upper rib with dorsal face of lower rib are called internal
intercoastal muscles or expiratory muscles. At the time of inspiration, EICM contracts so that
sternum moves outwardly and ribs move upwardly hence volume of thoracic cavity is increased
in dorsoventral axis.

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BEGINNER’S BOX ANATOMY OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Larynx is a modified portion of

(1) Pharynx (2) Trachea (3) Bronchus (4) Lungs
2. Cartilaginous rings in trachea are incomplete at which surface.
(1) Dorsal (2) Ventral (3) Lateral (4) Ventrolateral
3. Wall of alveoli is composed of
(1) Simple squamous epithelium (2) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(3) Pseudostratified epithelium (4) Simple columnar epithelium
4. The structure which prevents the entry of food into respiratory tract is

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(1) pharynx (2) Larynx (3) Glottis (4) Epiglottis
5. In which part of lungs gaseous exchange takes place in human :–
(1) Trachea & alveolar duct (2) Trachea & bronchi
(3) Alveolar duct & alveoli (4) Alveoli & Trachea
6. Respiratory organ of human are :-
(1) General Body surface (2) Book lungs
(3) Lungs (4) Tracheal tubes
7. In human lungs are divided into lobes
(1) 3 right & 2 left lobes (2) 2 right & 3 left lobes
(3) 2 right & 2 left lobes (4) 3 right & 3 left lobes
8. Arytenoid cartilage in larynx are
(1) Elastic (2) Hyaline (3) Calcified (4) All of these
9. The most important muscular structure in respiratory system of human is
(1) External intercostal muscles (2) Internal intercostal muscles
(3) Diaphragm (4) Vertebral column
10. Each lung is enclosed in a double membranes called as pleura. The membranes which closely
covers the lung is
(1) Lung pleura (2) Visceral pleura (3) Peritoneal pleura (4) Parietal pleura
11. The most important function of diaphragm of mammals is
(1) To divide the body cavity into compartments (2) To protect lungs
(3) To aid in respiration (4) To aid in ventilation
12. Mammalian lungs are
(1) Hollow (2) Solid & spongy (3) Spongy (4) None

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13. In thoracic cavity of man which one is present
(1) Lungs only (2) Lungs + Heart
(3) Lungs + heart + Stomach (4) Hearts only
14. During inspiration, the pressure of air is maximum in
(1) Trachea (2) Bronchus
(3) Alveoli (4) Environment
15. In human sound is produced by
(1) Syrinx (2) Larynx (3) Bronchus (4) Trachea
16. Match the columns
Column I Column II

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(a) Larynx (p) Lid of larynx
(b) Trachea (q) Air sacs
(c) Alveoli (r) Voice box
(d) Epiglottis (s) Wind pipe
(t) Common passage
(1) a-r, b-s, c-q, d-p (2) a-t, b-s, c-p, d-q
(3) a-r, b-s, c-q, d-t (4) a-r, b-t, c-q, d-p
17. Air is breathed through
(1) Trachea  lungs  larynx  pharynx  alveoli
(2) Nose  larynx  pharynx  bronchus  alveoli  bronchioles
(3) Nostrils  pharynx  larynx  trachea  bronchi  bronchioles  alveoli
(4) Nose  mouth  lungs

04. MECHANISM OF BREATHING

 Breathing involves two stages : Inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in and

expiration by which the alveolar air is released out.

 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient

between the lungs and the atmosphere.

 Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the

atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric

pressure.

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 Similarly, expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the

atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm and a specialised set of muscles - external and internal

intercostals between the ribs, help in generation of such gradients.

 Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm which increases the volume of thoracic

chamber in the antero-posterior axis.

 The contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an

increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. The overall increase in

the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume. An increase in pulmonary

volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure which

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forces the air from outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.

 Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to

their normal positions and reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This

leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure

causing the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration.

 We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of

additional muscles in the abdomen.

 On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute. The volume of air involved in

breathing movements can be estimated by using a spirometer which helps in clinical assessment

of pulmonary functions.

 Two types of breathing are - thoracic and abdominal. Normal breathing is known as

abdominal breathing.

 Thoracic breathing is due to intercostal muscles mainly.

 Abdominal breathing due to diaphragm mainly.

 In fever breathing rate increases.

 When CO2 concentration increases in blood breathing rate becomes faster.

 Breathing rate in infants is greater than adults.

