IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO.

12, DECEMBER 2023 4207

Design Thinking and Agility in Digital Production:

The Key Role of User Experience Design
Mourad Chouki , Brigitte Borja de Mozota, Andreas Kallmuenzer , Sascha Kraus , and Marina Dabic

Abstract—In this article, we propose a new approach to user- important approach [6]. It is an iterative process that goes from
centered design through the combination of two theories: design generating ideas about user needs to creating ideas, testing, and
thinking (DT) and organizational agility. It aims at analyzing the implementation [7]. The actors interact together around the pro-
adaptation of DT to the element of speed imposed by agility, espe-
cially in sprint mode. It also targets to understand how these two totypes [7]. Vetterli et al. [8] add that DT is a method that allows
concepts serve each other in order to improve digital production. companies to see the world through the eyes of their customers.
A study carried out with 20 French user experience (UX) design- DT is applied in the professional and academic worlds [9] and
ers and 10 partners who regularly work with the UX designers tends to better integrate design at all levels within a company
(product owners (PO); developers (DEV); PO DEV; user interface [10]–[12]. With the progress of digital production [13], [14],
designers) generates a new exploratory model of pragmatic design.
This model includes three levels: user-inspired design, adjusted the design of the user experience (UX) today appears to be in
design, and responsive design. These three levels represent the line with DT. Even if digitalization has improved the way of
alchemical and iterative aspects of UX design. This article addi- working in digital production by making it faster, this production
tionally assigns new adjustment, stabilization, responsiveness, and faces problems in innovation [15]. Human-centered design, in
proactivity roles to design. It also confirms Peirce’s pragmatic semi- particular, is seen as the backbone of DT because this process
otics approach with its three interacting entities of representation
(user habits), object (digital screen, website, or application), and is based mainly on users’ needs [16]. Thanks to this, design has
interpreter (user). become a tool of interaction and responsiveness, with the goal
of achieving organizational flexibility [17]. Gurusamy et al. [18]
Index Terms—Agility, design thinking (DT), exploratory model,
pragmatism, user experience (UX) design.
showed that DT adaptation in digital production improves the
agile method and can be applied in agile iterations. Also, DT and
agility are useful for digital transformation, offering benefits and
I. INTRODUCTION challenges [18].
HE design has gone through several historical stages, from Because some digital productions are conducted in an ag-
T being a problem-solving activity to comprising reflective
practices [1], [2]. Today design is not only an artistic activity
ile mode [19], this article proposes that organizational agility
can be a favorable context for exercising DT. In this sense,
but also a cross-sectional one occupying an important place in the DT is a human-centred approach, perceived as a catalyst
the company as well. It helps manage change [3] and serves for innovative transformation [18]. Agility is used to process
companies to gain a competitive advantage in the market [4]. development projects in an innovative and dynamic context
Recent years have seen design focus on people’s expectations [18]. DT cannot solve all problems but helps actors to reduce
in an effort to respect human dignity [5]. Design thinking (DT) complexity, which is useful for innovation and for imagining
is a method invented for this purpose. DT is a human-centered, the future [17]. DT supports social innovation [10]. The integra-
problem-solving approach, not focused on technology or orga- tion of DT helps overcome the challenges imposed by agility
nization. Today, user needs are increasingly included, and the and provides customers with deliverables as continuously and
need for methods to make innovation happen makes DT an quickly as the traditional method [18]. Agility and DT converge
because they are both interested in flexibility and usability [20].
Manuscript received 6 May 2021; revised 13 July 2021; accepted 16 July 2021. Agility is mainly focused on the organization of a sprint activity
Date of publication 16 September 2021; date of current version 14 September lasting about a week with the aim of solving a problem [21].
2023. Review of this manuscript was arranged by Department Editor T. Daim. Although agility relies on adaptability, flexibility, and respon-
(Corresponding author: Marina Dabic.)
Mourad Chouki and Andreas Kallmuenzer are with the Excelia Business siveness [22]–[24], it takes into account speed in implementation
School—CERIIM Strategy, Excelia Group, 17000 La Rochelle, France (e-mail: [25]. To reinforce this idea, flexibility is an important ability
[email protected]; [email protected]). to agility with responsiveness and speed. Flexibility is also
Brigitte Borja de Mozota is with the Ouest Nanterre La Defense, University
Paris-Nanterre, 92000 Nanterre, France (e-mail: [email protected]). seen as a catalyst for agility [26]. On the other hand, design
Sascha Kraus is with the Faculty of Economics and Managment, Free Univer- and DT call for a wider collaboration with other people from
sity of Bozen-Bolzano, 39100 Bolzano, Italy (e-mail: [email protected]). different disciplines [10], which implies a relatively longer
Marina Dabic is with the International Economics, University of Za-
greb Faculty of Economics and Business, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia (e-mail: implementation. However, some research has shown that DT
[email protected]). is not opposed to speed. DT allows for user feedback in the first
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at step of the process so that neither time nor resources are wasted
https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2021.3099094.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEM.2021.3099094 on designing something that no one wants [27]. This explains

0018-9391 © 2021 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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4208 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

