CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water is vital to many life processes and they could also serve as route via which disease-causing
pathogens can be transmitted. It can also contain heavy metals and other chemical substances
that may adversely affect human health. Ensuring good quality of drinking water is a basic factor
for guaranteeing public health. Potable water is that which is odourless, colourless, practically
tasteless and free from physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Water is exploited by
man for several commercial, agricultural, domestic and industrial usages; and the usage of water
for any activity usually depends on the cleanness of the water. The quality of water is determined
by its physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics. Groundwater sources are
commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality. Generally, groundwater
quality varies from place to place, and this sometimes depends on seasonal changes. The quality
of water also depends on the types of soils, rocks and surfaces through which it moves beneath
the earth. Access to potable drinking water is a major public health issue in many parts of the
world especially in most developing economies (Nigeria inclusive) where water hygiene and
sanitation may still be poor. The people living in these countries usually get their primary source
of water from surface waters such as streams, ponds, rivers and the open skies when it rains.
Population growth coupled with increased industrialization, livestock farming and urbanization
have led to frequent contamination of rivers. And due to the inability of some governments to
meet the ever increasing water demand of their populace, most people often resort to
groundwater sources such as boreholes as alternative water source. Borehole water therefore, is a
primary source of water in most developing nations; and the chemical, physical and biological
constituents of these sources of water is a critical public health issue that needs to be ascertained
on periodic basis. Borehole water and packaged sachet water serves as the easily accessed and
cheap commercial sources of drinking water for a greater number of the Nigerian populace; and
they also infer that the conformation of these sources of water to laid down microbiological
standards is of public health interest because of their capacity to spread diseases within a large
population. The provision of potable water to both the rural and urban population is necessary to

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prevent public health hazards such as the emergence and spread of waterborne pathogens.
Recently in Abakaliki metropolis, the outbreak of cholera infection (caused by Vibrio cholerae)
caused several morbidity and mortality; and it was discovered that these clinical episodes of the
disease were traced to contaminated water. The increase in the prevalence of waterborne diseases
across the world is alarming, and Nigeria is not left out since some outbreaks of waterborne
diseases have also been reported in this part of the world. Since borehole water is an important
alternative source of potable water to most people in both the rural and urban areas across the
world, it is vital to evaluate their physicochemical and microbiological quality since these
sources of water are usually at risk of pollution from human and other environmental activities.
Thus, this study determined the physical, chemical and microbiological quality of some selected
borehole water sources in Abakaliki metropolis, owing to the fact that this source of water is
commonly patronized in this region.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

1.2.1. General Objectives

The general objective of the study is:

To assess the Physicochemical and bacteriological assessment of selected public borehole water
using Eleko, Oyun and Oke-Ose.

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

❖ To analyze the Physical quality of drinking water sources of Eleko, Oyun and Oke-Ose.

❖ To analyze chemical quality of drinking water sources of Eleko, Oyun and Oke-Ose.

❖ To evaluate bacteriological load of water sources of Eleko, Oyun and Oke-Ose.

❖ To generate baseline information for further study and intervention

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2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

An overview of Water Quality and Sanitation

Water quality and sanitations are about much more than health (Cairncross et al., 2018).
Provision of safe and sufficient drinking water with adequate sanitation service in urban and
rural areas is an important investment, which safeguards health and safety of the people living in
urban and rural areas especially in developing countries.

Access to safe drinking water is important as a health and development issue at national, regional
and local levels. In developing world, one third of the population does not have access to safe
drinking water and sanitation. In these nations, more than 80% of diseases and one third of
deaths are caused by the consumption of contaminated water. More than 35 million Ethiopians
are deprived the dignity of adequate sanitation facilities to safely contain and dispose of human
feces (UNICEF, 2008) and half of 80 million population of Ethiopia is suffering from
unnecessary water related diseases. WHO estimated that if these improvements were to be made
in sub Saharan Africa alone, 434,000 child deaths to diarrhea would be averted annually (WHO,
2014). However, developing countries, like Ethiopia, have suffered from a lack of access to safe
drinking water from improved sources and to adequate sanitation services (WHO, 2016). As a
result, people are still dependent on unprotected water sources such as rivers, streams, springs
and hand dug wells. Since these sources are open, they are highly susceptible to flood and birds,
animals and human contamination. In addition, most sources were found near gullies where open
field defecation is common and flood-washed wastes affect the quality of water (WHO, 2006).

