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Monsoon
Introduction –
• Seasonal reversal (180°) of wind direction is known as monsoon.
• Monsoon type of climate present in
o South Asia
o Part of Southeast Asia
o North Australia (Near Darwin)
• There is a slight variation of monsoon type of climate which is known as tropical
marine type which is similar to monsoon type experiences. i.e. seasonal reversal
of wind direction but has rainfall throughout the year with summer maxima.
o Brazil
o Horn of Africa
o Carribean
o Madagascar

Characteristics of Indian Monsoon

• Two types
o South-West Monsoon – Wind blow from South-west direction.
➢ Two branches
1. Arabian Sea branch
2. Bay of Bengal branch
o North-East Monsoon – Wind blow from North-east direction.
• Onset of monsoon - They first strike the southern tip of India. The onset is a
sudden bursting.

• Distribution of rainfall - The rainfall brought by the monsoon decreases away

from the sea.
• Vary Spatially - The monsoon do not give rise to a simple pattern of weather all
over India, there are dry areas, Semi-arid and humid areas.
• Vary Temporarily - The monsoon vary from year to year.
• The duration of monsoon - from 100-120 days.
• The withdrawal - of monsoon is a much more gradual phenomena than its
arrival.
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Theories of Monsoon
Traditional Theory or Thermal Concept
• The thermal concept of the origin of monsoon first propounded by Halley in 1686.
• According to this concept the monsoons are the result of
o Heterogeneous character of the globe (unequal distribution of land and
water).
o Differential seasonal heating and cooling of the continental and oceanic
areas.

• Summer monsoon:
o Development of monsoonal trough in Northern India –
➢ During summer, the interior parts of North Indian Plains are intensely hot.
Such high temperature heats up the air of that region.
➢ Hot air rises, the low-pressure area is created under it. This low pressure
is also known as the monsoonal trough.
o Development of high pressure in Indian Ocean –
➢ The temperature over the Indian Ocean is relatively low, as water needs
more time to get heated as compared to land. So a relatively high-
pressure region is created over the sea.
o Monsoonal winds starts flowing –
➢ So, there is a difference of temperature and resultant pressure over North
Central Indian Plains and the Indian Ocean. (PGF)
➢ Due to this difference, air from the high-pressure region of the sea starts
moving towards the low-pressure region of North India. This gives birth to
summer Monsoon.
o It is also called South West (SW) monsoon.
• Winter monsoon:
o Development of High Pressure in northern plain and low over Indian Ocean –
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➢ In winter the sun shines vertically over the tropic of Capricorn.

➢ So, The northern part of India is colder than the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal.
➢ That’s seasonal reversal of winds.
o The winds flow from North East to South West which is the winter monsoon

Modern Theories -
• More studies conducted after the 1950’s, that pointed out not only thermal
differences but different climatic phenomenon also play important role in
monsoon type of climate in India.
• Modern view takes many factors, facts into account while explaining the
monsoonal type of climate.

Factors responsible for Monsoonal type of climate in Indian

subcontinent –
1. Thermal Concept
o Heterogeneous character of the globe (unequal distribution of land and
water).
o Differential seasonal heating and cooling of the continental and oceanic
areas.
2. Role and position of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau
o As mechanical barrier
o As a high level heat source. (Monsoon Expedition – MONEX Research 1973.
3. Migration of ITCZ
o When ITCZ is over the Tropic of Cancer, the South east trade winds becomes
south west after crossing the equator.
4. Circulation of upper air jet stream in troposphere
o Westerly Jet Stream
o Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
o Somali Jet Stream (Findlater Jet)
5. Factors which influence intensity of monsoon
o El-Nino, La-Nina
o Southern oscillation
o Indian Ocean dipole
o Aerosols
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Monsoon Mechanism
• Winter Season

