1.

Source of Energy in Nuclear Reactors:

Energy is produced through the fission of uranium, extracted from its ore. No pollution from
carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide emissions. Produces radioactive waste with very long half-lives.
Safe storage for thousands of years is required to manage waste. Normally, reactors do not pose a
radiation risk. Accidents can cause dangerous radioactive material to leak and spread over large
areas.
Solar energy
Solar Energy Basics:
Energy from the Sun is mostly visible light and infrared radiation. One hour of solar energy
equals the world’s annual energy consumption. Low energy density requires large collectors.
Availability varies depending on weather and location.
1. Uses of Solar Energy:
Low-temperature applications: Heating water (up to ~70ºC) and swimming pools.
High-temperature applications: Solar furnaces (up to ~3000ºC) to produce steam for power
station turbines.
2. Solar Cells:
Made of semiconducting materials, convert sunlight directly into electricity.
Applications:
Power homes and satellites.
Small-scale power in remote areas.
Energy storage in batteries for later use.
3. Advancements:
Large solar power plants becoming cost-effective.
Prototype solar-powered vehicles are being developed.
Wind Energy
1. Origin: Infrared radiation from the Sun generates wind energy.
2. Wind Turbines:
Large windmills (wind turbines) with 30 m blades drive generators.
Wind farms with 20-100 turbines produce about 400 MW, enough for 250,000 homes in the UK.
Noise and unsightly appearance lead to objections, especially in coastal or scenic areas.
Wave Energy
1. Mechanism: Converts wave motion into rotary motion to drive generators.
2. Challenges:
Large-scale electricity production is unlikely soon.
Small systems are used for island communities.
Tidal and Hydroelectric Energy
1. Mechanism:
Tidal energy uses water held behind a tidal barrage in an estuary.
Hydroelectric schemes use water held behind river dams.
2. Examples:
Tidal: La Grande I project in Canada.
Hydroelectric: Provides 14% of India’s electricity; China generates 20% of its electricity from
hydroelectric sources.
3. Environmental Impact:
Dams may flood land, destroy habitats, and disrupt shipping routes.
Geothermal Energy
1. Mechanism:
Cold water is pumped into hot underground rocks, producing steam to drive turbines or heat
buildings.
2. Energy Source: Heat from radioactive decay deep in the Earth.
3. Locations: Viable in specific areas; operational in the USA, New Zealand, and Iceland.
Biofuels (Vegetable Fuels)
1. Sources: Biomass from crops, residues, vegetation, trees, animal dung, and sewage.
2. Uses:
Produce biofuels like ethanol and methane.
Ethanol can replace petrol (less energy per litre, but sulfur- and lead-free).
Biogas (methane + CO2) used for heating and cooking.
3. Advantages:
Reduces landfill waste. Eco-friendly (low sulfur and lead emissions).
4. Limitations:
Biogas is unstable and may explode. Not cost-effective for large-scale production.
Power Station Processes
1. Thermal Power Stations:
Use fossil fuels (coal, natural gas) or nuclear fuels (uranium, plutonium).
Thermal energy converts water to steam, driving turbines linked to generators.
Efficiency: ~30%, with energy loss in cooling towers.
2. Gas-Fired Power Stations:
Burn natural gas in a gas turbine connected to a generator.
Hot exhaust gases produce additional steam to generate electricity, increasing efficiency to over
50%.
Near 100% combustion efficiency, minimal harmful emissions, and almost sulfur-free fuel.
3. Renewable Energy Power Stations:
Use natural sources (e.g., wind, water, geothermal) to drive turbines directly.
Efficiency: High (85-90%) as they lack cooling towers.
Examples: Hydroelectric systems with pumped storage to manage peak demand.
Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues
1. Economic Costs:
Renewable energy: High initial setup costs but no fuel costs.
Fossil fuels and nuclear: Lower fuel costs, but nuclear has high decommissioning costs.
Electricity generation costs: Gas/coal (9-22 US¢), wind (7-16 US¢), nuclear (>10 US¢).
2. Environmental Impacts:
Fossil fuels: Emit pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide).
Renewable energy: Low emissions but dilute energy increases cost.
Nuclear energy: Concerns after disasters (e.g., Fukushima) have led some countries to reduce or
phase out nuclear power.
Reliability of Energy Sources
1. Non-Renewable Sources:
Reliable and available anytime if fuel is present.
Start-up times: Natural gas (shortest), coal (longer), nuclear (longest).
2. Renewable Sources:
Hydroelectric: Reliable with a short start-up time.
Tidal: Predictable but depends on tide heights.
Wind and solar: Unreliable due to weather and light intensity variations.
Global Energy Consumption
1. Dependence on Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels dominate global energy consumption. Renewable sources contribute only a small
fraction.
2. Regional Variation:
North America and Europe consume 42% of global energy.
World average: 76 × 10⁹ J per person per year.
Future Energy Challenges
1. New Solutions Needed:
Global energy demands highlight the need for innovative and sustainable energy solutions.
Focus on reducing dependence on fossil fuels while increasing renewable energy use.
Expression for Liquid Pressure
 Liquid Pressure Dependency:

o Pressure increases with depth ( Δh ) and density ( ρ ) of the liquid.