DT’s credo “fail early to succeed sooner” [27]. In this sense, one employees are motivated to better seize opportunities in response
can talk about accelerating the development and rapid launch of to external changes [24].
new solutions [16]. The simultaneous use of DT and agility is As it helps produce new products better, agility becomes a
very useful for digital production. Indeed, DT offers creative kind of replacement for the classic organization [30]. Goldman
mostly user-oriented solutions, while process-optimized agility et al. [20] add that agility considers production as centered
offers a product rapidly [28]. The aim of this article is, there- on the client and/or user, taking into account their requests
fore, to explore the intersection points between DT and agility. and wants. Meeting market expectations and ensuring perfor-
Thus, it targets to develop an improved understanding of how mance mean that companies are urged to use increasingly agile
these two concepts serve each other in order to improve digital methods [32].
production. From this debate, the following research questions On an organizational level, agility understands production as
emerge. flexible, flat, cross-sectional, and simultaneous. In this sense,
agility opens the possibility for manufacturing subsystems to
RQ1. What links might exist between DT and agility during digital
production? have their own degree of agility according to different functions.
They can interact differently depending on the configuration of
RQ2. What is the role of DT to improve agility in digital production? the system and the dynamics of the environment [33]. Products
This article mobilizes two theoretical constructs to explore must also be manufactured quickly, according to the resources
these questions addressing design sciences DT [1], [5], [10]– available, and above all must anticipate the difficulties encoun-
[12], [29], on the one hand, and agility [22], [23], on the other. tered along the way [20]. Gunasekaran [24, p. 102] offers
An exploratory qualitative study was organized with 20 French a theoretical model of agility based on strategy, technology,
UX designers and 10 partners who regularly work with the people, and systems, adding that, in order to develop an agile
UX (Product owners (PO); Developers (DEV); PO DEV; user manufacturing system, it is necessary to take into account mainly
interface (UI) designer) to create a deeper understanding of the “the relationship between competitive bases such as flexibility,
relationship between DT and agility. The designers work within quality, productivity, and responsiveness, and cost needs to be
different firm structures originate from different professional investigated in relation to agility in manufacturing.”
backgrounds. Based on the results of this investigation, this Breu et al. [34, p. 27] add that “in order to consolidate and
study proposes a new model of pragmatic digital design evolving structure the set of variables, they were clustered into five higher
around the three variables of the user-inspired design: partici- level categories that describe the capabilities of intelligence,
pative design (the participation of the user by expressing his or competencies, collaboration, culture, and information systems.”
her needs and coconception), adjusted design (the role of the These authors point out that agility requires responsiveness on
user test to make possible adjustments), and responsive design the market level, development of new skills, speed of action,
(proactive, react quickly to adjust and give a new version). collaboration between actors, autonomy in decision-making,
and the promotion of information technology [34]. Henderson-
Sellers and Serour [35] proposed a dual-agility method to bet-
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
ter respond to the requirements of flexibility, which requires
A. Agility responding simultaneously to internal changes (linked to pro-
The term agility has for several years started to emerge and duction) as well as external ones (linked to the external envi-
gain importance, particularly in the field of systems information ronment). Four major capacities were identified here that may
development. Actively used by actors in this environment [19], help to examine what agility is [36], such as responsiveness and
this concept is a way of reacting to environmental changes [30]. resistance to change, the competence to achieve performance,
The concept of agility was introduced by Goldman et al. [22] and flexibility and ease in carrying out tasks, and speed and achieve-
is considered a competitive asset of a company. It is a vague and ment within a short time frame. In the supply chain management
heterogeneous concept, which is based on several definitions. sector, Lin et al. [37] also identify four agile capacities, i.e.,
Yusuf et al. [31] propose a broad definition of agility: “it is responsiveness and response in time, competence to achieve
the successful exploration of competitive bases (speed, flexi- objectives, flexibility and adaptability, and speed. From this per-
bility, innovation proactivity, quality, and profitability) through spective, “an agile supply chain aims to enrich/satisfy customers
the integration of reconfigurable resources and best practices and employees. An agile supply chain, thus, should possess
in a knowledge-rich environment to provide customer-driven the ability to respond appropriately to changes occurring in its
products and services in a fast-changing market environment” business environment” [37, p. 287]. These authors emphasize the
[31, p. 37]. Agility helps take on the competition in the industrial importance of proactivity to identify the barriers that prevent
environment [22], enhancing the quality of decision-making in actors from taking adequate measures [37]. In the same vein,
the field of innovation thanks to speed [25]. Sharp et al. [38, p. 165] propose several characteristics of agility
The concept of agility is primarily based on four driving such as “core competencies, multiskilled and flexible people;
forces: continuous change, rapid response, definition of quality, empowerment, teamwork, and continuous improvement; infor-
and respect for the environment [22]. Guaranteed agility al- mation technology and communication; concurrent engineer-
lows companies to have flexibility, favoring interorganizational ing and rapid prototyping; and virtual enterprises and change
creativity [23]. Because of agility, innovation can improve and management.”

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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4209

B. Design Thinking: A Social Approach to Design to improve the capacity of innovation [48]. User-oriented de-
Design science emerged with the publication of The Science of sign positively influences the development of new products,
the Artificial by Simon [1], who saw design as a cognitive process improving collaboration and the generation of ideas, driving
that fits into the paradigm of symbolic information processing. better solutions for customers [29]. This is consistent with the
He also understood design as an analytical process that begins idea that DT is a multidisciplinary team effort that takes on
with specifying a problem and proposing solutions. “The design innovation challenges [44]. In other words, the design thinker
process is divided into two distinct phases: problem definition has to collaborate with other disciplines to solve problems
and problem solution. Problem definition is an analytic sequence [10]. Dobrigkeit and de Paula [49] propose three levels of DT:
in which the designer determines all of the elements of the cognitive style, general theory of design, and organizational
problem and specifies all of the requirements that a successful resources. In this article, we follow the cognitive style that
design solution must have” [39, p. 15]. This approach was focuses on the designer (UX designer), its role in the activity,
criticized by Schön [2] and Bucciarelli [40] as the founders and especially the way he or she makes decisions [49]. We also
of the situational approach, who treated design in terms of consider that the DT is an organizational resource, useful for both
situative and reflective practice. Designers’ opinions here change designers and managers, and particularly necessary for the agile
depending on the representations generated (following several method [49].
stages). Based on these former approaches, Visser [41] built a DT assumes a reasonable ability to be intuitive, design mod-
new so-called “construction of representations,” which can be els, and think about emotional and achievable ideas. This re-
internal or external, offering several artifacts for a product to quires another way of thinking. The main stages of DT are
emerge into a single entity. presented as follows: “The design thinking process is best
In the company, design has a differentiation function (source thought of as a system of overlapping spaces rather than a
of competitiveness), is integrative (source of new production im- sequence of orderly steps. There are three spaces to keep in
provement), has a transformative function (the establishment of mind: inspiration, ideation, and implementation” [12, p. 33].
new opportunities), and is a positive business function (increas- Today’s new understanding of DT goes beyond user empathy
ing turnover) [3], [42]. Design can be seen as a source of change and prototyping, making DT a tool for helping interaction and
management [3]. One idea here is the importance of “human- responsiveness, which values a flexible organizational culture
centered design, which is fundamentally an affirmation of human [17]. Here, integrative thinking appears to address contradictory
dignity” [5, p. 37). Verganti [43] similarly proposes implement- questions and resolve mixed concerns in an effort to produce
ing innovation centered on design, allowing work teams to gen- solutions advancing the existing state of affairs [10]. The design
erate new behaviors that are a product of reflexivity [44]. Today, thinker must have empathy, imagining the intrinsic solutions
companies are moving from a physical entity to interactions, that best meet the respective needs and provide a better solution
services, processes, and collaborations. These are tasks carried despite the problems encountered along the way; being exper-
out by the designer within an organization [11]. DT allows the imental is a quality of a design thinker that helps him or her
design to begin earning recognition from managers, with the achieve new perspectives [10].
designer using tools that are based on inspiration, ideation, and There are several issues linked to DT in the literature, ranging
execution. Brown and Katz [10, p. 381] explain “that these skills from user focus (understanding of users), problem framing
now need to be dispersed throughout organizations.” DT is seen (formulation of a question), visualization (representation and
as a tool for integrating design into organizations, taking advan- making ideas tangible), experimentation (testing ideas), all the
tage of design management practices and research to achieve way to diversity by multidisciplinary teams [50].
management and organizational objectives [45]. DT is based on the following three main steps [12].
DT is generally seen as a vague concept with several defini- 1) Inspiration: A preliminary step seeking to characterize
tions and contradictions [46]. Its primary mission is to study user the problem and the motivations, which encourage the
needs and generate new ideas for a product’s design, making it identification of solutions. It is a starting point for achiev-
useful for innovation [10]. DT allows a reduction in innovation ing goals and is mainly about building a brief summary.
bias by achieving preliminary conceptions and forecasts [46]. “Traditional ways of doing this, such as focus groups and
Verganti and Dell’Era [47] emphasize that user-centered design surveys, rarely yield important insights. In most cases,
is effective for incremental innovation. It helps organizations these techniques simply ask people what they want” [12,
to better understand behaviors and especially how individuals p. 33].
make sense of things. The objective is not to change this meaning 2) Ideation: Following design research, the design thinkers
but to better satisfy users [47]. This relationship can be seen move to the synthesis and propose solutions for change.
on several levels by involving thinkers early in the innovation During this stage, they try to develop several possible
process, using a human-centered method by observing and versions to respond to human behavior. “Interdisciplinary
studying user behavior, conducting early trials and prototyping teams typically move into a structured brainstorming pro-
in advance, and seeking others for support, especially new cess. Taking one provocative question at a time, the group
technologies specialists [10]. In this sense, design is becoming may generate hundreds of ideas ranging from the absurd to
more user-oriented today, especially in the digital world. The the obvious. Each idea can be written on a post-it note and
designer must explain the needs of users and stimulate creativity shared with the team. Visual representations of concepts