o As the sun is in the southern hemisphere, so most of the parts of India except
coastal belt experiences high pressure. The high pressure zone or the cold
temperature are more prominent in north India and Himalayas.
o Sub-tropical westerly jet stream moves southward as ITCZ marched toward
Tropic of Capricorn.
o Loftiest Himalayan mountains acts as barrier for the movement of westerly jet.
So, westerly jet gets bifurcated into Northern and southern branch. Both flows
parallel to Himalaya. Southern branch blow over northern India.
o Southern branch of westerly jet
➢ Much stronger and permanent feature from November to April because of
strong thermal gradient above north India.
➢ Responsible for bringing temperate cyclone, anticyclone and moisture
laden westerly winds from Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea region.
➢ The general pattern of dry weather is thus interrupted by some cloud. So
it brings rains in northern India and which becomes snow on the
Himalayan slopes.
o North-east monsoon –
➢ Entire north India acts as high pressure Center. And Arabian Sea acts as
low pressure Center. Air start moving from lands to seaward.
➢ In north India winds are cold and move from north-west. But over
peninsula it moves from north-easterly or easterly direction.
➢ So, this air flow passes over Bay of Bengal it pics up moisture and brings
rains to south-eastern India (coromandel coast).
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• Summer season (Spring)

o In march, Sun starts its march toward Tropic of Cancer. So, westerly jet
stream start moving gradually toward pole.
o Weather conditions during this time characterised by clear sky so high
insolation, high temperature and drought like conditions.
o over
o During this season the pressure system is not well developed as Gradual
creation of low pressure over Indian landmass starts. So, there is dominance
of local winds
➢ Andhi (Thunderstorms) –
❖ Develop in Great Plains of India.
❖ It’s Convectional rainfall due to heating.
➢ Kal Baisakhi (Norwester thunderstorm) – Bengal and Assam
➢ Mango shower and Cherry Blossom shower – southern India.
➢ Loo
❖ Very hot violent winds blow during daytime in the north and northwest
India.

• Wet Summer Season (South-west monsoon season)

o In June, ITCZ shifts over India. So, sun is overhead in India. Highest
temperature seen in northern parts. Low pressure gets established over
northern India.
o As south east trade winds crosses the equator and becomes south-west trade
winds. So, winds move from Indian Ocean towards India.
o At same time, subtropical westerly jet stream gets disappears. And due to
intense heating of Tibetan plateau, easterly trade wind gets developed.
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o As soon as easterly trade winds gets developed there is sudden outbreak of

the monsoon in India.
o So, causes heavy rainfall in India.

• Autumn season (Mid-September to Mid-November)

o Sun starts marching toward Tropic of Capricorn. So, low pressure Center
starts gradually withdrawing from India. Winter conditions start gradually
developing over northern India. Which leads to retreat of monsoon. (Retreat of
monsoon is gradual phenomenon unlike onset of S-W monsoon).
o This season characterised by extremely high day time temperature, known as
October heat.
o Also tropical cyclonic storm start developing. During this period.

Mechanism of S-W monsoon –

• Surface level circulation –
o Low pressure Center is fully established in India.
o As ITCZ is over a Tropic of Cancer, there is a shifting of pressure belt toward
North Pole. So, south easterly trade winds crosses equator and becomes south
westerly under the influence of Coriolis force. That is the seasonal reversal of
winds in northern Indian Ocean.
o High pressure gets established over Indian Ocean (Mascarene High). This high
pressure gets influenced by Somali jet streams and presence of aerosols in
troposphere.
o So, there is very high pressure gradient, winds start moving from south western
part of Indian Ocean towards Northern india. It’s completes the ground level
circulation.
• Upper air circulation -
o At the same time (Mid June) Southern branch of westerly jet stream completely
disappears. And development of tropical easterly jet stream starts.
➢ Due to intense heating of Tibetan plateau, intense low pressure is created. Air
start rising.
➢ In upper troposphere winds start diverging and move towards west. This wind
is nothing but a tropical easterly jet stream. It after reaching over Indian
Ocean starts descending at Mascarene High. It completes the upper air
circulation.
• It completes the cycle of wind circulation. So, as soon as upper air circulation starts
(i.e. Easterly jet starts blowing) there is sudden outburst of the monsoon.
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Role of Jet Streams in monsoon