o Important for applications like dam design, where pressure must be calculated at
various depths.
 Derivation of Liquid Pressure:

o For a liquid column of:

 Height: Δh
 Cross-sectional area: A
 Density: ρ ,
o Volume of liquid column: ΔhA
o Mass of liquid column: m=ρΔhA
o Weight of liquid column: W =mg=ρΔhAg
o Force on area A : F=ρΔhAg
o Pressure ( Δp ):
F
Δp= =ρgΔh
A
 Liquid Pressure Formula in Words:
Change in pressure=Density ×Gravitational field strength ×Change in height
 Characteristics of Liquid Pressure:

o Acts equally in all directions at a given depth ( Δh ).

o Depends only on ρ (density) and Δh (depth).
o SI unit: Pascal (Pa), where:
 Δh : Metres (m),
 ρ : kg/m 3.

Pressure Measurement Devices

2. Bourdon Gauge:

o Measures fluid (liquid or gas) pressure.

o Working principle:
 A curved metal tube tries to straighten under applied fluid pressure.
 This movement rotates a pointer over a calibrated scale.
o Applications:
 Car oil-pressure gauges.
 Gas cylinder gauges.
3. U-Tube Manometer:
 o Measures the pressure of a gas relative to atmospheric pressure.
o Working principle:
 When connected to a gas source, gas pressure on surface A displaces
liquid, raising level B.
 Gas pressure:
Pressure of gas=Atmospheric pressure+ Pressure due to liquid column
 Pressure due to the liquid column ( BC ):
hρg
 h : Height of liquid column (m).
 ρ : Liquid density (kg/m 3).
o Head of liquid:
 Height h is often reported in units like cm of water or mm of mercury.
4. Mercury Barometer:

o Measures atmospheric pressure using mercury.

o Working principle:
 Atmospheric pressure supports a column of mercury in a tube.
 Height difference ( Δh ) between mercury levels in the tube and the bowl is
proportional to atmospheric pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure ( P):
P= ρgΔh
 Δh : Height of mercury column in metres.
 ρ : Mercury density (kg/m 3).
o Characteristics:
 Normal atmospheric pressure: ≈ 760 mm Hg .
 Vacuum forms above the mercury column (except for mercury vapour).

Key Notes for Liquid Pressure Applications

 Design Considerations:

o In dam engineering, precise calculation of pressure at various depths ensures

structural safety.
o Higher depths experience greater pressures due to Δp= ρgΔh.
 Behavior of Liquid Columns:

o Pressure acts vertically and uniformly at a given depth.

o The cross-sectional area of the tube or container does not affect Δh .
 Practical Observations:

o Tilting the barometer tube changes the length of the mercury column but does not
affect the height Δh , which determines pressure.
 Exercise 1.8
Exercise
1. True or False Statements on Pressure
A. Pressure is the force acting on unit area.
True. This is the definition of pressure.
B. Pressure is calculated from force/area.
F
True. Pressure is defined mathematically as P= .
A
C. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which equals 1 newton per square metre (1 N/m²).
True. The Pascal is the standard SI unit for pressure.
D. The greater the area over which a force acts, the greater the pressure.
False. Pressure decreases as the area increases, given the same force.
E. Force = pressure × area.
True. This is a correct rearrangement of the pressure formula: F=P ⋅ A .
F. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which equals 1 newton per metre (1 N/m).
False. The correct unit is 1 newton per square metre (1 N/m²).

2. Calculations of Pressure on the Wood-Block Floor

a.
i. Pressure exerted by the box:
F 2000 kN
P= = =1000 kPa
A 2m
2

ii. Pressure exerted by the elephant:

F 200 kN
P= = =1000 kPa
A 0.2 m 2

iii. Pressure exerted by the girl:

F 0.5 kN
P= = =2500 kPa
A 0.0002 m 2

b. A wood-block floor can withstand a pressure of 2000 kPa.