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MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Inspiration Expiration
2 sec. (atmospheric air is drawn in) 3 sec. (alveolar air is released out)
Active process Passive process
Intra-pulmonary atmospheric Intra-pulmonary > atmospheric
pressure < pressure pressure pressure

Contraction Relaxation

Air entering lungs Air expelled from lungs

Diaphragm EICM Diaphragm EICM

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Ribs and
sternum Volume of Ribs and
raised thorax sternum Volume of
increased returned thorax
Rib to original decreased
cage position
Diaphragm
contracted
(a)
Increase in Increase in Decrease in (b) Decrease in
Antero-posterior Dorso-ventral Antero-posterior Dorso-ventral
axis axis axis axis

Pulmonary volume increases Pulmonary volume decreases

Intrapulmonary pressure decreases Intrapulmonary pressure increases

Forces air from outside to more Causing expulsion of air

into the lungs (inspiration) from the lungs (expiration)

Note :- We have ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of
additional muscles in abdomen.

Mechanism of Breathing showing : (a) inspiration (b) expiration)

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BEGINNER’S BOX MECHANISM OF BREATHING

1. Thoracic cavity expands, due to contraction of :-

(1) Internal intercostal muscle (2) Diaphragm
(3) Lungs (4) All of these
2. Breathing rate in human is :-
(1) 12-16 /min (2) 36-38/min (3) 100/min (4) 300/min
3. At the time of an "inspiration", muscles of diaphragm are :-
(1) Contracted (2) Relaxed (3) unaffected (4) become coiled
4. During expiration :-

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(1) Relaxation in diaphragm & ICM (2) Contraction in diaphragm & ICM
(3) Only contraction in diaphragm (4) Only contraction in ICM
5. When does expiratory muscles contract ?
(1) Deep inspiration (2) Normal inspiration & expiration
(3) Forceful expiration (4) Only normal expiration
6. At the time of fever, respiratory rate become :-
(1) Increases (2) Decreases (3) Stops (4) Unaffected
7. Expiratory muscles are :-
(1) Diaphragm + IICM (2) Diaphragm + EICM
(3) Abdominal muscles + IICM (4) Abdominal muscles + EICM
8. Abdominal breathing refers to
(1) Normal breathing (2) Slow breathing (3) Fast breathing (4) Forceful breathing

05. RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a spirometer which
helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
 Tidal volume [T.V.] - It is amount of air inspired or expired during normal respiration. Its value
for man is 500 ml. Whole inspired air does not reach up to lungs.
A healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 ml of air per minute.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume [I.R.V.] - Volume of air a person can inspire by forcible inspiration
over tidal volume. It's value is 2500 to 3000 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume [E.R.V.] - It is the amount of air expired over tidal volume by most
forceful expiration. Its value is 1000-1100 ml.

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 Residual volume - [R.V.] - It is the amount of air that remains inside lungs after forceful
expiration. Residual volume can not be given out of lungs. Its value is 1100-1200 ml.

6,000 ml 6,000 ml
INSPIRATORY
RESERVE
VOLUME
3000 ml. 5,000 ml INSPIRATORY VITAL TOTAL 5,000 ml
CAPACITY CAPACITY LUNG
3500 ml. 4500 ml CAPACITY
5700 ml
4,000 ml 4,000 ml

TIDAL VOL.
500 ml. 3,000 ml 3,000 ml
EXPIRATORY
RESERVE EC
VOLUME 2,000 ml 2,000 ml

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1000 ml. FUNCTIONAL
RESIDUAL
CAPACITY
RESIDUAL
2300 ml. 1,000 ml
VOLUME 1,000 ml
1100 ml.

Spirogram of pulmonary volumes and capacities

Pulmonary Capacities :
By adding up a few respiratory volumes, pulmonary, capacities can be derived, which can be helpful in
clinical diagnosis.
 Inspiratory capacity - [I.C.] - Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration.
I.C. = I.R.V. + T.V. = 3000 ml + 500 ml
I.C. = 3500 ml
 Expiratory capacity (EC) : Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration.
E.C. = TV + ERV
 Functional Residual capacity [FRC] - It is the amount of air that normally remains inside lungs
after normal expiration. In it expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are included
FRC = ERV + RV = 1000 ml + 1200 ml
FRC = 2200 to 2500 ml
 Vital capacity - [V.C.] - It is the amount of air that can be expired by most forceful expiration
after a deepest inspiration. Inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and tidal
volume are included in it.
V.C. = IRV + ERV + TV
= 3000 ml + 1000 ml + 500 ml
= 4500 ml (4300 to 4800 ml)