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4210 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

are encouraged, as this generally helps others understand representationalism, and above all the abstraction of experience
complex ideas” [12, p. 34]. [53]. Pragmatists emphasize that the social world is a set of
3) Implementation: The ideas generated in the previous stage processes linking all entities in terms of relationships and iter-
are concretely formalized. “At the core of the implemen- ation [56]. Pragmatism can be seen as a conceptual framework
tation process is prototyping, turning ideas into actual for development, design discourse, and, by extension, design
products and services that are then tested, iterated, and practice [58]. Pragmatism and design coincide on a crucial level.
refined” [12, p. 35]. This step makes it possible to predict This is to say that pragmatism is very useful to think designerly in
future disruptions that may arise in order to ensure greater that it offers articulations and ideas on the situation, emergence,
success. Prototyping is used to design the attributes of and interaction. These are needed today to understand the design
a product or the visual presentation of a screen. It also and users of interactive artifacts [58], which is also the main
serves as an interaction tool between design thinkers. purpose of our article.
Little by little, an implementation is launched, allowing This idea is supported by Peirce [59], who proposes semi-
the prototype to increasingly resemble the actual finished otic pragmatism where the sign encompasses three dimensions:
product. representation, object, and interpreter. In this sense, Borja de
Mozota [60] used the triadic sign dimensions of Morris [61],
which are the syntactic dimension (technology and structure),
C. Design Thinking and Agility: A Pragmatic Perspective the pragmatic dimension (object adapted according to the user),
Agility and DT intersect on practical and theoretical levels. and the semantic dimension (meaning building). In our case,
DT can be applied by offering tools that help improve the agility the habits of the users are incorporated into representations,
of organizations. It is mainly based on the flexibility to make being part of the set of habits on which the environment is
it more user-centered [20]. In management science, very few based [62]. From this perspective, Krippendorff [63] specifies
studies have examined in depth the usefulness of DT for agility that meaning is the heart of a design activity; the artifact is used
and vice versa. These two concepts can be confusing, so a com- to communicate. In the same spirit, Shin et al. [64] emphasize
mon point that will allow us to study this question is UX design. that the UX design can be classified into four categories. The first
Here, the UX has a central place in digital production. Agility emphasizes fluidity by providing the right functions in the right
in digital production also makes use of UXs. User satisfaction place at the right time; the second concerns the integration of user
is common to both concepts. In agility, UX is an important needs by providing facilities; the third is experience, related to
player in sprints. “A sprint is a process for solving a business designing a basic artifact to manipulate; while the fourth involves
challenge in a week. The idea is that without the distractions of the manipulation of a basic artifact for a single specific user. It
working on several projects at once, a small group of the right is here that UX design converges with pragmatism, which is
people can resolve a difficult problem in significantly less time” opposed to a final and unique production [65]. In digital produc-
[51, p. 107]. DT can be associated with agility in the sprint tion, UX design offers concrete research elements which people
framework, even though DT and agility do in fact maintain a can reflect upon [66], [67]. Essential here is the understanding
different understanding of speed. In DT, speed is not critical, but and designing of user needs, rapid prototyping, persona, testing,
with agility, it is. Also, autonomy (an important characteristic and iterating designs [67], [68]. Users are invited to codesign
of agility), borrowed from Taylorism [53], contradicts DT. We virtual objects as they relate to their experiences [57].
assume here that DT is closer to pragmatism. The combination of DT and agility can give birth to a new
The connection between DT and agility is best achieved model of design. Pragmatists are wary of discontinuity in the
through pragmatism. Based on UX design, the present study thought/action process that is not related to experience [53] and,
can be linked to pragmatism as follows: “Our explanation, thus, instead, prefer creativity based on experience. Cognition without
1) highlights the means available to actors in specific problem creativity is helpless repetition (referring to the sprint in agility),
situations—in our case, the artifacts, techniques, tools, and rela- and creativity without cognition is unnecessary volatility [53].
tions that actors invoked in response to problem situations—as This is where Cohen [69, p. 777] values experience through
well as associated logics of practice and consequent projections, habits and thoughts: “In the Dewey three-part scheme, this
encoded in the ostensive aspects of the organizational routines dynamic interplay of habit, thought, and emotion is essential.”
under evaluation, but 2) recognizes that ends actually achieved Organization is, therefore, the way in which experiences are
also serve as tests of valuations previously made [54], thus taken up creatively and meticulously [70]. It is a way “to
helping us to ground actors’ reflexivity in their lived experience” demonstrate pragmatism’s usefulness for understanding and
[54, p. 1835]. analyzing the contemporary organizational challenges of change
Pragmatism is based on practice and common sense. Agility and complexity facing several difficulties” [55, p. 2]. In this
and DT can be found in pragmatism, requiring flexibility and sense, Aristotle stresses the importance of theory that seeks to
a minimum of willingness to agree on promoting the activity understand reality; praxis, considered as practical knowledge
[56]. In a digital context, Kohler et al. [57] propose two new whose purpose is action; and poesy, which aims at creation [71].
avenues to reinforce pragmatism: developing interactive ob- Theory is finding reality. Praxis is linked to values, morality, and
jects (incorporations of functionality and visual animations) and justice, thus behavioral knowledge, while poïesis is interested
design to inspire (cocreation of representations). Pragmatism in production [71]. In this sense, human actions are articulated
was born to criticize “Cartesian idealism” based on dualism, in four main stages that jointly respond to the two concepts