In Ethiopia, access to improved water supply and sanitation was estimated at 38% for improved
water supply (98% for urban areas and 26% for rural areas) and 12% for improved sanitation
(29% in urban areas, 8% in rural areas) (WHO and UNICEF, 2016). Over 60% of the
communicable diseases are due to poor environmental health conditions arising from unsafe and
inadequate water supply and poor hygienic and sanitation practices. Three fourth of the health
problems of children in the country are communicable diseases due to polluted water and
improper sanitation (FDRE, MOH, 2017). In rural areas and villages of Ethiopia, water for
human consumption, drinking, washing (bathing, laundry), for preparation of food, etc., is
obtained from rivers, streams, shallow wells, springs, lakes, ponds, and rainfall. Unless water is
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made safe or treated for human consumption, it may be hazardous to health and transmit
diseases.

The main contaminants of these water sources are from human excreta because of open field
defecation practices, animal waste and effluent from sewage system. Thus, the majority of rural
communities use water from contaminated or doubtful sources, which expose the people to
various water-borne diseases (FMWR, 2014). Three-fourth of the health problems of children is
communicable diseases arising from the environment, especially water and sanitation. Forty six
percent of the mortality rate in children less than five years is due to diarrhea in which water
related diseases occupy a high proportion. The Ministry of Health of Ethiopia estimated that 600
children die each day from diarrhea and dehydration (FMoH, 2017).

Drinking Water Quality

Safe drinking water is the birthrights of all human kind as much a birthright as clean air (Rao,
2012). While access to clean water can be considered as one of the basic needs and rights of a
human being. Health of people and dignified life is based on access to clean water (Korkeakoski,
2016). The greatest risk to public health from microbes in water is associated with consumption
of drinking water that has contaminated with human and animal excreta. Human feces can
contain a variety of intestinal pathogens, which cause diseases ranging from mild gastro-enteritis
to the serious dysentery, cholera and typhoid. The most predominant waterborne disease,
diarrhea, has an estimated annual incidence of 4.6 billion episodes and causes 2.2 million deaths
every year. Children are the main victims of diarrhea and other fecal-oral disease, and the most
likely source of infection (Korkeakoski, 2016).

According to a study conducted by WHO (2018), the basis of good water quality is important to
human health. In fact, it is agreed that the principal risk to human health associated with the
consumption of polluted water are microbiological. The provision of an adequate supply of safe
water was one of the components of primary health care identified by the International
Conference on Primary Health Care (WHO, 2016). Water quality standards have been developed
to minimize the known chemical and microbial risks of human health. Safe drinking water does
not imply risk free; it simply denotes risks are very insignificant which could not result in serious
health problems (Clasen et al., 2013). The importance of doing away with microbiological

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contamination is the major benefits of ensuring good water quality for drinking and reducing of
water borne diseases transmitted by the fecal oral route. Generally, improvements in
microbiological water quality as well as the prevention of use of unhygienic water sources are
best interventions to prevent water-borne diseases (Brown, 2013).

Drinking water quality is becoming an issue of global human health concern, principally due to
water contamination with pathogens and potentially toxic chemicals (Jeanine et al, 2017). It has
a strong impact on people’s health because water is a means of transmission for many pathogenic
microorganisms that cause diarrheal diseases. In order to reduce disease outbreaks emanated
from polluted water, it is important to emphasize on water quality management. In accordance
with the research conducted on the microbiological water quality of ground water, protected
springs and protected wells and protected water connection system, it should be possible to
achieve very low levels of contamination (Abebe and Dejene, 2015). However, different water
sources are highly subjected to bacterial contamination, due to various reasons.
To assess this problem, WHO prepared a standard for microbiological water quality evaluation
checklist which have five categories (zero=safe, 1 to10=reasonable quality, 11 to100=polluted
water, 101 to 1000=dangerous and >1000 very dangerous) (WHO, 2004).

The result of sanitary and overall risk to health classification of water quality study in Bona
district, Sidama zone Southwest Ethiopia demonstrated that, 50% of the protected well and
spring were with total coliforms, and 50% of the protected springs and 28.6 of the protected
wells were contaminated with fecal coliforms because of poor site selection, protection and
unhygienic management of facilities (Abebe and Dejene, 2015). A study conducted in Rural
Communities of Dire Dawa Administrative Council, Eastern Ethiopia showed that poor
community sanitary practices around the source and in the catchments area together with failure
in the protection of water sources contributed to the contamination of drinking water (Desalegn
et al., 2013). Likewise, study conducted in South Wollo, Ethiopia, clearly revealed that improper
sanitary survey and failure in the protection of water sources together with poor community
sanitary practices around the source and in the catchments area contributed to the contamination
of drinking water with fecal matter (Seid et al., 2003).