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 Total lung capacity - Total volume of air that can TV
accommodated in the lungs at the end of forced inspiration. IC
EC
VC IRV
TLC
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV = 3000 + 500 + 1000 + 1200
ERV
TLC = 6000 ml (approx.) (5700 to 6000 ml) FRC
RV

BEGINNER’S BOX RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

1. If expiratory reserve volume is 1100 ml residual volume is 1200 ml and tidal volume is 500 ml,
what shall be the functional residual capacity
(1) 1600 ml (2) 2800 ml (3) 2300 ml (4) 1200 ml

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2. Air filled in dead space is
(1) 150 cc (2) 350 cc (3) 500 cc (4) 1500 cc
3. Residual volume is :
(1) lesser than tidal volume (2) greater than inspiratory volume
(3) greater than vital capacity (4) greater than tidal volume
4. Vital capacity of lungs is
(1) TV + IRV + ERV (2) TV + IRV + RV (3) TV + ERV (4) IRV + ERV
5. Match the items in column I with column II and choose the correct option
Column I Column II
(A) Tidal volume (i) 2500 to 3000 mL of air
(B) Inspiratory reserve volume (ii) 1000 mL of air
(C) Expiratory reserve volume (iii) 500 mL of air
(D) Residual volume (iv) 3400 to 4800 mL air
(E) Vital capacity (v) 1200 mL of air
A B C D E
(1) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (v)
(2) (iii) (i) (ii) (v) (iv)
(3) (iii) (i) (iv) (v) (ii)
(4) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (v)
6. Total lung capacity is
(1) One lit (2) 3 lit (3) 6 lit (4) 8 lit
7. Maximum expiration after full inspiration is called
(1) Vital capacity (2) Lung capacity
(3) Tidal volume (4) Residual volume
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8. Air that remains in lung after most powerful expiration is
(1) Inspiratory air (2) Dead space air (3) Tidal air (4) Residual air
9. Residual air mostly occurs in
(1) Alveoli (2) Bronchus (3) Nostrils (4) Trachea
10. Volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breath is known as
(1) Inspiratory capacity (2) Total lung capacity
(3) Tidal volume (4) Residual volume
11. Arrange the following in an ascending order of volume :
a. expiratory capacity b. inspiratory capacity c. tidal volume d. residual volume
(1) c < d < a < b (2) d < a < c < b (3) d < b < a < c (4) c < d < b < a

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12. About 1200 ml of air left in lungs is called
(1) Tidal volume (2) Inspiratory reserve volume
(3) Residual volume (4) Vital capacity
13. Pulmonary volumes are measured by -
(1) Spirometer (2) Hygrometer (3) Galvanometer (4) Sphygmomanometer

06. EXCHANGE OF GASES

 Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases also occur between blood
and tissues. Exchange of gases in the lungs is done between alveolar air and deoxygenated
blood.
 Gaseous exchange is a passive activity. It is done by simple diffusion.
 Diffusion pressure for every gas (in blood or in air) is called partial pressure. At the time of
diffusion, gases move from high partial pressure to low partial pressure.
Table of partial pressure (in mm Hg) of oxygen and carbon dioxide :-
Respiratory Atmospheric Alveoli Deoxygenated Blood Oxygenated Blood Tissues
Gas Air
O2 159 104 40 95 40
CO2 0.3 40 45 40 45
The partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air [PO2] is 104 mm Hg, its value in arterial blood is 40 mm
Hg, so oxygen goes from alveolar air to arterial air
 In alveolar air, partial pressure of CO2 [PO2] is 40 mm Hg and its value in deoxygenated blood is
45 mm Hg. So CO2 moves from arterial blood to alveoli. In this way, according to partial
pressure exchange of gases takes place in the lungs.

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Inspired air Expired air

Alveolar air
PO2 =104 mmHg
PCO2= 40 mmHg Alveolus

CO2 O2

CO2 O2
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Systemic veins Systemic arteries

(carrying oxygenated blood)

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(carrying deoxygenated blood)

CO2 O2

PO2 = 40 mm Hg PO2 = 95 mm Hg
PCO2= 45 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
Body tissues
Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases at the alveolus and the body tissues with
blood and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
NCERT XI Page No. 273, Figure No. 17.3

 Diffusing capacity depends on solubility of gases, thickness of the respiratory membrane and
partial pressure difference.

 As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse
through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher
compared to that of O2.

 Diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers :-

(i) Thin squamous epithelium of Alveoli. (ii) Endothelium of Blood capillaries.

(iii) Basement substances in between them.