 The girl wearing high-heeled shoes will damage the floor because her pressure (2500
kPa) exceeds the floor's limit (2000 kPa).
 The box and the elephant will not damage the floor, as their pressures are 1000 kPa,
which is within the safe limit.
3. Hydraulic Press
a. Pressure transmitted through the liquid:
F 20 N
P= = =100 Pa
A 0.20 m 2

b. Force on the larger piston:

2
F=P ⋅ A=100 Pa ⋅2.0 m =200 N

4. Pressure in a Liquid
a.
A. The pressure in a liquid increases with depth.
True. Pressure increases linearly with depth according to P= ρgh.
B. The pressure in a liquid increases with density.
True. Higher density causes greater pressure at a given depth.
C. The pressure in a liquid is greater vertically than horizontally.
False. Pressure acts equally in all directions at a given point in a liquid.
b. Increase in pressure at 100 m depth:
3 2
P= ρgh=1150 kg/m ⋅ 9.8 m/s ⋅100 m
P=1 , 127 , 000 Pa ( ¿ 1.127 MPa )

5. Pressure Equation and Depth

a. Equation:
P= ρgh
b. Unit of pressure: Pascal (Pa).
c. Depth of water where P=7.5 × 106 Pa :
6
P 7.5 ×10 Pa
h= =
ρg 1030 kg/m 3 ⋅ 9.8 m/s2
h=743.7 m

6. Barometer
a. The region A is a vacuum (or near vacuum).
b. Mercury is kept in the tube by atmospheric pressure acting on the mercury reservoir.
c. The atmospheric pressure shown by the barometer is the height of the mercury column in mm
(e.g., typically 760 mmHg).
d. If the barometer is taken up a high mountain, the reading will decrease because atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude.

Unit 2.2
2.2.1 Thermal Expansion
 Particles in solids and liquids are in constant vibration.
 Heating increases vibrations, causing particles to move further apart, resulting in
expansion.

Relative Expansion of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

 Solids:
o Linear expansion is small; noticeable only in long objects or large temperature
changes.
o Example: A 1 m steel bar expands by 0.012 mm per 1°C.
 Liquids:
o Particles are less ordered and more mobile than solids, making expansion easier.
o Liquids expand about 5 times more than solids for the same temperature rise.
 Gases:
o Particles are far apart with minimal interactions, allowing easy expansion.
o Gases expand about 20 times more than liquids for the same temperature rise.

Uses of Expansion
 Axles and Gear Wheels:
o Cooling axles (e.g., using liquid nitrogen) shrinks them to allow gear fitting. Upon
warming, expansion creates a tight fit.
 Metal Lids on Glass Jars:
o Immersing the lid in hot water expands it, loosening the lid.
 Thermometers:
o Expansion of liquids or gases measures temperature.
 Car Engines:
o Expanding gas drives pistons.

Bimetallic Strips
 Working Principle:
o Two metals with different expansion rates are riveted together. On heating, the
strip bends due to unequal expansion.
  Uses:
o Fire Alarms: Bending completes a circuit, ringing the alarm.
o Indicator Lamps: Electric heating bends the strip to operate flashing car
indicators.
o Thermostats: Maintains steady temperature by breaking and remaking electrical
circuits.

Precautions Against Expansion

 Railway Tracks:
o Gaps or overlapping ends prevent buckling during summer.
o Modern rails use concrete sleepers to absorb expansion forces.
 Guttering:
o Slight gaps allow expansion.
 Central Heating Pipes:
o Expansion joints allow pipes to expand safely when carrying hot water.

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
 Mechanism:
o Liquid expands up a capillary tube when heated.
o Suitable liquids must expand visibly, rapidly, and consistently without sticking to
the tube.
 Common Liquids:
o Mercury:
 Freezes at −39°C, boils at 357°C, but is toxic.
o Alcohol:
 Freezes at −115°C, boils at 78°C, suitable for low temperatures.
o Galinstan:
 Non-toxic mercury substitute, melts at −19°C, boils at 1300°C.
Internal Energy
 Definition: Energy associated with the motion of particles in an object.
 Kinetic Particle Theory:
o Temperature measures the average kinetic energy ( E k) of particles.
o Higher average kinetic energy leads to higher particle speed and temperature.
o Heating an object increases its internal energy by increasing the kinetic energy of
all particles.
2.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity
Thermal Energy and Temperature
 Key Differences:
o Temperature: Measures average kinetic energy of particles.
o Thermal Energy: Total energy due to the motion of all particles in a body.
o Example:
 A red-hot spark has a higher temperature than boiling water.
 Boiling water has more thermal energy because it contains many more
particles.
 Heat Transfer:
o Thermal energy moves from a hotter body to a cooler one.
o Collisions between particles reduce kinetic energy in the hotter body and increase
it in the cooler one.
o When kinetic energy becomes equal, both bodies reach the same temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity

 Definition:
o The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C.
o Formula:
ΔE
c=
mΔθ
 c : Specific heat capacity ( J / ( kg❑∘ C ))
 ΔE : Energy change (J)
 m : Mass (kg)
 Δθ : Temperature change (°C)
o Rearranged equation:
ΔE=mcΔθ
 Unit: Joule per kilogram per degree Celsius ( J / ( kg❑∘ C )).
 Examples:
o Water has a higher specific heat capacity than paraffin.
o Equal thermal energy raises paraffin's temperature more than water’s due to its
lower specific heat capacity.

 Internal energy increases with particle motion, measured as kinetic energy.

 Temperature relates to particle speed, while thermal energy accounts for total energy of
all particles.
 Specific heat capacity defines how much energy a material requires to change
temperature.
Importance of the High Specific Heat Capacity of Water
Water’s high specific heat capacity (4200 J/(kg °C)) means it absorbs and releases more energy
than materials like soil (800 J/(kg °C)) for the same temperature change. This causes water to
heat and cool more slowly, stabilizing temperatures in coastal regions and islands, unlike inland
areas like Central Asia with extreme seasonal variations.
This property, along with water's availability and affordability, makes it ideal for cooling
engines and central heating systems, where efficient energy transfer is crucial.

2.2.3 Solidifying, Melting, and Boiling

When a solid is heated, it may melt and change its state from a solid to a liquid. This transition
occurs at a specific temperature, known as the melting temperature, which remains constant
until all the solid has melted. For example, ice melts at 0∘ C under standard atmospheric
pressure. The reverse process, solidification or freezing, occurs when a liquid changes to a solid
at the same temperature. During both processes, the temperature does not change because the
energy supplied or released is used to overcome or re-establish intermolecular forces. For
instance, when liquid stearic acid solidifies, its temperature stays constant at 69∘ C until the
process is complete. Similarly, when energy is supplied to a boiling liquid, such as water at
∘
100 C , the temperature remains constant as the liquid transitions into a gas. This energy,
required to change the state without altering the temperature, is referred to as latent heat.

Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation

The latent heat of fusion is the energy absorbed by a solid during melting or released by a liquid
during solidification. This energy does not cause a temperature rise; instead, it is used to
overcome intermolecular forces, allowing particles to move more freely in the liquid state.
Conversely, the latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required to convert a liquid into a
vapour or the energy released when a vapour condenses back to a liquid. For example, water
boiling at 100∘ C absorbs latent heat, which remains "hidden" as it does not raise the temperature
further. The significant energy required for vaporisation explains why steam burns are more
severe than burns from boiling water; steam releases additional latent heat during
condensation.
Kinetic Particle Model and Changes of State or Phase
The kinetic particle model provides a clear explanation of energy transfer during changes of
state. When a solid melts, the energy absorbed increases the potential energy of the particles
rather than their kinetic energy (No change in T occurs). This energy allows the particles to
overcome the forces holding them in fixed positions, enabling them to move more freely in the
liquid state. During solidification, the reverse occurs: energy is released as particles lose
potential energy, move closer together, and form a solid structure. Similarly, during
vaporisation, particles require a large amount of energy to overcome the forces holding them
together in the liquid state and to expand into the gaseous state. This energy, again, increases
their potential energy rather than their kinetic energy. In condensation, the opposite happens as
energy is released to the surroundings when particles lose potential energy and come closer
together.

 Particles come close together  Potential energy is lost (Solidification, Condensation)

 Particles move far apart  Potential energy increases (fusion, vaporization)
 No change in Ek occurs during phase change (No change in T). Energy input increases
potential energy during expansion and energy is released to decrease potential energy during
contraction