2.1.2. Water and Sanitation

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Access to safe drinking water and sanitary means of excreta disposal are universal needs and
indeed basic human rights; however, many of the world's population lack access to adequate and
safe water. Use of improved sanitation facilities is low especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia. Eight hundred eighty four million people in the world still do not get their drinking
water from improved sources; Sub Saharan Africa accounts for over a third of that number. Fresh
water has become a scarce commodity due to over exploitation and pollution. Increasing
population and its necessities have led to the deterioration of surface and sub-surface water
(WHO and UNICEF, 2014). According to UNICEF and WHO, safe types of drinking water
include a piped source within the dwelling, yard, or plot; a public tap/standpipe; a borehole; a
protected well; a protected spring; and rainwater. The same source also indicates that, at the
household level, adequate sanitation facilities include an improved toilet and disposal system that
separates waste from human contact (WHO and UNICEF, 2014).

Despite increases in sanitation coverage, progress has been slow. Globally, 2.5 billion people do
not have access to improved sanitation facilities. There are still 46 countries where less than half
the population has access to an improved sanitation facility (WHO and UNICEF, 2014). Among
the world regions, Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa continue to have the lowest levels of
coverage. Although accelerated efforts in sub-Saharan Africa have delivered results in some
countries, such as Ethiopia and Angola, progress is the second lowest of any region after Oceania
(WHO and UNICEF, 2014). Open defecation has declined considerably in all developing
regions, from 31% in 1990 to 17% in 2012. The number of people practicing open defecation is
declining steadily in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, but is still increasing in 26 of 44
countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Eighty-two per cent of the one billion people practicing open
defecation in the world live in just 10 countries. Globally, India continues to be the country with
the highest number of people (597 million people) practicing open defecation (WHO &
UNICEF, 2014).

The ES 261:2001 standard specified maximum permissible levels, as well as methods for testing,
for 18 physicochemical parameters that affect the palatability of drinking-water; 24 toxic
chemicals (including 11 pesticides); total viable organisms; Fecal streptococci; coliform
organisms; and E.coli type1 strain (thermo tolerant). The maximum permissible levels for the
parameters used in the RADWQ project are consistent with the WHO guideline value. The ES

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261:2001 standard also specifies sampling frequencies separately for bacteriological and
physicochemical parameters (Table 2. 1).

Table 2.1: WHO Guideline Values and National Standards for drinking water quality

Parameter Unit WHO Guideline Values National Standards

pH 6.5-8 6.5-8.5

Turbidity NTU <1 for chlorinated & <5

<5 for drinking

Temperature °C Cool temperature (<15°C) NS

Free Chlorine Residuals mg/l 0.2-0.5 <0.5

Nitrate mg/l 45 50

Total Coliforms CFU/100ml 10 10

Fecal Coliforms CFU/100ml 0 0

Fecal Streptococci CFU/100ml 0 0

Physics description Clear Clear

TDS mg/l 500 NS

Fluoride mg/l 1.5 3.0

Odor/Taste No odor/taste NS

Total hardness mg/l 300 392

DO µS/cm >2 NS

BOD mg/l 2.0 NS

Source: WHO, 2010 and Ethiopian Standard, ES, 261: 2001; NS= Not Specified
Microbiological monitoring
The results of a laboratory examination of any single water sample are representative only of the
water at the time at that particular point at which the sample is taken. Satisfactory results from
single samples do not justify an assumption that the water is safe to drink at all times.
Contamination is often intermittent and may not be revealed by the examination of a single

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sample. The impression of security given by satisfactory results from microbiological testing of
waters at infrequent intervals may therefore be false. Indeed, the value of microbiological tests is
dependent upon their frequent and regular use. It is far more important to examine a supply
frequently by a simple test than to examine a supply occasionally by a more complicated test or
series of tests (WHO, 2006 & 2011).

Microbial Indicators of Water Quality

The use of indicator organisms, in particular the coliform group, as a means of assessing the
potential presence of water-borne pathogens has been paramount to protecting public health
(Brian, 2002). These are based upon the principle of the detection of selected bacteria that are
indicative of either contamination or deterioration of water quality by simple bacteriological
tests. This has been the foundation upon which protection of public health from water-borne
disease has been developed. The relatively rare occasions where bacterial or viral illnesses have
been caused through public drinking water supplies stand testament to the success of the
indicator principle and improvements in water treatment.

A bacterial indicator of fecal pollution is any bacteria whose presence can indicate contamination
of water with fecal matter. Feces of warm-blooded animals including human beings regularly
discharge a diverse micro-flora of bacterial taxa like Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium
perfringens, Lactobacillus bifidum (Bifidobacterium), Escherichia coli, Enterobactoraer ogenes,
Staphylococcus aurous, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Proteus and certain spore forming bacteria.