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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4211

we deal with in the present research (DT and agility): intention, open coding with the following topics was carried out: ex-
deliberation, decision, and execution [72], [73]. Thus, each stage perience, degrees, teamwork, design activities, user relations,
is a result of the interaction of both intellectual and volatile difficulties, and tools. In the second round, an accurate analysis
(thinking) aspects [72], [73]. In this article, it is interesting to of the following aspects was established: tools and design,
analyze the intersection between DT and agility through the search and user needs, user test, ideation, and agility [10],
“doing”/ “creating” duality. [12], [20], [36].
The similarities and contradictions between DT and agility Since the intersection between DT and agility is not well
call for the two concepts to be broken down in an effort to known, we chose to go back and forth between the data and
eventually find a connection between them. theory [78]. Theory cannot be understood without empirical
evidence and vice versa [79]. Abduction deals with confronting
theory with the field [79], [80]. This is a systematic and contin-
III. DATA AND METHODOLOGY uous combination throughout the research process [79], [80].
A. Data Collection We identified several concepts in the literature related to DT
and agility. The main concepts are: user need, ideation (technical
This article draws on qualitative methodology [74] to explore tools and visual representation), prototyping, and user testing
the links between DT and agility during digital production. It [10], [12]. Regarding agility, several concepts were chosen, such
was based on 30 exploratory semistructured interviews with as speed, flexibility, responsiveness, and definition of quality
UX designers (20 interviewees) as well as partners of these [20]–[23]. Using these concepts, we were able to go back and
designers, i.e., PO, DEV, PO DEV, and UI designers, to triangu- forth between theory and the field [78], [80]. We also note
late the identified patterns [75]. These designers work either as that empirical observations have led to surprising facts in the
subcontractors or as part of contracted employment at companies relationship that may exist between DT and agility. These data
or agencies in France. allowed us to adjust our research [79].
The data were collected in four stages. For the first two stages, We started to segment the verbatim into subgroups, trying
we followed the snowball logic. Each time we interviewed a UX to classify them according to their concordances to identify
designer, we asked him to put us in contact with another UX the links between them. The objective here is to transform the
designer working in another agency, company, or independently. segmented verbatim into more or less abstract concepts [81].
The goal was to diversify the profiles and sectors of activity. To structure and visualize the data, we used the logic of Gioia
The eventually interviewed actors worked across sectors such et al. [82] (see Fig. 1). A first segmentation of the verbatim
as in banking, the tertiary sector, insurances, e-commerce, the from the transcribed interviews was done to derive the first-order
social and solidarity economy, computer science, the creative concepts. In a second step, second-order themes are constructed
industry, and telecommunications. In the third stage, we con- by creating a link between the derived concepts and the existing
tacted professional UX designers via LinkedIn to see if they literature. In our case, the themes identified are related to DT and
would confirm the findings of the first two stages. In the fourth agility. Third, aggregate dimensions emerge from the second-
stage, professionals (DEV, PO, UI) from different industries order themes to highlight relationships between these themes.
were contacted via LinkedIn, and the main requirement for In our case, three aggregate dimensions evolve: user-inspired
interviewing them was that they had to regularly work with UX in design, adjusted design, and responsive design.
digital production and, more particularly, in agile mode. The aim
of this last step was to collect testimonies about the contribution
of UX design in digital production and agility (see Table I). IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
This qualitative method explored the connection between UX
design in the DT process as well as its contribution to organiza- A. Research, Ideation, and Design: User-Inspired Design
tional agility (experience, degrees, teamwork, design activities, 1) Research and Ideation: The findings overall emphasize
user relations, difficulties, tools, etc.). Since our objective is that the main task of UX design is inspiration and research. The
to explore a possible intersection between DT and agility, the UX mission is essentially based on individual and collective
questions raised in this research are general (nonspecific) and research, which aims to study user needs. This human-centered
we let the interviewees express themselves freely in their work. method fits into an ergonomic and social, albeit digital, perspec-
The interview guide is provided in the Appendix. The transcribed tive.
interviews lasted between 30 and 90 min. The same interview UX design looks for solutions to reduce usability issues, and
structure was used for the 20 UX designers as well as their 10 this perspective allows it to propose hypotheses (ideation) to
partners. All of the professionals interviewed stated that they answer specific problems, as D12 states: “We hold workshops
regularly work in agile mode. with users. We try to gather as much information as possible to
know their needs, their behavior, etc. After these workshops, we
present hypotheses that are factual. We then decide to do things
B. Data Analysis on interfaces. Afterward, we prioritize together and see what we
Data analysis was performed using NVIVO software [76]. have got to do.” Different from this statement, PO1 highlights
This tool makes it possible to facilitate and classify verbatim that they rather “did workshops in order to find ideas and to
in the form of nodes [77]. In the first round of analysis, an raise the product.” Sometimes the UI designer also helps the

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4212 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

TABLE I
SAMPLE DESCRIPTION

UX organize the workshops to collect the data: “my role is to D17: “Afterward, we use several tools, stemming from interview
support UX in order to hear users well” (UI1). psychology, social psychology, and sociology for observation.”
Several qualitative methods are used in these workshops, as UI1 confirms this: “It is rather the role of the UX to go out and
D9 states: “Recordings of interviews, notes, screen recordings, do interviews.”
mouse track recording, or the webcam to film the participants.” User research is not only based on complex (or advanced)
UX can rely on digital tools to detect user needs as explained tools but on simple and classic methods as well. Pencil and
by D5: “We have tools such as Morae, which is user interview paper are key tools used in UX design, despite the fact that this
capture software, but also online survey tools and card sort- is a new area in digital production as specified by D19: “We do
ing.” This makes clear that the UX designer activity in digital not need a lot of complex tools because it is essentially based
production can be done using online tools. And data collection is on qualitative analysis of user behavior and design. The main
not only limited to interviews. It can also observe the upstream tools are paper and pencil, getting back to the basics.” This is
behavior of users to clearly define their needs, as pointed out by where a point of convergence between UX and classic design is

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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4213