Boiling and Evaporation

Boiling and evaporation are both processes where a liquid transitions to a gas, but they differ
significantly. Boiling occurs at a specific boiling temperature, such as water boiling at 100∘ C
under standard atmospheric pressure. This process is characterized by the formation of bubbles
within the liquid, containing vapour that rises to the surface. In contrast, evaporation happens at
all temperatures and involves only the particles at the surface of the liquid. These particles
escape into the gas phase when they gain sufficient energy to overcome the forces binding
them to the liquid. Evaporation is influenced by conditions such as higher temperature, which
provides particles with more energy, larger surface area, which exposes more particles to
escape, and wind or air movement, which carries vapour particles away, preventing them from
returning to the liquid.
Cooling by Evaporation and Practical Applications
Evaporation causes cooling because the faster-moving particles escape first, leaving behind
particles with lower average kinetic energy, which reduces the liquid's temperature. This
principle is utilized in various ways. For instance, sweating helps regulate body temperature as
water evaporates from the skin, removing heat. Similarly, volatile liquids, such as ether, cool the
skin when they evaporate, making them useful in local anaesthetics and perfumes. Large-scale
cooling systems like refrigerators and air conditioners rely on evaporation to absorb heat and
cool the surroundings. A demonstration of cooling by evaporation involves dichloromethane, a
volatile liquid that evaporates rapidly when air is blown over it. This evaporation absorbs energy
from the liquid and its surroundings, causing water beneath it to freeze.

Thermal Energy Transfer During State Changes

During melting, boiling, and evaporation, energy is transferred to the substance without
causing a rise in temperature because it is used to overcome intermolecular forces.
Conversely, during freezing and condensation, energy is released to the surroundings as
particles lose potential energy. This energy transfer explains why the temperature remains
constant during a state change, as observed in experiments with melting ice or boiling water.
Understanding these principles is essential for explaining real-life phenomena such as sweating,
cooling systems, and the difference in burn severity from boiling water versus steam.

Change of State and the Kinetic Particle Model

The kinetic particle model explains changes of state by describing how particles gain or lose
energy, altering their motion and overcoming intermolecular forces. These changes include
melting, solidification, vaporization, condensation, boiling, and evaporation.

Melting and Solidification

During melting, particles in a solid absorb energy, increasing their potential energy and
overcoming intermolecular forces. The particles transition from vibrating in fixed positions to
sliding past each other in the liquid state. Importantly, their average kinetic energy does not
increase because the energy is used to break bonds, not to raise temperature.
In solidification, the reverse occurs. Particles in a liquid lose potential energy, which is
transferred to the surroundings as thermal energy. The particles settle into fixed positions,
forming a solid.

Vaporization and Condensation

In vaporization, particles in a liquid absorb a large amount of energy, allowing them to

overcome intermolecular forces and become gas particles. This energy increases their potential
energy, not their kinetic energy. Additional energy is required to push back the surrounding
atmosphere during the liquid-to-gas expansion.
In condensation, gas particles lose potential energy as they come closer together, transferring
thermal energy to the surroundings. This allows the gas to return to the liquid state.

Boiling and Evaporation

Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature (e.g., 100°C for water) and involves the formation of
bubbles of gas within the liquid. Energy is stored in the vapor and released when it re-condenses
into a liquid.
Evaporation occurs at all temperatures when high-energy particles near the liquid's surface
escape into the gas phase. Unlike boiling, evaporation happens without bubble formation.

Conditions Affecting Evaporation

Evaporation occurs faster under these conditions:

5. Higher temperatures: More particles have enough energy to escape.

6. Larger surface area: More particles are exposed to the surface, increasing escape
opportunities.
7. Wind or draught: Moving air removes vapor particles, preventing their return to the
liquid.

Cooling by Evaporation

As particles with higher kinetic energy escape during evaporation, the average kinetic energy of
the remaining particles decreases, causing the liquid's temperature to drop. This cooling effect
can be observed in daily life:
  Sweating: Water evaporating from the skin removes heat, regulating body temperature.
 Refrigeration: Evaporation of volatile liquids cools the surroundings.
 Perfumes: Volatile liquids evaporate rapidly, producing a cooling sensation.

Uses and Applications

 Sweat Cooling: Maintains body temperature but can overcool the body after vigorous
exercise.
 Medical Applications: Ether acts as a local anesthetic by evaporative cooling during
injections.
 Refrigerators and Air Conditioning: Use evaporation to remove heat from enclosed
spaces.
 Perfumes: Contain volatile liquids that evaporate quickly, leaving behind a pleasant
scent.

Important Points to Remember

Melting and vaporization increase potential energy, not kinetic energy.