In addition, pathogens like Salmonella, Shigella, Brucella, Micobacterium, Vibrio and

Leptosporia together with certain viral and protozoan pathogens may also present. The
probability that a person will be infected by a pathogen cannot be inferred from the pathogen
concentration alone. This is because different humans respond differently to the pathogens. As a
result, there is no real lower limit for acceptable levels of pathogens in water. Instead, it follows
that safe drinking water intended for human consumption should contain none of these
pathogens. To determine if a given water supply is safe, the source needs to be protected and
monitored regularly (WHO, 2020).

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There are two broad approaches to water quality monitoring for pathogen detection. The first
approach is direct detection of the pathogen itself, for example, the protozoan Cryptosporidium
parvum. While it will be more accurate and precise if specific disease causing pathogens were
detected directly for the determination of water quality, there are several problems with this
approach. First, it would be practically impossible to test for each of the wide variety of
pathogens that may be present in polluted water. Second, even though most of these pathogens
can now be directly detected, the methods are often difficult, relatively expensive and time-
consuming. Instead, water monitoring for microbiological quality is primarily based on the
second approach, which is to test for indicator organism (APHA, 2019).

Indicator Organisms

Indicator organisms are used to assess the microbiological quality of water (Brian, 2012; Hurst et
al., 2020). For many pathogens, such as viruses and protozoan parasites, reliable indicators are
not available. Even if there were, there is no absolute correlation between the number of
indicator organisms and (a) the actual presence or numbers of enteric pathogens or (b) the risk of
illness occurring. The use of indicator bacteria in particular; Escherichia coli (E.coli) and the
coliform bacteria as a means of assessing the potential presence of water-borne pathogens has
been paramount to protecting public health.

The analysis of large volumes of sample for fecal indicator bacteria using membrane filtration
procedures can be very useful in assessing water treatment efficiency at various points in the
treatment process (APHA, 2018 & Hijnen et al., 2020). Many pathogens are present only under
specific conditions and, when present, occur in low numbers compared with other microorganis
ms. Whilst the presence of coliform bacteria does not always indicate a public health threat, their
detection is a useful indication that treatment operations should be investigated (Edberg et al.,
2020).

The use of Indicator Organisms

According to Slaats et al., (2021), the key criteria for ideal bacterial indicators of fecal pollution
are that they should be universally present in large numbers in the faces of human and other
warm-blooded animals. They should also be present in sewage effluent, be readily detectable by

9
simple methods and should not grow in natural waters. Ideally, they should also be of exclusive
fecal origin and be present in greater numbers than fecal transmitted pathogens. No single
indicator organism fulfills all these criteria, but the member of the coliform group that satisfies
most of the criteria for the ideal indicator organism in temperate climates is E.coli.

The presence of E.coli in a sample of drinking water may indicate the presence of intestinal
pathogens. However, the absence of E.coli cannot be taken as an absolute indication that intestin
al pathogens are also absent. E.coli bacteria are the only bio type of the family Enterobacteriace
ae which can be considered as being exclusively fecal in origin (Edberg et al., 2000) and it can
represent up to 95 % of the Enterobacteriaceae found in faces (Waite , 2016). For water quality
monitoring and assessment, reliance has been placed on relatively simple and more rapid tests
for the detection of fecal indicator bacteria and other coliform bacteria. These bacteria are easier
to isolate and characterize, and are, usually, present in the faces of humans and warm-blooded
animals (WHO, 2019).

The bacteriological examination of water is particularly important as it remains the most

sensitive method for detecting fecal and, therefore, potentially dangerous contamination.
Chemical analysis is, nevertheless, an important aid to the hygienic assessment of a water
supply. However, the major role of chemical analysis is to provide process control information
for water treatment and for monitoring compliance with prescribed standards. Chemical tests that
give additional information on whether fecal contamination may be present include turbidity,
color, total organic carbon, nitrate, nitrite and ammonia.

Bacteriological parameters

Varieties of microorganisms are found in water bodies, including pathogenic and non-pathogenic
species. Non-pathogenic microorganisms may cause taste and odor problems with water
supplies, which can influence whether people use the water for consumption, but the principal
concern for microbiological quality of water is its potential contamination by pathogenic species.
Such pathogenic contaminants found in drinking water include species of bacteria, viruses,
protozoa and helminthes (WHO, 2010). An overview of different pathogens expected to be
found in drinking water are shown in (WHO, 2010).

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The routine monitoring of Pathogens is generally not undertaken for several reasons, such as due
to lack of analytical tools available and where these do exist they are often expensive and
difficult to perform; individual pathogens cannot guarantee to be present in all untreated or
unprotected waters depending on the whether pathogens contaminated feces are present in the
water or not; and thus failure to observe a particle pathogen in water sample could not imply the
absences other pathogens in it (WHO, 2010). But if resources permit assessing pathogen's
presence in source and in drinking water are useful tools for determining the public health risk
from drinking water and in developing health based water quality targets. Microbiological
monitoring provides a sensitive indication of the extent to which source protection; treatment and
distribution are effective barriers to the transmission of infectious agents of water borne diseases
at the time that the samples were taken (WHO, 2014).