Gaseous exchange takes place at alveoli on respiratory surface because

(i) of rich supply of capillaries at alveoli

(ii) of large surface area of alveoli

(iii) of very thin respiratory membrane [Approximately less than 1 mm]

Therefore, all the factors in our body are favourable for diffusion of O2 from alveoli to tissues
and that of CO2 from tissues to alveoli.

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Basement membrane
Basement membrane of of capillary
alveolar epithelium
Interstitial
space
Epithelium
of alveoli Endothelium of capillary

RBC

O2
CO2

Alveolar wall
(one-celled thick)
Air
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Basement
substance
Alveolar cavity

Blood
capillary Red blood cell

A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with

a pulmonary capillary.
NCERT XI Page No. 273, Figure No. 17.3

BEGINNER’S BOX EXCHANGE OF GASES

1. Very high number of alveoli present in a lung is meant for

(1) More space for increasing volume of inspired air
(2) More area for diffusion
(3) Making the organ spongy
(4) Increasing nerve supply

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2. What is the value of Po2 and Pco2 in pulmonary vein?
(1) PCO2 = 95 mmHg; PO2 = 45 mmHg (2) PO2 = 95 mmHg; PCO2 = 40 mmHg
(3) PCO2 = 40 mmHg; PO2 = 45 mmHg (4) PCO2 = 45 mmHg; PO2 = 45 mmHg
3. Exchange of gases is not affected by -
(1) Solubility of gases
(2) Partial pressure gradient of gases
(3) Thickness of respiratory surface
(4) Amount of gases in alveoli
4. Which vein contains the oxygenated blood in humans -

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(1) Hepatic vein (2) Hepato pancreatic vein
(3) Portal vein (4) Pulmonary vein
5.
Partial pressure of Gases Blood (Deoxygenated) Blood (Oxygenated) Tissues
O2 40 B 40
CO2 A 40 C

Choose the correct option for A, B and C to complete the given data. -
(1) A-40,B-95,C-40 (2) A-45,B-95,C-45 (3) A-35,B-95,C-45 (4) A-35,B-95,C-95
6. Identify A, B and C in the given diagram and choose the correct option accordingly -

Air

Alveolar wall
(one-celled thick)
A C

Blood
capillary B

(1) A-Alveolar cavity, B-WBC, C-Capillary wall

(2) A-Alveolar cavity, B-RBC, C-Systemic wall
(3) A-Alveolar cavity, B-RBC, C-Capillary wall
(4) A-Alveolar cavity, B-WBC, C-Systemic wail
7. The total thickness of the diffusion membrane of alveolus capillary is -
(1) less than 1 cm (2) less than 2 cm

(3) less than 1 mm (4) more than 1 mm

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07. TRANSPORT OF GASES
 Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs

in the blood. The remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma.

Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried as

bicarbonate. About 7 per cent of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.

(1) TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN

inAlveoli
 Hb4O8
Hb4  4O2 
inTissues

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 O2 can bind with Hb in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.

 Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBC.

 Haemoglobin is made up of 4 units. Each unit has 1 Fe in +2 state. Each haemoglobin

molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2.

 1 gm of haemoglobin transports 1.34 ml of oxygen. 100 ml (1 dL) of blood contains

normally 15 gm of haemoglobin, so 100 ml blood transports approximately 20 ml of

oxygen.

 In a conducting cycle blood gives its 25% O2 to tissues. So every 100 ml of oxygenated

blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to tissue under normal physiological condition.

 Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2. But

PCO2, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other factors which can

interfere with this binding.

 Oxygen does not oxidise haemoglobin. Formation of oxyhaemoglobin is a process of

oxygenation. The valancy of iron is 2 in oxyhaemoglobin.

 At the time, oxyhaemoglobin reaches up to the tissues it dissociates. O2 freed from it goes

into the tissue fluid from blood. In place of it, CO2 from tissue fluid comes into blood.

Gaseous exchange between blood and tissue is called internal respiration or tissue

respiration. It is also done by simple diffusion.

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OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE
 A graph is plotted between O2 concentration
and percentage saturation of haemoglobin 100

Haemoglobin with oxygen

Percentage saturation of
with this curve is called oxygen dissociation
80
curve.
60
 Dissociation curve is sigmoid shape.
40
 This curve is highly useful in studying
the effect of factors like, H+ 20
concentration, temperature on
0 20 40 60 80 100
binding of O2 with Haemoglobin. Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg)
 Shift to left means that increase in Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

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NCERT XI Page No. 274, Figure No. 17.5
affinity between O2 and Hb.
 Shift to Right means that decrease in
affinity between O2 and Hb and
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin.
100 100
Myoglobin
pCO2
90
pH
80  2,3-BPG
80
Oxyhemoglobin (% Saturation)

 Temp
+
pCO2
70 H
pH
Haemoglobin
O2 Saturation (%)

2,3-BPG
60 Temp 60
Foetal Hb H+
50

40 40

30

20 20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
P O2 (mmHg) PO2 (mmHg)

 In tissue following conditions are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from

oxyhaemoglobin :-

(a) Low PO2

(b) High PCO2

(c) High H+ concentration

(d) Low pH

(e) Higher temperature.