TABLE I
CONTINUED

seen. Whatever the digital progress, pencil and paper remain the developer stresses that “there is no relation between me and the
designer’s basic weapons. user of the product.”
UX design can organize collective interviews to gather data Study findings encourage changes in digital production modes
beforehand, sometimes at the request of customers. As D1 via UX design, focusing more on the user and reliably specifying
pointed out: “The customers said we have one and a half hours, their needs. This is why efforts to change overall perspectives
a workshop is something we could do on our own. It was a have begun to advance this emerging field. As D1 specified: “It
meeting of users; they made an effort and they spent some time was all a job that gradually changed attitudes,” which allows
with me” looking for users’ needs. Some players often do not direct targeting of the goal while simplifying the task for the
contact the user for their point of view because managers in designer and usability for the final customer.
some instances are more business- than user-oriented, as D1 The success of digital production essentially depends on a
mentioned: “There is a lack of connection between what users careful study of user needs. Several UX designers stated that they
and suppliers need, even if we listen to them and do our best to try to meet user, not customer needs, as D4 pointed out: “Very few
meet their needs.” With this in mind, UX design has an educator agencies were asking what users wanted rather than what cus-
(empathic) role allowing users to correctly appropriate the screen tomers wanted! That is not the same logic.” Hence, D3 specifies
and its conception, as D1 noted: “I started doing user-customer that “we involve the creative design of customers (users).” This
interviews so that people could know exactly what is going on study’s contribution is clear here: user co-design and real user
with the software,” which is similar to D2: “The objective is to participation in screen architecture, with general participation
simplify the experience enormously.” In this sense, DEV1 as a for all user types (i.e., different socio-professional categories).

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4214 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

Fig. 1. Data structure adapted from Gioia et al. (2013).

The participative dimension of design is achieved via UX de- skeletons, further reflecting user needs. “I use a software called
sign. In human-centered digital production, the participation of Flinto, which allows me to make more advanced prototypes with
all types of users is essential, as D4 highlighted: “Usability only animations much closer to reality. There is also software called
makes sense if it is universal.” D5 insisted on the participation Main which does practically the same thing” (D7).
of everyone to broaden a simple experience: “What we produce
every day is supposed to have a positive impact on making life
easier for people.” Participatory UX design requires designers’ B. User Tests, Research, and Design: Adjusted Design
transparency. They must reflect the real views of the user, as D8 One of the main tasks of a UX designer is to carry out user
specified: “We always try to be transparent. This is the side that tests on the digital screens produced. This adjustment aims to
is a little difficult.” be in line with user expectations. This step is also essential
All these phases of audit and understanding of user needs are for verifying pre-established objectives. D17 specifically talked
mainly used to prepare prototyping and design and, specifically, about relying on “user process capturing or testing tools. These
implicit user codesign: “I will make sure that everything, design, are the tools that allow us to achieve our objectives and ends.”
process, the usefulness of everything that we design is consistent Speech (or behavioral) analysis skills are necessary here, as
with everything that the people on the team do” (D3). The two D19 pointed out: “On the user test, we do not use a particular
stages of research and ideation (or design) are superimposed and technique, just taking notes, then video analysis, using Excel
iterative. There is a strong link here because the success of the and PowerPoint.” In this case, it is necessary to return to the
second necessarily involves a smooth running of the first: “We work teams to assess the tool appropriation by the user. Several
will already do a first fieldwork and audit, understanding things. other meetings took place between the team members to adjust
Then we will create the first outlines of the application we want the screen functionality: “I used Monday to share the results of
to develop” (D17). The research mission is a task that is relative the interviews I had done” (D20).
to the UX as stated by PO DEV1: “I have a restricted relation Findings show that tests can be conducted face-to-face or re-
with the users.” motely, as D20 says: “Logback allows users to record interviews
2) Design and Prototyping: All UX designers except D9 or tests remotely or face-to-face.” The user test step is very
stated that they participated in the screen codesign stage. In important in digital production. D2, for instance, left his former
UX design, Sketch was the main technical tool used, which company because it lacked a rigorous application of the user
the UX designers used to codesign “wireframes” (functional test. The user’s test is a special task to the UX as PO DEV 1,
model) showing the screen architecture (application or website), a developer, states: “unfortunately, I cannot test with users …
as reported by D3: “With Sketch, we make the wireframes, it they do not have time.” Beyond the traditional testing tools, there
is the ergonomic skeleton of the pages. It is like the architect are sophisticated instruments in the form of “tinted windows.”
and the interior designer …with Sketch, we produce these two These kinds of tools allow the user to be face-to-face with an
types of deliverables.” Producing a simple digital model is actual simulator and test screen usability. Users here are invited
necessary: “as for the modeling tools, it is with Sketch that we to test the products: “We take real users and make them react
make the wireframes, the simple prototypes” (D6). For more and respond to interfaces so that they can give us their real-time
elaborate prototyping, UX makes use of software such as Flinto, feelings” (D9). The main objective is to put the user in a situation
Marvel, and Principal, which allow more dynamic ergonomic where their reaction face to the screen can be identified. In digital
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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4215