Most drinking-water programs monitor indicator organisms (usually bacteria) to analysis the
microbiological quality of the drinking water. The most commonly used indicator
microorganisms include E.coli (type1) and thermotolerant coliforms (as surrogates), which
derive almost exclusively from human and animal feces, in common with most waterborne
pathogens (WHO, 2020). Thermotolerant coliforms can grow at 44-45°C, and the group includes
E.coli type1 and other bacterial species that have an environmental source (e.g. Citrobacter spp.
or Klebsiella spp.). The identification of E.coli strains from contaminated water is simple, but
time consuming, as it requires a two-stage process of presumptive and confirmatory testing.
Many programs that monitor drinking-water quality therefore use thermo tolerant coliforms as
proxy indicators, because the results are obtained quickly and cheaply, even though they are only
presumptive (WHO, 2014 & 2017).

Fecal streptococci are also used as indicators of the microbiological quality of drinking water.
These bacteria have a stronger relationship to diarrheal disease than E.coli and show a closer
relationship to bacterial indicators of known human fecal origin. Since Fecal streptococci are
more resistant than E.coli or thermotolerant coliforms (i.e. they survive longer in a water
environment and are more resistant to drying and chlorination), they are recommended for
monitoring groundwater subject to receiving contaminated recharge water and for monitoring
water quality in chlorinated distribution systems. A variety of techniques are available for
analyzing Fecal streptococci, but the main limitation is that they are time-consuming (the results

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take 48 hours to obtain), which limits the usefulness of Fecal streptococci for routine monitoring
(WHO, 2004 & 2010).

Coliform Bacteria

By definition, coliform bacteria are facultative anaerobes, Gram-negative, non-spore forming,

rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with acid production in 24 to 48 hour at 37ºC, and in
dole-negative (WHO, 2004). Coliforms belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae and include
Escherichia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella and Citrobacter, Kluyvera, Leclercia genera, and some
members of the genus Serratia. These bacteria were classically used as indicators of fecal
contamination of waters because they were considered inhabitants of the intestinal tracts of
homoeothermic animals (WHO, 2003). However, the ability of some coliforms to grow in
natural waters, the lack of correlation between the number of coliforms and those of pathogenic
microorganisms, and the detection of atypical strains has led them to become unsuitable fecal
indicators (WHO, 2003). They usually ferment lactose at 37°C within 48 hours, possess the
enzyme β-galactosidase and are oxidase-negative (WHO, 2004 & 2010).

Total Coliform Bacteria (TC)

Total coliforms are the ones that are commonly measured as indicator bacteria for drinking water
quality (Brian, 2002; Hurst et al., 2015). They are defined as aerobic and facultative anaerobic,
Gram-negative, non-spore forming bacilli capable of growing in the presence of relatively high
concentrations of bile salts that ferment lactose at 35 to 37°C with the production of acid and gas
within 24-48 hours (Hurst et al., 2015). The group includes thermotolerant coliforms and
bacteria of fecal origin, as well as some bacteria that may be isolated from environmental
sources.

Thus the presence of total coliforms may or may not indicate fecal contamination. In extreme
cases, a high count for the total coliform group may be associated with a low, or even zero, count
for thermotolerant coliforms. Such a result would not necessarily indicate the presence of fecal
contamination (WHO, 2014). It might be caused by entry of soil or organic matter into the water
or by conditions suitable for the growth of other types of coliform. In the laboratory, total
coliforms were grown in or on a medium containing lactose, at a temperature of 35 or 37°C.

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They are provisionally identified by the production of acid and gas from the fermentation of
lactose (WHO, 2019).

Total coliforms include organisms that can survive and grow in water. Hence, they are not useful
as an indicator of fecal pathogens, but they can be used to assess the cleanliness and integrity of
distribution systems and the potential presence of bio films. However, there are better indicators
for these purposes. It has been proposed that total coliforms could be used as a disinfection
indicator. However, the test for total coliforms is far slower and less reliable than direct
measurement of disinfectant residual. In addition, total coliforms are far more sensitive to
disinfection than are enteric viruses and protozoa. Total coliforms are generally measured in
100ml samples of water (Toranzos et al., 2012 and WHO, 2017).

A variety of relatively simple procedures are available based on the production of acid from
lactose or the production of the enzyme β-galactosidase. The procedures include membrane
filtration followed by incubation of the membranes on selective media at 35°C to37°C and
counting of colonies after 24 hours (WHO, 2018). Alternative methods include most probable
number procedures using tubes or micro tube plates and presence/absence tests (WHO, 2014).
Total coliforms should be absent immediately after disinfection, and the presence of these
organisms indicates inadequate treatment. The presence of total coliforms in distribution systems
and stored water supplies can reveal re-growth and possible bio-film formation or contamination
through ingress of foreign material, including soil or plants.