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+
 In the alveoli high PO2, low PCO2, Lesser H concentration and lower temperature factors
are favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin.


 P50 value – at which the Hb is 50% saturated with O2. Higher the P50 , lower is the affinity of Hb

for O2. A rise in PCO , H conc. increases the value of P50.

2

 2, 3 bisphosphoglycreate (2, 3 BPG) – a substance formed during glycolysis.

 2, 3 BPG will cause dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin .

 Bohr's effect : Dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin due to high CO2 concentration in tissue is called

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Bohr's effect.

 During heavy exercise 100 ml blood delivered 15 ml O2 to muscle.

 Hb cannot take up O2 beyond a saturation level of 97%.

The sigmoid shape of dissociation curve is because of the binding of O2 to haemoglobin. As the
first O2 molecule binds to haemoglobin, it increases the affinity for the second molecule of
oxygen to bind attract more oxygen.

 Lungs do not collapse between the breathing and some air always remains in the lungs which
can never be expelled because there is a negative intra plural pressure pulling at the lung
walls.

BEGINNER’S BOX TRANSPORT OF O2 AND

HbO2 DISSOCIATION CURVES
1. "Methemoglobin" refers to
(1) A colourless respiratory pigment
(2) Oxidized haemoglobin
(3) Oxygenated haemoglobin
(4) Deoxygenated haemoglobin
2. How much oxygen, blood supplies to tissues in one circulation
(1) 75% (2) 1.34% (3) 25% (4) 7%
3. How oxygen enters in blood from alveoli of lungs
(1) Pressure of CO2 (2) Simple diffusion
(3) By Hb (4) None of these

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4. Oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin is
(1) Sigmoid (2) Hyperbolic (3) Linear (4) Hypobolic
5. A molecule of haemoglobin can carry oxygen molecule :
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8
6. Oxygen in lungs ultimately reaches
(1) Alveoli (2) Trachea (3) Bronchus (4) Bronchioles
7. In vertebrate blood the carrier of oxygen to the tissues or respiratory pigment is
(1) Plasma (2) Lymphocytes (3) Leucocytes (4) Haemoglobin
8. Haemoglobin is
(1) Vitamin (2) Skin pigment (3) Blood carrier (4) Respiratory pigment

®
9. Amount of oxygen present in one gram of haemoglobin is
(1) 20 ml (2) 1.34 ml (3) 13.4 ml (4) None of these
10. Which one is correct factor for right shifting of oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve ?
(1) Low Pco2 (2) High temp. (3) High pH (4) High Po2
11. Oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve will shift to right on decrease of
(1) Acidity (2) Carbon dioxide concentration
(3) Temperature (4) pH
12. Body tissues obtain O2 from oxyhaemoglobin because of its dissociation in tissues caused by
(1) Low oxygen concentration and high CO2 concentration
(2) High O2 concentration
(3) Low CO2 concentration
(4) High CO2 concentration
13. Under normal conditions, what amount of O2 is delivered by 100 mL of the oxygenated blood :-
(1) 5 mL (2) 4 mL (3) 3 mL (4) 2 mL

(2) TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE

 The blood transports carbon dioxide comparatively easily because of its higher solubility.

 There are three ways of transport of carbon dioxide.

(a) In dissolved state : Approximately 7% of carbon dioxide is transported, being dissolved in

the plasma of blood.

(b) As Carbamino haemoglobin : About 20-25% CO2 react with the amine group of
Haemoglobin and form carbamino-haemoglobin and transported by RBC.

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(c) In the form of bicarbonate : 70% of CO2 is transported by plasma as bicarbonate.
 Carbon dioxide produced by the tissues, diffuses into the RBCs, where it reacts with water
to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme, Carbonic
anhydrase. RBCs contain a very high concentration of this enzyme & minute quantity is
present in plasma too.
Carbonic Carbonic

  
anhydrase
CO2 + H2 O  
anhydrase
H2 CO3  HCO3– + H+

 The majority of bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) formed within the erythrocytes diffuse out into
the plasma along a concentration gradient. In the plasma HCO3– combine with Na+ and
form Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). Nearly 70% CO2 transported by plasma as NaHCO3
form.