production, it happens that other actors participate in the test, as to as “future teams.” The UX designer has a major contribu-
affirmed by PO DEV 2: “Once we are in need, we test solutions tion which is the design of functionality, as D10 points out:
of prototypes nearby these customers.” “Often it is the PO who takes care of building and prioritizing
Upon completion of the test, the UX designer can return to the functionalities and building the backlog (the list of future
ideation and research. This step identifies the existence of other functionalities) that will be developed. And then the design part
constraints, allowing them to be removed during the redesign: deals with designing these features in terms of UX.” PO1 then
“They can tell us what they think and the problems they have adds that he is a “member who coordinates between all jobs of
run into” (D9). There are times when the UX designer fails to development, the designers and the users.” D12 emphasized that
fully understand users. In this case, more research is needed, she helps the developer prioritize the screen’s functionalities: “I
as D2 stated: “We cannot empathize all the time. Sometimes we was in charge of having the user vision to prioritize with the
do not understand the users.” DEV 2 recommends not have a developers the functionalities to implement.”
test in the moment of development: “We do not have the culture 2) Quality: UX is not only limited to prioritizing functional-
to automatize these tests in the development …this causes many ities but also meeting user needs: “I was there to defend the voice
errors of regression.” of the user and not to delete an important functionality at the
UX can be seen as pragmatic because it allows the user to expense of an essential user need” (D16). In this sense, DEV1
possess a model closer to reality, giving him or her a preliminary highlights that “my relationship with the UX is to understand
idea of the screen. Pragmatically seen, the user test allows the graphics and functional needs through the returns of users to
producers to save time, as D3 stressed: “The idea is to make improve the product.” As a result, the UX designer must control
the model clickable without any development.” The back and against deviations, as D19 mentions: “In the agile organization,
forth between the user test and the ideation are still valid. he can fully play his role of overseer of a good UX.” In the same
The UX designer tests usability more than once, checking and vein, PO1 states that the UX is “the one who knows well that
updating user requirements. “When I see them, it is to ask them the user makes the UX a better vision on its product.”
to use or test the application, ask them for their opinion and UX contributes to the upstream of the agile organization as
needs” (D6). Through user testing, UX designers examine the well, as D3 stated: “Here, we are in the upstream phase. We
user’s perception of the digital screen itself, as D20 pointed out: are fully upstream of the organization.” This idea was validated
“We conduct user tests or interviews to measure the end-user’s by D10: “UX design is a link in the chain, often upstream
perception of the tool or service the company is going to have.” of product development.” The contribution takes place two to
This also shows that the research phase is iterative and extends three weeks in advance of a sprint. They are the first to start the
into the test phase. agile organization as UI2 testifies: “They are on the front line to
Findings show that UX designers can design devices in a way analyze the needs.”
that allows them to test the UX. This typically involves internally Sometimes, there are enterprises that do not prefer to have UX
cobuilt tools: “Care is a tool that we have developed. It allows us in the heart of the agile organization, as pointed out by DEV1:
to measure UX, such as an interactive questionnaire” (D19). The “There are some enterprises where having a UX actually makes
test is a complex process with the UX designer, which achieves the process slower.” The UX designer makes corrections to the
several protocols through which they offer several versions to digital products produced, as D19 discussed: “This allows a
test among users: “The protocol for different usability scales has UX designer to intervene more often and make more frequent
to be carried out” (D18). Ultimately, the UX designer works corrections.” In this sense, PO DEV1 emphasizes that “UX will
closely with the developer: “We test what has been developed” blend perfectly into the stages of an agile project.”
(D18). DEV 4, a developer, highlights that it happens to recom- 3) Responsiveness: In an agile organization, responsiveness
mend the development again: “They are users’ feedback, they remains an important element for saving time and generating
will contribute to create a new iteration, in order to make a added value. Everything is done in a sprint. D7: “We will provide
review and an improvement.” models to be validated, tested, and developed in a sprint.” Here,
the level of iteration is very high. The UX designer works in
iteration and spontaneously with others. This is also confirmed
C. Ideation, Test, and Agility: Responsive Design by PO DEV 1: “I would like to work with UX designers …with
1) Flexibility: The analysis revealed that UX design increas- the UX we complete each other.” As D8 pointed out: “We can
ingly contributes to agility. All of the UX designers that are all work together in any iteration. We try to bring the brick that
interviewed worked in/with agility in digital production. The the others need.” We, therefore, understand that the UX designer
UX occupies an important place in agility, as affirmed by PO1: lays a brick alongside the others. The DP could not be completed
“The UX is a binomial of all days. The UX has the same product’s without the presence of a UX designer. In agile organizations, the
vision as PO.” The objective of this method is to organize the UX designer attempts to adapt to the acceleration imposed by the
digital production in the sprint, during which the objective is sprint logic. This article shows that the design sprint is relatively
clear from the start, as D3 specified: “Here we are in a two-week long compared to other tasks. Design sprints kick things off to
sprint …thus, we have small teams that can work independently better explore user needs as D9 said: “We follow the rhythm
and that have to commit at the start of a sprint to what we of the sprints. Three weeks of design, and the third week, we
will deliver at the end of the sprint.” In some companies, UX will have an evaluation phase with users …but also to possibly
designers cross-sectionally participate in all agile organizations, seek answers to questions that may arise on the next cycles, and
relating to different digital products to make up what they refer the next design sprint.” D9 highlighted the proactive role of the
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4216 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

UX designer who can respond to the constraints imposed by the The following Fig. 2 presents an illustration of an exploratory
agile organization. In agility, the UX designer can speed up the model connecting the three interrelated pillars of user-inspired
organization as DEV3 points out, “the UX designer usually gets design, adjusted design, and responsive design.
customer feedback, and they do the design behind it and say
whether it is possible or not.”
Within an agile organization, UX saves the team time by V. DISCUSSION
dealing with complex questions, especially in relation to users: Qualitative research enabled this article to explore a new
“We often ask them to go talk to users … it is a task which is approach to UX design. This new discipline maintains some
quite time consuming and quite complex” (PO2). trappings of classic design. Consistent with the idea defended
D11 specified that she gives rhythm to the digital production: by Simon [1], UX design still has a problem-solving mission
“The agile side is there, every morning we have a meeting, in digital production. On the other hand, this research justifies
telling what we did the day before. What are we doing today? the fact that UX design is not an analytical problem-solving
We proceed by sprint there, too.” The UX designer regularly approach [1], [39], but instead an alchemical and iterative one
monitors the progress of the agile organization. Instant super- that strongly depends on the user. In line with the works of
vision gives an idea of the screen to design in order to avoid Gurusamy et al. [18], our article showed that DT is useful for
expensive failures. This is why the UX designer works with the digital production and that DT improves the agile method. In
developer, as specified by D11: “On sprint day 1, the developer addition, the DT adapts to the iteration logic of agility. The study
needs the ready-made model …I have the models tested by end- of the precise needs of a digital screen user is a differentiating
users …and then I work with the developer, I present the model function of design [3]. Unlike other design disciplines, UX
to him and I always present when he makes the development.” design is based on user-oriented design and takes human dignity
The UX designer prefers to work in agile mode to save time and into account [5].
be more responsive, as D4 specified: “The problem of nonagility This article, therefore, helps explore the alchemical and it-
on a project is the lack of responsiveness. In any project today, we erative aspects of UX design. It confirms Peirce’s [59] prag-
are agile.” D10 shared the same point of view: “ …participating, matic semiotics approach with its three interacting entities of
being responsive, it is in the work process.” representation (user habits), object (digital screen, website, or
4) Speed: The UX designer tries to offer useful recommen- application), and interpreter (user). This enhances the relevance
dations to save time and adapt to agility, as D18 pointed out: of Peirce’s approach as a theory of design in innovation and
“With sprints, backlogs to set up …to save time, the designer’s Morris’s approach [61] as already used by Borja de Mozota [60]
intervention is undoubtedly effective.” One of the main UX in product, packaging, graphic, and space design. This research
missions in an agile organization is quickly making the screen confirms this in the UX and digital contexts. In this digital con-
tangible to save time: “make tangible very quickly what everyone text, our article affirms that the DT is a human-centered approach
thinks …so that you can test it quickly before you invest more in and facilitates innovative transformation. Similarly, agility is
terms of development” (D18). In this sense, DEV3 confirms that useful, especially in an innovative and dynamic context [18].
UX accelerates the agile organization “UX designers clearly Our article also affirms that user-centered design is effective for
speed up task completion.” This shows that UX design has a innovation because it gives meaning to things by studying the
preventive role in best guaranteeing screen usability. For UX needs of these users [47].
design, operating in agile mode seems more relevant than a
classic activity, as D19 added: “For us, it is nice because it
allows a better result.” To minimize the duration of the digital A. User-centered Research Design
production, the UX designer formalizes and capitalizes on all This exploratory study of UX designers confirms the research
the information processed during prior meetings. D13 pointed aspect of design. The participative aspect of design (or codesign)
out: “We had an agile organization; we did retrospections in all has been clearly demonstrated. In the first step of inspiration, the
the meetings.” UX designer mainly proposes hypotheses to solve a problem,
In the agile organization, one of the UX design missions is and above all, stimulate innovation [48]. The proposed hypothe-
to carry out difficult and expensive user tests. This fundamental ses allow the UX designer to make future projections in line with
step gives greater importance to UX within the agile organi- the works of Liedtka [46]. In accordance with the works of Kolko
zation, as D20 specified: “Even if a user test is expensive, it [17], our article shows that in a digital context, design helps
gives us more power, I think. It actually enhances our role in the reduce complexity and imagine future solutions to innovate. The
agile organization.” The test is expensive because it requires UX designer relies on research tools to verify these hypotheses
a long-term intervention as well as regular contact with the of an exploratory nature, most often relating to social science.
user, as D20 pointed out: “For example, if the developer sprints These tools are mainly based on individual and group interviews
for 15 days, it takes him three weeks to a month to do a user as well as observation. Here, we can say that UX responds
test. In fact, we do not necessarily have the same rhythm as a to the inspiration achieved via DT. Compared to the rules of
developer.” This is why DEV3 insists on the important role of classical DT [10], [12], this study adds a specificity relating
UX in agility: “If you skip the design aspect a bit … you end to UX design, which is the formal formulation of hypotheses.
up with an application that meets less customer expectations.” Beyond the inspiration offered by classic DT [10], this study
This raises the following question: Can UX design be preventive promotes the use of digital tools by UX, helping to collect data
to guarantee prompt responsiveness? and generate new ideas [48]. This method may, in fact, not be
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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4217