Thermotolerant (Fecal) Coliform (TTC/FC)

The term “fecal coliform” has been used in water microbiology to denote coliform organisms
which grow at 44 or 44.5°C and ferment lactose to produce acid and gas (WHO, 2019). Many
countries have been adopted use of TTC /FC as indicator in their water quality standards and
they have been recommended as the indicator of choice for evaluating the microbiological
quality of recreational water (Toranzos et al., 2020). The reason for testing for fecal coliform is
that they are more restricted in their source to the gastro intestinal tract of warm-blooded
animals. Likewise, they have an excellent positive correlation with fecal contamination from
warm blooded animals (Toranzos et al., 2021).

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Usually, more than 95 percent of thermotolerant coliform isolated from water is the gut organism
Escherichia coli, the presence of which is definitive proof of fecal contamination (WHO, 2010).
As a result, it is often unnecessary to undertake further testing to confirm the specific presence of
E.coli. Escherichia coli (or, alternatively, thermotolerant coliform) are the first organism of
choice in monitoring programs for verification, including surveillance of drinking-water quality
(WHO, 2013). These organisms are also used as disinfection indicators, but testing is far slower
and less reliable than direct measurement of disinfectant residual. In addition, E.coli is far more
sensitive to disinfection than are enteric viruses and protozoa (Nold, 2018).

Escherichia coli (or, alternatively, thermotolerant coliform) are generally measured in 100ml
samples of water. Varieties of relatively simple procedures are available based on the production
of acid and gas from lactose or the production of the enzyme β-glucuronidase (WHO, 2010). The
procedures include membrane filtration followed by incubation of the membranes on selective
media at 44–45°C and counting of colonies after 24 hours. The presence of E.coli (or,
alternatively, thermotolerant coliform) provides evidence of recent fecal contamination, and
detection should lead to consideration of further action, which could include further sampling
and investigation of potential sources such as inadequate treatment or breaches in distribution
system integrity.

Microbial contamination is considered the most serious risk factor in drinking water quality
because of the possible consequence of waterborne disease (WHO, 2016). Therefore, it is
important to determine the microbiological safety of these waters. The ideal manner for doing
this would be to analyze the water for the presence of specific pathogens of concern rather use by
indicators (WHO, 2013). Frequent occurrences of high coliform counts signify the need for an
alternative water sources, or sanitary protection of the current sources.

Fecal Streptococci (FS)

Fecal streptococci are those streptococci generally present in the faces of humans and animals
(WHO, 2014). Taxonomically, they belong to the genera Enterococcus and Streptococcus. The
presence of fecal streptococci is evidence of fecal contamination. Fecal streptococci tend to
persist longer in the environment than thermotolerant or total coliform and are highly resistant to
drying. It is, therefore, possible to isolate fecal streptococci from water that contains few or no

14
thermotolerant coliform as, for example, when the source of contamination is distant in either
time or space from the sampling point. Fecal streptococci grow in or on a medium containing
sodium azide, at a temperature of 37-44°C (WHO, 2010). They are usually detected by the
reduction of a dye (generally a tetrazolium-containing compound) or the hydrolysis of aesculin.
Routine methods may give “false positives” and additional confirmatory tests may be required.

The taxonomy of enterococci has recently undergone important changes, and detailed knowledge
of the ecology of many of the new species is lacking; the genus Enterococcus now includes all
streptococci that share certain biochemical properties and have a wide tolerance of adverse
growth conditions (E. avium, E. casseliflavus, E. cecorum, E. durans, E. faecalis, E. faecium,
E. gallinarum, E. hirae, E. malodoratus, E. mundtii, and E. solitaries). Most of these species are
of fecal origin and can generally be regarded as specific indicators of human fecal pollution
for most practical purposes (WHO, 2014). They may, however, be isolated from the feces of ani
mals, and certain species and subspecies, such as E.casseliflavus, E.faecalisvar.liquefaciens,
E.malodoratus, and E.solitarius, occur primarily on plant material. Fecal streptococci rarely
multiply in polluted water, and they are more persistent than E.coli and coliform bacteria (WHO,
2013). Their primary value in water-quality examination is therefore as additional indicators of
treatment efficiency. Moreover, streptococci are highly resistant to drying and may be valuable
for routine control after new mains are laid or distribution systems are repaired, or for detecting
pollution of ground waters or surface waters by surface run-off.