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 In response of HCO3–, chloride ions (Cl–) diffuse from plasma into the erythrocytes to
maintain the ionic balance. Thus, electrochemical neutrality is maintained. This is called
Chloride shift or Hamburger Phenomenon.

Reverse
chloride
Exhaled shift CO2 + Hb Hb–CO2
–
Cl
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2 + H2O H2CO3  HCO3– + H+
HCO3–
O2 O2 O2 O2 + Hb–H Hb–O2+ H+
Interstitial Plasma
Inhaled fluid
Pulmonary Red blood cell
Alveolus
capillary wall

Exchange of O2 and CO2 in pulmonary capillaries (external respiration)

Chloride
shift
Cl– CO2 + Hb Hb–CO2 + O2

CO2 Carbonic anhydrase – +

CO2 CO2 CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H
HCO3–
O2 O2 O2 O2 + Hb–H Hb–O2
Interstitial Plasma
fluid
Tissue cell
Systemic Red blood cell
capillary wall

Exchange of O2 and CO2 in systemic capillaries (internal respiration)



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 When the deoxygenated blood reaches the alveoli of the lung, then carbaminohaemoglobin,

and sodium bicarbonate dissociated because PCO2 is low and PO2 is high in the alveoli.

 This dissociation is stimulated by oxyhaemoglobin. This CO2 freed from blood goes into

atmosphere. The effect of oxyhaemoglobin on the dissociation of these compounds is

known as Haldane effect. In this reaction oxyhaemoglobin acts like a strong acid i.e, it

frees H+ in the medium.

 Every 100 ml deoxygenated blood delivers around 4 ml CO2 to alveoli.

BEGINNER’S BOX CO2 TRANSPORT

®
1. What percentage of CO2 flows with blood in the form of bicarbonates
(1) 7% (2) 23% (3) 50% (4) 70%

2. Most of the carbon - di - oxide is carried in the blood as

(1) Bicarbonates (2) Carbon monoxide
(3) Carbonic acid (4) Carbonates

3. Carbon dioxide is transported from tissue to respiratory surface by only

(1) Plasma and erythrocytes (2) Plasma
(3) Erythrocytes (4) Erythrocytes and leucocytes

4. Carbon dioxide entering erythrocytes reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The enzyme is
(1) Carbonic anhydrase (2) Carboxypeptidase
(3) Hydrolase (4) Oxidoreductase

5. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in Alveoli, atmospheric air and tissues will be :-
(1) (0.3, 40, 45) mmHg (2) (40, 0.3, 45) mmHg
(3) (0.3, 104, 28) mmHg (4) (104, 159, 40) mmHg

6. CO2 is transported mainly as :-

(1) Carbaminohaemoglobin (2) Oxyhaemoglobin

(3) Bicarbonate (4) carboxyhaemoglobin

7. Every 100 ml deoxygenated blood delivers around ______ CO2 to alveoli :-

(1) 20 ml (2) 4 ml (3) 5 ml (4) 25 ml

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08. REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
 Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm to suit
the demand of the body tissues. This is done by neural system.
 The respiratory rhythm centre in the Medulla is primarily responsible for this regulation.
Following respiratory groups regulate respiration :-
(a) The dorsal respiratory group (DRG) is present in the dorsal portion of medulla oblongata.
The signals from these neurons generate the basic respiratory rhythm. The nervous signal
released from this group is transmitted to the diaphragm & EICM.
(b) The ventral respiratory group (VRG) of neurons are located anterolateral to the dorsal

respiratory group. During normal respiration, this remains inactive.

®
In the enhanced respiratory drive, the respiratory signal of this group contributes to fulfil

the demand by regulating both inspiration and expiration. Few of the neurons of this

group control inspiration, while few other control expiration, thus regulating both.

(c) The pneumotaxic centre is located on pons. It is called switch off point of inspiration.

Neural signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter

the respiratory rate. When this center send strong signal then lungs are filled partially.

 Hering Breuer reflex arch :

In the walls of terminal bronchioles and atria stretch receptors are present, Which are normally

inactive but they become active when alveoli are filled with maximum air. The Hering Breuer

reflex arch now becomes activated and sends inhibitory signals to the inspiratory centre to

switch off inspiration. This prevents the alveoli from over stretching and bursting. Thus Hering

Breuer reflex arch is a protective reflex which works only when normal mechanism of switch

off of inspiration does not work timely due to any reason.