Fig. 2. Exploratory model of pragmatic user-centered design.1

reliable because it can miss the behaviors and reactions of the the upstream participation of the user in digital production [10],
users as recommended by DT [10]. [12], but offers a user cocreation, coinspiration, and codesign
On the other hand, this article shows that research is not approach as well. DT via UX, therefore, constitutes a kind
a special activity for the UX designer. Other actors, such as of user participation even in the way a company is managed,
development, UI, or the PO, can participate in the research of echoing the works of Kolko [17]. This study also shows that
user needs. In line with the works of Veryzer and de Mozota [29], the coconstruction of artifacts is done in close collaboration
this study confirms that UX design research can also apply tools with the PO, UI, and especially with the developer. In line
as simple as pencil and paper to generate new ideas and check with the approach of Visser [41], our study validates the idea
the previous assumptions being reformulated. It is here that we according to which UX design builds several intermediate visual
see UX design converging with classic design [1], [5]. Unlike the representations to eventually have a final artifact that will be
works of Brown and Katz [11], this study shows that in France, tested afterward.
the role of design (UX design in particular) is still seeking
its place within the organization. Although companies do not B. Design Adjustment by User Test
take into account all user needs, in line with Brown and Katz
The implementation of individual and collective user tests
[11], they are, in fact, trying to implicitly use DT techniques.
enhances the research contribution of this study by enriching
Organizing workshops with users can be considered in this
classic approaches to design which typically fail to properly
research as an inspiration. Through UX, this article confirms the
consider the return to the user. Unlike prior design approaches
idea that DT is seen as a tool for integrating design in companies
[1], [2], [3], [48], this study highlights the obligation of the
[45]. In this sense, the study reinforces this idea, for which
face-to-face user test, through tinted windows and remotely via
other actors, such as the developer, UI, and the PO, practice
online interviewing tools, as well as their roles in the success
DT within the organization. On the other hand, the UX designer
of digital production. In line with the works by Cooper et al.
keeps the most important part of this. It also reinforces the idea
[45] and Borja de Mozota [3], UX design can help companies
of codesign with users. In addition, this study not only values
achieve goals and set themselves apart from competitors through
1 This figure reflects the triadic dimension of Pierce’s semiotic approach
(meaning, pragmatic and technology). There is a dynamic and alchemical the DT and agility. These three levels are not applied analytically but iteratively.
relationship between the three levels of the model (user-inspired design, adjusted UX designers meet the needs of the users, then they test prototype at the end
design, and responsive design) following the iteration logic imposed jointly by they adapt and react quickly.
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4218 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. 70, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2023