Physicochemical Parameters
Microorganisms face a great diversity of habitats with very different physiochemical and
nutritional conditions during the treatment, storage and distribution of drinking water. For
example, proper chlorine dosage depends on a number of factors including chlorine demand,
residual, contact period, temperature, and pH (WHO, 2004). Turbidity, pH and chlorine residuals
are widely accepted as other critical water quality parameters describing microbiological quality
of drinking water. These parameters are recommended as they either directly influence
microbiological quality (in the case of chlorine) or may influence disinfection efficiencies and
microbiological survival (in case of pH and turbidity) (WHO, 2003).

Water Temperature

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Water temperature could be raised because of both natural volcanic activities and industrial
discharges. Normally, water with lower temperature is palatable (Volk et al., 2002; & WHO,
2006). High water temperature, in the rift-valley areas of Ethiopia, is one of the main factors for
higher TDS, through the facilitation of elements transformation into dissolved form from host
rocks and high rate of evaporation (Tamiru, 2020). High water temperature enhances the growth
of microorganisms and may increase taste, odor, and color problems of drinking water (Ibiene
et al., 2012 & Mombal et al., 2006). Temperature also affects the concentration of dissolved
oxygen and can influence the activity of bacteria in a water bodies (Murphy, 2017). In analysis
of the physicochemical quality of pipe water samples, temperature is considered as a critical
parameter affecting many reactions, including the rate of disinfectant decay and by-product
formation (Volk et al., 2020). As the water temperature increases, there is increase in the
disinfectant demand and byproduct formation, nitrification and microbial activity. An aesthetic
objective is set for maximum water temperature to aid in selection of the best water source or the
best placement for a water intake (WHO, 2020). It is desirable that the temperature of drinking
water should not exceed 15°C because the palatability of water is enhanced by its coolness (Volk
et al., 2017). Temperatures above 15°C can speed up the growth of nuisance organisms such as
algae that can intensify taste, odor, and color problems in drinking water (TID, 2000; Mombal et
al., 2017).

Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

WHO (2016) and National guideline for drinking water stated that the standard limit of pH for
drinking water should be from 6.5-8.5. pH is one of the most important operational parameters
for water treatment practices such as disinfection (WHO, 2016). The pH plays an important role,
since it influences physical, chemical and biological processes in the aquatic environment. It may
be influenced by various factors and processes, including temperature, discharge of effluents,
acid mine drainage, runoff and decay processes (Gupta et al., 2019). Low pH levels cause severe
corrosion of metals in the distribution systems while high pH values result in progressive
decrease in the efficiency of the chlorine disinfection process (Kouassi Innocen KouAme et al.,
2012 & Nold, 2018). According to Korkeakoski (2016), pH values ranging from 3 to 10.5 could
favor both the growth of indicator and pathogenic micro-organisms in drinking water.

Nitrate

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Nitrates are one of the ubiquitous chemical contaminant of water bodies worldwide as they are
mainly derived from human activities (WHO, 2004). It is also a naturally occurring form of
nitrogen found in most soils. Nitrates may be formed when plant residues, animal manures and
human wastes decompose. It can be added to soil directly as a nitrogen fertilizer (Brown, 2003).
Contamination of drinking water by nitrate is more commonly associated with some form of
pollution resulting from human activities. Nitrates are very soluble in water and can move easily
through soil. Over time nitrates can accumulate in ground water that may then be used as a
drinking water source (USEPA, 1999). Nitrate concentrations above 50mg/l can cause adverse
health effects in infants less than three months of age, and nitrate concentrations above 100mg/l
can affect pregnant women (ADWG, 2004). However, a maximum contaminant level of 50mg/l
of nitrate has been established for drinking water (WHO, 2006).

Fluoride

Fluoride is one of the most important chemicals to affect the quality of drinking water. In the Rift
Valley region of Ethiopia, the problem of high fluoride concentrations in natural waters,
especially groundwater, is severe and widespread (Berhanu, 2004). The high fluoride
concentrations are primarily associated with volcanic and fumarolic activity, which adds fluoride
to the ground waters; water interacting with fluoride-bearing volcanic and sedimentary rocks,
such as pumice, ignimbrite, obsidian and rhyolite; and, low calcium concentrations, which
restrict the precipitation of fluoride as fluorite (CaF 2). In addition to the Rift Valley region,
groundwater resources in a few isolated pockets in Oromiya were shown to contain significant
fluoride concentrations (FMOWR, 2001).

Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water, the cloudier the water, the greater the turbidity.
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter such as clay, silt, and organic matter and by
plankton and other microscopic organisms that interfere with the passage of light through the
water (Murphy, 2007). High turbidity can also be caused by soil erosion, urban runoff, and high
flow rates. Turbidity is closely related to total suspended solids (TSS), but also includes plankton
and other organisms (WHO, 2006). Although turbidity itself is not a major health concern, its

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high concentration can interfere with disinfection and provide a medium for microbial growth
(Murphy, 2007).