Solidification and condensation transfer potential energy from particles to the
surroundings.
Evaporation occurs faster with higher temperature, larger surface area, and wind.
Cooling occurs because evaporation removes higher-energy particles, reducing the average
kinetic energy of the liquid.
 Unit 2.3. Transfer of Heat

Conduction
Conduction is the process by which thermal energy (heat) flows from areas of higher
temperature to areas of lower temperature without the movement of the matter itself. For
example, when a metal spoon is placed in a hot drink, its handle quickly becomes warm as heat
travels along it by conduction. This flow of energy occurs more effectively in metals, which are
good conductors, than in materials like wood, plastic, or cork, which are insulators (poor
conductors).
A simple experiment demonstrates the differences in conducting ability: rods made of copper,
aluminium, brass, and iron are heated at one end. As the far ends of the rods reach the melting
point of wax, matches attached to the rods fall off in order of their thermal conductivity. The
match on copper falls first, showing that it is the best conductor, followed by aluminium,
brass, and then iron. Factors that enhance conduction include having a large cross-sectional
area, a shorter length, and a greater temperature difference between the two ends of the
material.
Metals feel colder than insulators, even when they are at the same temperature, because metals
transfer heat away from your hand faster. This is due to their superior thermal conductivity
compared to insulators.
Conduction and the Particle Model
The efficiency of metals in conduction is due to the presence of free (delocalised) electrons.
When a part of a metal is heated, its free electrons move faster, transferring energy to cooler
parts of the material. This process occurs rapidly in metals, making them excellent conductors.
In non-metals, which lack free electrons, heat transfer happens through vibrations of atoms or
molecules. This slower process explains why non-metals are poor conductors and make good
insulators.
Some materials, like semiconductors, have thermal conductivities between those of metals and
insulators. These materials are often used in electronic circuits, where a moderate range of
conductivity is required. In summary, metals efficiently transfer heat due to their free electrons,
non-metals rely on slower atomic vibrations, and insulators like wood and plastic resist the
flow of heat effectively.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy through fluids (liquids and gases) by the
movement of the fluid itself from hotter regions to cooler ones. This process is commonly
observed in both liquids and gases. For example, in water, convection can be demonstrated by
dropping potassium permanganate crystals into a beaker of water and heating it gently below
the crystals. The rising purple streaks of water show the movement of warmer fluid, which is
less dense and is pushed upwards by the surrounding cooler, denser fluid. These moving streams
of fluid are known as convection currents.
The process occurs because heating causes the fluid to expand, decreasing its density, and
allowing the warmer fluid to rise, much like a cork rising in water. As warm fluid moves upward,
cooler fluid takes its place, creating a continuous cycle. Devices like lava lamps operate based
on this principle. Thus, convection efficiently transfers heat through fluids by the motion of the
fluid particles.
Convection in Air
In air, convection currents are visible through phenomena such as black marks on walls or
ceilings above lamps or radiators. These marks result from dust particles being carried upward
by the convection currents generated by the heat source.
A laboratory demonstration of convection in air involves using a setup with a candle and smoke
from touch paper. When the candle heats the air, a convection current forms, and the movement
of air becomes visible as the smoke is carried along with the current. This process highlights how
warm air rises and cooler air moves in to replace it, maintaining a convection cycle.
Radiation
Radiation is a method of transferring thermal energy that does not require matter, making it
unique compared to conduction and convection, which need a medium. Radiation can occur in a
vacuum, such as the way thermal energy reaches Earth from the Sun. It consists of infrared
radiation, a type of electromagnetic wave that travels at the speed of light. When thermal
radiation strikes an object, it is partly reflected, partly transmitted, and partly absorbed, with
the absorbed portion increasing the object's temperature. In hot climates, buildings are often
painted white to reflect radiation and keep them cooler.
Good and Bad Absorbers
Certain surfaces absorb radiation more effectively than others. For instance, dull black surfaces
are excellent absorbers, while shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and better reflectors. This can
be demonstrated using an experiment where wax melts faster on a dull black lid compared to a
shiny lid when exposed to the same radiation. Polished metals are used in reflectors for electric
fires because of their ability to reflect radiation.
Good and Bad Emitters
Surfaces that absorb radiation well also emit it effectively when heated. Dull black surfaces are
excellent emitters, as shown by a hot blackened copper sheet emitting more radiation than a
polished one. This principle is utilized in cooling fins of refrigerators, which are painted black to
lose heat quickly. Conversely, polished surfaces like saucepans are poor emitters and retain heat
for longer durations.
Rate of Cooling of an Object
Objects with a surface temperature higher than their surroundings emit radiation at a greater rate
than they absorb it. This causes the object to cool down until the emission and absorption rates
balance, reaching a constant temperature. The rate of cooling depends on two factors: the
temperature difference between the object and its surroundings, and the surface area of the
object. A larger surface area and higher temperature difference result in a faster cooling rate.

2.3.4 Consequences of Thermal Energy Transfer

Uses of Conductors

Good conductors are materials that allow heat to travel quickly through them. They are used in
everyday items where efficient heat transfer is necessary, such as saucepans, boilers, and
radiators. Metals like aluminium, iron, and copper are common examples due to their high
thermal conductivity.