 A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to

CO2 and hydrogen ions. Increase in these substances can activate this centre which in turn can

signal the rhythm centre and increase breathing rate. The role of oxygen in the regulation of

respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.

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 Aortic body and carotid body are chemoreceptors associated with aortic arch and carotid

artery. They also can recognise changes in CO2 and H+ concentration.

 The activity of respiratory centre is also affected by body temperature and blood pressure.

Whenever body temperature is increased or blood pressure goes high, respiratory centre

becomes more activated and this increases the respiration rate.

(Human have significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm with the help of neural system)

®
Cerebellum Pneumotaxic Centre

Pons Chemosensitive Area (central chemoreceptor)

DRG (Dorsal Respiratory Group

of Neurouns) Respiratory
Medulla
rhythm
centre (RRC)
VRG (Ventral Respiratory Group
of Neurouns)

Diaphragm EICM Abdominal muscle IICM

(1) DRG Normal Inspiration (4) Chemoreceptors

VRG Forceful Inspiration
Forceful Expiration Central Peripheral

(2) 4 cases :- Central

(i) Normal Inspiration = DRG chemoreceptors Aortic Carotid
(ii) Normal Expiration = Passive process (Medulla) body labyrinth
(iii) Forceful Inspiration = VRG
(iv) Forceful Expiration = VRG

Highly sensitive to CO2 and [H+]

(3) Pneumotaxic centre RRC
(Switch off point)
Increase in these substance
duration can activate this centre
of inspiration
Make necessary adjustments in respiratory centre
Rate of respiration by which these substances can be eliminated

Note :- Role of oxygen in the regulation of

respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant

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09. RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
 Asthma is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and
bronchioles.
 Bronchitis is a disorder of bronchi in which there is regular swelling and itching of bronchi and is
characterised by regular coughing.
 Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory
surface is decreased. One of the major causes of this is cigarette smoking.
 Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain industries, especially those involving grinding or
stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defence mechanism of the body cannot fully
cope with the situation. Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis

®
(proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in such
industries should wear protective masks. e.g. Silicosis, Asbestosis.
 Rhinitis : Inflammation of nasal tract.

 Hypoxia - Low O2 supply to tissues.

 Asphyxia - It is the state of suffocation due to high CO2 concentration or low O2 concentration.
 One molecule of haemoglobin combine with four molecules of carbon monoxide gas to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. Affinity of CO to Hb is 200-300 x more than the O2. Its colour is cherry
red. Due to this oxygen affinity is reduced. It is referred as carbon monoxide poisoning.
 One molecule of myoglobin has 1Fe++ ions metal.
 Foetal haemoglobin differs from adult haemoglobin in structure. Foetal haemoglobin has
higher affinity for O2 than adult haemoglobin. When PO2 is low. Foetal Hb can carry up to 30%
more O2 than maternal Hb. So dissociation curve for foetal Hb will appear on the left side.
 Bowman's glands are present in human nasal cavity.
 Eupnoea :- It is the state of normal breathing. In man rate of normal breathing is 12-16 per
minute. In infants rate of breathing is 44 per minute. Rate of breathing is slowest while
sleeping.
 Bradypnoea or Hyponoea :- It is the state of slow breathing.
 Rapid breath or hypernoea :- It is the state of fast breathing.
 Apnoea - It is the state of stoppage of breathing temporarily.
 Dyspnoea - It is the state of painful breathing due to pleurisy.
 Asphyxia - It is the state of suffocation due to high CO2 concentration or low O2 concentration.
 Some gases (e.g. Ozone) oxidise haemoglobin. This oxidised haemoglobin is called
Methamoglobin. This type of gases are environmental pollutant.
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BEGINNER’S BOX REGULATION OF RESPIRATION AND

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. The impulse for voluntary muscles for forced breathing starts in

(1) Medulla oblongata (2) Vagus nerve (3) Cerebellum (4) Cerebrum
2. Respiratory centre of brain is stimulated by
(1) Carbon dioxide content in venous blood (2) Carbon dioxide content in arterial blood
(3) Oxygen content in venous blood (4) Oxygen content in arterial blood
3. Respiratory rhythm centre is present in :-
(1) cerebellum (2) Cerebrum (3) Medulla oblongata (4) Pons