Turbidity is also considered as indirect indicator for the presence of microbes (WHO, 2006).
Therefore, microbiological parameter is closely linked to the microbiological safety of drinking
water (Murphy, 2007). High levels of turbidity can protect microorganisms from the effects of
disinfection and can stimulate bacterial growth. Low turbidity minimizes both the amount of
chlorine required for disinfection of water and the potential for transmitting infectious diseases.
Therefore, turbidity has to be correlated with bacterial contamination, and the probable existence
of pathogens that are of human health concern (Debasu, et al., 2014, Desta, 2009 & Downie,
2005).

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total solids refer to the presence of materials suspended or dissolved in water and is related to
both electrical conductivity and turbidity (Murphy, 2007). Total dissolved solids (TDS) are
characterized mainly by major anions and actions such as carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate,
chloride, nitrate, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Concentrations above 500 parts
per million of TDS may cause adverse taste effects on drinking water (Desta, 2009, Mohammed
et al., 2015 & wells, 2000). With respect to drinking water quality, water with extremely low
TDS concentrations may be objectionable because of its flat, insipid taste. High concentration of
TDS on the other hand causes some physiological problems. These may include laxative effects
mainly from sodium, sulfate and magnesium sulfate. The adverse effects of high concentration of
sodium on certain cardiac patients and kidney function are well documented (WHO, 2003).

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is a measure of the dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms during the oxidation of
reduced substances in waters and wastes. Typical sources of BOD are readily biodegradable
organic carbon (carbonaceous, CBOD) and ammonia (nitrogenous, NBOD). These compounds
are common constituents or metabolic byproducts of plant and animal wastes and human
activities (domestic and industrial waste waters) (Murphy, 2007). The discharge of wastes with
high levels of BOD can cause water quality problems such as severe dissolved oxygen depletion
and fish kills in receiving water bodies. Standardized methods for the quantification of BOD in

18
waste waters have remained virtually unchanged for decades despite numerous shortcomings
(WHO, 2010).

Biological oxygen demand (BOD), also known as biochemical oxygen demand, is a bioassay
procedure that measures the dissolved oxygen (DO) consumed by bacteria from the
decomposition of organic matter. The BOD analysis is an attempt to simulate by a laboratory test
the effect that organic material in a water body will have on the DO in that water body. The BOD
of a water or wastewater sample is measured using a bioassay test in which organisms (biota) are
used to determine the amount of a target substance. In the case of a BOD test microorganisms are
used to degrade/oxidize many different compounds in the sample. Biochemical oxygen demand
values are a measure of food for naturally occurring microorganisms or, in other words, a
measure of the concentration of biodegradable organic material (WHO, 2006). When nutrients
are introduced, naturally occurring microorganisms begin to multiply at an exponential rate,
resulting in the reduction of DO in the water (Mohammed et al., 2015 & Stanone et al., 2011).
The test does not determine the total amount of oxygen demand present, since microorganisms
under conditions of the test do not oxidize many compounds.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

DO is one of the most important parameter. Its correlation with water body gives direct and
indirect information e.g. bacterial activity, photosynthesis, availability of nutrients, stratification
etc. (Premlata, 2009). In the progress of summer, dissolved oxygen decreased due to increase in
temperature and also due to increased microbial activity (Mohammed et al., 2015 & Murphy,
2007). The high DO in summer is due to increase in temperature and duration of bright sunlight
has influence on the percentage of soluble gases (O 2 & CO2). During summer, the long days and
intense sunlight seem to accelerate photosynthesis by phytoplankton, utilizing CO 2 and giving
off oxygen. This possibly accounts for the greater qualities of O 2 recorded during summer
(Murphy, 2007).

Dissolved oxygen is an essential element for the maintenance of healthy lakes and rivers. Most
aquatic plants and animals need a certain amount of oxygen dissolved in water for survival.
Some aquatic organisms such as pike and trout require medium to high levels of dissolved
oxygen to live. Water of consistently high dissolved oxygen are usually considered healthy and

19
stable aquatic ecosystems capable of supporting many different kinds of aquatic organisms. The
atmosphere, algae, and vascular aquatic plants are the sources of dissolved oxygen in lakes and
rivers; the accumulation of organic wastes depletes dissolved oxygen (WHO, 2006).

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Conductivity shows significant correlation with ten parameters such as temperature, pH value,
alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, total solids, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand,
and chloride and iron concentration of water. Navneet Kumar et al (2010) suggested that the
underground drinking water quality of study area can be checked effectively by controlling
conductivity of water and this may be applied to water quality management of other study areas
(Murphy, 2007). The instrument is standardized with known values of conductance observed
with standard KCl solution.

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