adequate user testing. Consistent with the works of Brown [10] UX designers find a good balance between the conditions of the
as well as Brown and Wyatt [12], this study confirms that the user agile organization and the interests of users.
test is applied to put the user in an actual digital production situ- This duality is at the heart of the work on the link between
ation. Beyond the classic DT approach, UX design promotes the design and agility. Through its responsiveness, UX design can,
performance of tests on actual screens to guarantee an exchange as the results show, participate implicitly in the speed constraint,
closer to reality with the user. This confirms the application of echoing the work of Lin et al. [37]. Adaptability and speed are
pragmatism in digital production [57], especially with a user test two pillars of agility. This stands in contrast to classic design
with interactive objects. The features prioritized by UX in the approaches, which emphasize slow reflexivity [2]. From this
codesign stage are an advantage for better testing. perspective and the statements of the partners, it can be con-
This article mainly confirms the iterative aspects of UX cluded that UX design effectively contributes to the acceleration
design [10] and highlights the important relationship between of agility.
the designer and the user in digital production. A test phase The analyses confirm the idea that the main mission of a
is fundamental for evaluating the screen designed by the UX UX designer, whether in the agile or classic organization, is
designer to trigger another iteration cycle [56]. Placing the the user test that can join the idea of “empowerment, teamwork,
user in front of the screen is a good way to test the features and continuous improvement” [38, p. 165] defended by agility.
implemented by the UX designer [64]. User testing remains skill Responsiveness following the user test can be seen as a key
specific for the UX designer in the digital production. UX is seen skill for a UX designer when operating with agility during
as an expert and the only actor that is fully mastered. a digital production [38], [34]. In connection with DT [10],
This study enriches the idea that the research design side this study shows that the “user test” skill of UX design is
(inspiration and prototyping) can be questioned by the user a stimulus for responsiveness imposed by agility [36], [37].
test side. At the end of this phase, it is sometimes possible to This idea is also consistent with human–system–technology
resume research to regularize the digital production process. It relationships [24].
is here that UX design converges with classic design in terms As discussed, design and agility have several points in com-
of the production of several intermediate visual representations mon. These notions, however, do not have the same level of
to arrive at a single/final one [41]. Several representations here speed. UX design can react to speed through responsiveness.
make it possible to adjust the design in digital production. The The results show that UX designers are sometimes proactive.
interviewed partners confirmed the relevance of the start of the This is where we talk about pragmatic design in the sense of
digital production by UX in the first place. Shin et al. [64], as it is necessary to focus on fluidity from
the start and put functionality in the right place. And above
all, the integration of user needs must be upstream in digital
production. Another area where UX design can respond to the
C. Design and Agility: Responsive and Proactive Design speed of agility is with retrospection. When the UX designer
This article values the participation of UX design in agility. reformulates and synthesizes concrete elements of research in
All of the UX designers that were surveyed said that they the sense of Vermeerena et al. [66], he or she can help the design
had the opportunity to work in agility. Kock and Gemünden iteration in the digital production. In line with [53], this study
[25] state how the role of UX design in agile organizations shows that the UX designer can play the role of a stabilizer in
is to supervise digital production. Unlike the speed constraint digital production via creativity and feedback from experience.
imposed by agility [20], [25], [31], [34], UX design is based on Another area where the UX designer can respond to the speed
a two- to three-week sprint upstream with longer time spans. of agility is participation (through inspiration and codesign)
This constraint can stimulate the UX toward responsiveness in in the production of interactive objectives [57]. The time lost
digital production. in studying user needs can be compensated for by the rapid
When it comes to responsiveness, UX design has the role production of screens.
of formalizing all records of old activities or reporting to save
time. Goldman et al. [20] state how the UX design contribution
to agility is simultaneously achieved with other tasks. With its VI. CONCLUSION
autonomy in agility, UX design can integrate into agility by Exploring UX design with 20 designers together with views
respecting the objectives set in advance to achieve performance on the topic of 10 process partners, this article was able to pro-
[36]. In this sense, this study confirms the autonomy of a designer pose an exploratory model in pragmatic digital design through
in his activity, especially concerning the research of user needs the combination of DT and agility in digital production.
within an agile organization. On the theoretical level, this article first aimed to enrich the
This article showed that the UX designer must respect a models in design by highlighting a digital approach. Beyond the
duality to be better positioned for agility. This has been defended aesthetic, functional, commercial, and facilitating skills of the
by the work of Henderson-Sellers and Serour [35]: the designer designer, the designer’s digital skill is clearly apparent through
needs to be able to reconcile between internal change (adapt- the UX. A design research skill was, thus, highlighted in this
ability to digital production team conditions) and the external article, which is upstream of digital production. Second, through
environment (respecting user needs and updating customer ex- the role of adjusted design through user test competence, this
pectations). The testimonials of the partners have shown that study reinforces the iteration logic and enriches the models in

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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4219

design management. Third, this study responds to the constraints the identified patterns. We will ask you to put us in contact with
imposed by DT with responsiveness and proactivity, allowing another UX designer working in another agency, company, or
adaptation to an agile organization and produced several creative independently. We will ask you very open questions, and we
solutions. Agility conversely helps the DT to take on an acceler- will let you speak freely. Beyond the questions identified in the
ated posture, i.e., pragmatism in digital production equates to the guide, we will sometimes ask you additional questions.
design getting straight to the point. This approach offers a new
avenue for the integration of design into management sciences
C. Interview Questions
through agility. The designer, through UX, contributes to the im-
provement of agility management. UX design can be beneficial 1) What is your background? Your education? Your work
to agility, thanks to the user needs well studied beforehand and experience?
also thanks to the relevance of user tests. On the pragmatic level, 2) What technical tools do you use? What is your contribution
this research responds to the triad aspect of sign (representation, to the design of the models?
object, and interpreter) to innovate in design while keeping in [literature background: Brown, 2008; Brown and Wyatt, 2010;
mind that these three dimensions do not appear sequentially Brown and Katz, 2011]
but rather in a messy and interdependent way to respond to the 3) What management tools do you use? Do you participate in
iteration imposed by the design process. This article furthermore the decision-making process for example?
demonstrates that the pragmatic semiotic approach starts before [literature background: Borja de Mozota, 2003, 2006, 2008]
the creation of the final sign. Thank to this intersection between 4) What are your relations with your colleagues? With your
DT and agility, our study strengthens duality think and action superiors? Do you have any frustrations?
to satisfy needs and improve the innovation process. [literature background: This question comes from an en-
We furthermore aim to raise awareness among managers to counter with a UX designer who told us about his/her frustrations
better recognize the stabilizing and adjusting role of the UX at work. He/she told us how companies and managers do not
designer in digital production. We invite managers to increase recognize the efforts and contributions of UX design in business,
the number of UX designers in digital production to better despite its importance.]
minimize the number of iterations and suggest that companies 5) What are your commercial relations with customers? What
take advantage of the responsiveness and proactivity of designers are your relations with users?
in agile organizations [82]. [literature background: Borja de Mozota, 2002]
One of the major limitations of studies with qualitative 6) Are you looking for a social impact in your activity?
methodologies is the lack of results’ generalizability. A mea- [literature background: Bacq, S. and Janssen, F. (2011). The
surement scale development paper relating to this context of multiple faces of social entrepreneurship: a review of defini-
UX should be carried out, ideally with a large number of UX tional issues based on geographical and thematic criteria, En-
designers. In the future, we can use the participant observation of trepreneurship and Regional Development 23(5/6): 373–403.]
several digital production teams to achieve a microreading of the 7) Do you know the agile organization? Do you participate in
link between DT and agility to validate this exploratory model. agility? What is your contribution to agility? What is the role of
the UX designer in agility? Does the UX designer help you in
APPENDIX your business? Does the UX designer speed up the process?
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FORM [literature background: Conboy, 1999; Goldman and Nagel,
1993; Gunasekaran, 1999]
A. Introductory Protocol
8) Do you have difficulties with other actors of a project?
To facilitate our note taking, we would like to audiotape our [literature background: Carlile, P. R. (2002). A Pragmatic
conversations today. For your information, only researchers on View of Knowledge and Boundaries: Boundary Objects in New
the project will be privy to the tapes, which will be eventually Product Development, Organization Science 13(4): 442–455]
destroyed after they are transcribed. All information will be held 9) How do you share knowledge with others?
confidential, your participation is voluntary, and you may stop at [literature background: Tsoukas, H. (2009). A Dialogical
any time if you feel uncomfortable. Thank you for your agreeing Approach to the Creation of New Knowledge in Organizations,
to participate. We have planned this interview to last between Organization Science 20(6): 941–957.
30 and 90 min. During this time, we have several questions that Baralou, E., and Haridimos, T. (2015). How is New Organiza-
we would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be tional Knowledge created in a Virtual Context? An Ethnographic
necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete Study, Organization Studies 36(5): 593–620.]
this line of questioning.

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CHOUKI et al.: DT AND AGILITY IN DIGITAL PRODUCTION: THE KEY ROLE OF UX DESIGN 4221

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