• There are three jet stream which plays very important role in monsoonal rainfall in
India.
1. Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream
o Onset of monsoon – as southern march start moving northward as ITCZ
start marching toward Tropic of Cancer, low pressure Center start establishing
in northern India.
o Delay or early arrival of monsoon - If north ward shift is delayed then it
affects the onset of monsoon,
o Distribution of monsoonal rain - as low pressure trough location (wether at
foothill of siwalik or in Great Plains) is depends on STWJ.
2. Tropical easterly Jet Stream
o Sudden onset of monsoon – as soon as easterly jet start blowing (created
due to intense heating of Tibetan plateau), it completes the cycle of air
circulation. Leads to sudden burst in monsoon.
o Intensity of monsoon (by strengthening the high pressure in Indian Ocean
area.)
o Uneven distribution of monsoon also impacted by easterly jet stream.
3. Somali jet stream
o Intensity of rainfall - These low level strong winds drive away the surface
coastal waters towards the east resulting in upwelling of cool ocean current
called Somali current. (Drops the temperature by 4-5° C than normal). Which
helps in strengthening the high pressure in Indian Ocean. Which is favourable
for more monsoonal rain.
o It also helps taking moisture laden monsoonal winds to Indian subcontinent.

• Therefore, the jet stream plays an important role in the Indian monsoon by
influencing the onset, distribution, and intensity of rainfall across the country.
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Roll of ITCZ
• Trade winds meet near equator. The southeast trade winds in the southern
hemisphere and the northeast trade winds in the northern hemisphere meet each
other near the equator.
o The meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• Seasonal shift of ITCZ
o ITCZ shift north and south of the equator as per the sun’s apparent
movement.
• The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and
start blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis
force. This is seasonal reversal of the wind.
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Role of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO):

• El Nino and La Nina are complex weather patterns resulting from variations in
ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific Region.
• El Nino
o It is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in
the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
• La Nina
o The “cool phase” of ENSO, is a pattern that describes the unusual cooling of
the tropical eastern Pacific.

• Impact of El Niño
o Adverse effect on Indian monsoon.
o During winter, it brings warm conditions to the Indian subcontinent.
o During summer, it leads to dry conditions and deficient monsoon rainfall.
• Impact of La Niña
o It leads to improved monsoon conditions.
o It typically results in better-than-normal monsoon rainfall in India.

• Walker circulation
o Walker circulation or east-west circulation or southern oscillation
o It is a system developed especially in the South Pacific Ocean, resulting in
East-West pressure differences.

o Impact of walker Circulation on Indian monsoon

➢ During La Niña, the Indian Ocean branch of the Walker cell strengthens,
leading to more intense surface winds.
❖ This condition is associated with a good monsoon in India and
favourable rainfall.
➢ During El Niño or negative Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), the surface
winds or southwest monsoon winds are weaker than normal conditions.
❖ Leading to weaker monsoon.
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Impact of Aerosols on Indian monsoon

• What is aerosols –
o Aerosols are tiny particles found in the atmosphere. They are formed naturally
as well as due to anthropogenic factor.
o Natural aerosols
➢ It include dust whipped by wind, sea salt, and sulphate compounds from
natural processes, Organic materials released by plants.
o Anthropogenic aerosols
➢ It includes soot, sulphates from fossil fuel burning, fly ash from thermal
plants, and nitrates from vehicular emissions.
➢ Anthropogenic aerosols are major contributors to haze and air pollution.
• Impact on monsoon
1. Impact the thermal contrast
➢ The monsoon is mainly driven by the thermal contrast between the Indian
subcontinent and the adjoining ocean.
➢ Aerosols reduce incoming solar radiation over northern India and the
northern Indian Ocean and lead to cooling on both land and sea resulting
in a lowered thermal contrast.

2. Impact monsoonal air circulation

➢ Aerosols have dimmed sunlight over the Arabian Sea and have
consequently cooled that part of the ocean as compared to the southern
Indian Ocean.
➢ As we know that the rain system gravitate towards warmer side and this
has reduced temperature gradient between those two parts of the ocean
has slowed monsoon circulation and thereby decreased rainfall.

3. Weakening of low pressure over Indian subcontinent.

➢ Aerosols stop the incoming solar radiation which leads to less heating of
land. Which results in weakening of low pressure.

4. Suppress vertical air movement.

➢ Increased aerosol loading can suppress vertical air movement, weakening
monsoon development.

5. Influence the cloud formation

➢ impacting rainfall distribution during the monsoon.
➢ Aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei, leading to more but
smaller cloud droplets and reduced precipitation efficiency.

6. Regional variation
➢ Geographic distribution of aerosols influences regional variations in
monsoon rainfall.

• The overall impact of aerosols on the Indian monsoon is complex and subject to
scientific uncertainties.