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4. Pneumotaxic centre is present in
(1) Pons (2) Medulla (3) Cerebrum (4) Cerebellum
5. Asthma is a respiratory disease caused due to
(1) Infection of trachea (2) Infection of lungs
(3) Bleeding into pleural cavity (4) Spasm in bronchial muscles
6. When CO2 concentration in blood increases, breathing becomes –
(1) There is no effect on breathing (2) Slow and deep
(3) Faster (4) Shallower and slow
7. Haemoglobin shows maximum affinity with:-
(1) Carbon monoxide (2) Carbon dioxide
(3) Oxygen (4) Ammonia
8. Rate of respiration is directly affected by
(1) CO2 concentration (2) O2 in trachea
(3) Concentration of O2 (4) Diaphragm expansion
9. "Chemoreceptors" which recognise the change in concentration of CO2 and H+ are found in -
(1) Aortic arch (2) Carotid artery (3) Medulla (4) All of these
10. "Emphysema" is a condition in which -
(1) Respiratory centre inhibited (2) Lot of fluid in the lungs
(3) The walls separating the alveoli break (4) Lungs have more O2
11. An abnormal distension of bronchioles or alveolar sacs is encountered in :
(1) Bronchitis (2) Bronchial asthma
(3) Emphysema (4) Pneumonia

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12. Match the disorders given in column I with symptoms under column II. Choose the answer
which gives the correct combination of alphabets with numbers :
Column I Column II
(a) Asthma (i) Inflammation of nasal tract
(b) Bronchitis (ii) Spasm of bronchial muscle
(c) Rhinitis (iii) Damaged wall of alveoli
(d) Emphysema (iv) Inflammation of bronchi
(v) Cough with blood strained sputum
(1) a – iv, b – ii, c – v, d – i (2) a – v, b – i, c – ii, d – iii
(3) a – iii, b – iv, c – i, d – iii (4) a – ii, b – iv, c – i, d – iii

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INTRODUCTION AND RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 4
ANATOMY OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 1 1 4 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 2 2 4 2
Que. 16 17
Ans. 1 3
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 1
RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 3 1 4 1 2 3 1 4 1 3 1 3 1
EXCHANGE OF GASES
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 2 2 4 4 2 3 3
TRANSPORT OF O2 AND HbO2 DISSOCIATION CURVES
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 2 3 2 1 2 1 4 4 2 2 4 1 1
CO2 TRANSPORT
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 4 1 1 1 2 3 2
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION AND DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. 4 2 3 1 4 3 1 1 4 3 3 4

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Biology : Breathing and Exchange of Gases
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(1) Respiratory Sponge, coelenterates, flat worms  Simple diffusion by body surface.
organs Earthworm  Moist cuticle.
Insects  Trachea
Aquatic arthropods & molluscs  Gills
Terrestrial forms - Lungs
Fishes - Gills

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Reptiles, Bird, mammals-Lungs

(2) Path of air

External nostrils Vestibule/Passage Nasal Chamber Internal nares Pharynx
Tertiary Bronchus Secondary Bronchus Primary Bronchus Trachea Larynx

Terminal Bronchiole Respiratory Bronchiole Alveoli

Exchange
p Zone

(3) Mechanism of breathing

Air entering lungs Air expelled from lungs

Ribs and
sternum Volume of Ribs and
raised thorax sternum Volume of
increased returned thorax
Rib to original decreased
cage position
Diaphragm
contracted

(4)
TV
IC EC
VC IRV
TLC
ERV
FRC
RV

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P.A.S.
(5) Rate of gaseous exchange 
d
 P  partial pressure gradient

p
PO2 PCO2

p p
Air-159 Alveoli-104 Oxy. Deoxy. Air-0.3 Alveoli-40 Oxy. Deoxy.
blood-95 blood-40 blood-40 blood-45

 A = Area of respiratory membrane  70 m2.

 S = Solubility of gases.
solubility of CO2 in water is 20 – 25 × more than O2.

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 d = Thickness of membrane, resp. membrane has three layers, thickness < 1 mm.

p
Squamous Basement substance Capillary endothelium
epithelium of
alveoli

(6)   Transport of gases

Carry-20 p
ml/100
O2 CO2 –Deliver 4 ml/100ml
Deliver-5ml/100ml

p p
3% 97% 20-25% 70%
7%
Dissolved in plasma Oxy Haemoglobin Hb-CO2 HCO3¯
Dissolved
in plasma

(7) Regulation :
Respiratory rhythm centre in medulla.
Pneumotaxic centre in pons.
Chemo sensitive area is highly sensitive to CO2 & H+ ions.
(8) Disorders :
Air passage to alveoli decreased
in Asthma

Wall of alveoli
damaged in Fibrosis of lungs in
emphysema occupational respiratory
disorders

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