Thermal Insulators (Bad Conductors)

Insulators are materials that transfer thermal energy very slowly. They are used in items like
polystyrene cups to keep hot liquids warm or cold liquids cool. Wood or plastic handles on
saucepans and cork table mats also utilize insulating properties. Air, being one of the worst
conductors, acts as an excellent insulator. Hence, cavity walls and double-glazed windows in
houses trap air to maintain temperature. Materials like wool, fur, feathers, polystyrene foam,
and fibreglass trap air and are used to insulate water pipes, hot water cylinders, and
refrigerators. For divers, wet suits made of neoprene trap a layer of water that is warmed by
body heat, acting as an effective thermal barrier.

Reducing Energy Losses from Buildings

To maintain a comfortable indoor temperature, buildings must compensate for energy loss
through walls, roofs, floors, and windows, mostly by conduction. Simple methods like wall
and roof insulation can significantly reduce these losses, lowering heating costs and
environmental impact.

Uses of Convection

Convection currents facilitate heat transfer in fluids. In homes, electric, gas, or oil heaters
create convection currents that circulate warm air, heating the entire room. Similarly, kettles, hot
water tanks, and kitchen pans use convection currents to heat water efficiently.

Uses of Radiation
Infrared Thermometer

Infrared thermometers detect thermal radiation from objects, convert it into electrical signals,
and display the temperature digitally. As a non-contact method, these thermometers are widely
used for monitoring passengers' health at airports, ensuring safety and convenience.

Applications Involving More Than One Type of Thermal Energy Transfer

Car Radiator

A car radiator dissipates heat generated by the engine through conduction and radiation. A
circulating fluid transfers heat from the engine block by conduction. The radiator, often black
and with a large surface area, emits this thermal energy as infrared radiation, cooling the fluid
before it recirculates.
Wood or Coal Fire

When heating a room with a wood or coal fire, both radiation and convection occur. Heat is
radiated directly from the fire to objects, while the air in contact with the fire warms, rises, and
creates a convection current. This dual process warms the room efficiently.

Vacuum Flask

A vacuum flask minimizes heat transfer by addressing all three modes of heat transfer. The
vacuum between its double walls prevents conduction and convection, while silvered walls
reduce radiation by reflecting heat. This keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold. Any
minimal heat transfer occurs through the thin glass walls or the stopper.

Exercise
Q1
 Thermal Conductors:
o Thermal conductors are materials that allow heat to pass through them easily.
o Good thermal conductors, like metals (e.g., copper and aluminum), have particles
that are closely packed together. This closeness allows the particles to transfer
energy quickly.
o Bad thermal conductors, like wood or plastic, have particles that are not as tightly
packed. This means that heat does not move through them as easily.
 Experiment to Demonstrate Thermal Conductors:
o You can set up a simple experiment using two rods: one made of metal and the
other made of wood.
o Heat one end of both rods with a flame or hot water.
o After a few minutes, touch the other end of each rod. The metal rod will feel hot,
while the wooden rod will feel cool. This shows that metal is a good conductor of
heat, while wood is a bad conductor.

Q2: Conduction in Solids:

o Conduction is the process of heat transfer through a material without the material
itself moving.
o In solids, particles are tightly packed and vibrate in place. When one particle gets
hot, it vibrates more and bumps into its neighbors, passing on the heat energy.
 o This process continues, transferring thermal energy from the hot end to the cooler
end of the solid.
Q3
 Convection:
o Convection is a method of heat transfer that occurs in fluids (liquids and gases).
o When a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises. Cooler, denser fluid then
moves in to take its place, creating a cycle.
o This movement of fluid helps to distribute heat throughout the liquid or gas.
 Experiment to Illustrate Convection:
o You can demonstrate convection using a pot of water on a stove.
o Place a few drops of food coloring in the water. As the water heats up, the colored
water will rise, and you will see the color spreading throughout the pot. This
shows how heated water rises and cooler water moves in, illustrating convection.
Q4
 Statements about Radiation:
o A: True. Energy from the Sun reaches Earth through radiation, which is the
transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves.
o B: True. A dull black surface absorbs radiation well because it does not reflect
much light.
o C: False. A shiny white surface is not a good emitter of radiation; it reflects most
of the radiation instead.
o D: True. A vacuum is the best insulator because it has no particles to conduct
heat.
Q5
 Effect of Surface Color and Texture:
o a. Emission of Radiation:
 Dark, rough surfaces emit radiation better than light, smooth surfaces.
This is because they can lose heat more effectively.
o b. Reflection of Radiation:
 Shiny surfaces reflect radiation well. For example, a mirror reflects light,
while a black surface absorbs it.
o c. Absorption of Radiation:
 Dark surfaces absorb more radiation than light surfaces. This is why black
objects can get hotter in the sun compared to white objects.
Understanding Infrared Radiation and Heat Insulation
Q6
 Infrared Radiation Experiments:
o Good and Bad Emitters of Infrared Radiation:
 To demonstrate this, you can use two different surfaces: one that is shiny
(like aluminum foil) and one that is dull (like black paper).
 Heat a source, like a lamp, and place it at a distance from both surfaces.
 Use a thermometer to measure the temperature of each surface after a set
time.
 The dull surface (bad emitter) will be warmer than the shiny surface (good
emitter) because dull surfaces emit more infrared radiation than shiny
ones.
o Good and Bad Absorbers of Infrared Radiation:
 For this experiment, use the same two surfaces: shiny and dull.
 Place both surfaces in front of a heat source.
 After a while, measure the temperature of each surface again.
 The dull surface will absorb more infrared radiation and become warmer
than the shiny surface, which reflects more radiation and stays cooler.
Q7
 Why Newspaper Wrapping Works:
Keeping Hot Things Hot: When you wrap hot food like fish and chips in newspaper, it helps to
keep the heat inside. The newspaper acts as an insulator, trapping the heat and preventing it from
escaping into the air.
Keeping Cold Things Cold: Similarly, when ice cream is wrapped in newspaper, it keeps the
cold inside. The newspaper slows down the transfer of heat from the warmer air outside to the
colder ice cream, helping it stay frozen longer.
 Fur Coats and Warmth:
o Wearing Fur Coats Inside Out:
Fur coats have a lot of air trapped in the fur, which acts as an insulator. If worn inside out, the fur
would still trap air, but the smooth side would be exposed to the cold, making it less effective.
The fur side should face out to trap more air and keep warmth close to the body.
 String Vests and Warmth:
o Keeping Warm with Holes:
 A string vest has many holes, but it can still keep a person warm.
 The string traps air in the spaces between the strings, and since air is a
poor conductor of heat, it helps to keep body heat from escaping.
 This is why even a vest with holes can provide warmth.
Q8
 Reducing Heat Loss in Houses:
o Roof Insulation:
 Insulating the roof prevents heat from escaping through the top of the
house.
 Materials like fiberglass trap air, which slows down heat loss.
o Cavity Wall Insulation:
 This involves filling the space between two walls with insulating material.
 It reduces heat loss by trapping air and preventing cold air from entering.
o Double Glazing:
 Double glazing uses two sheets of glass with a space in between.
 This space is filled with air or gas, which acts as an insulator, reducing
heat loss.
 Why Fiberglass and Plastic Foam are Good:
o Both materials are excellent insulators because they trap air.
o They slow down the transfer of heat, keeping homes warmer in winter and cooler
in summer.
 Replacing Air with Plastic Foam:
o Air is a poor conductor of heat, but plastic foam is even better at trapping air.
o This means it can reduce heat loss more effectively than just air alone.
 Vacuum as an Insulator:
o A vacuum (no air) is the best insulator because it has no particles to transfer heat.
o However, creating a vacuum between glass sheets can be difficult and expensive,
and if the glass breaks, it can be dangerous.
 3.1 General Properties of Waves
Types of Wave Motion

Wave motion is a fascinating phenomenon observed in physics, where energy is transferred

without the transfer of matter. Mechanical waves are generated by disturbances, such as a
vibrating object, in a material medium. These waves are transmitted as the particles of the
medium vibrate around fixed positions. Examples include waves on a rope or spring, water
waves, and sound waves in air or other materials.

A progressive wave (or traveling wave) is a disturbance that carries energy from one place to
another. There are two main types of progressive waves: transverse waves and longitudinal
waves.

Transverse Waves

In a transverse wave, the direction of the disturbance is at right angles to the direction of wave
travel. For instance, when one end of a rope is fixed, and the other is moved rapidly up and
down, a transverse wave is created. The humps and hollows, also known as crests and troughs,
move along the rope as each part vibrates perpendicular to its undisturbed position. Water
waves and seismic S-waves are examples of transverse waves. Additionally, electromagnetic
waves, such as light, are also transverse in nature.

Longitudinal Waves

In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction in which the
wave travels. A classic example is a spring stretched out on a bench. When one end is pushed
and pulled sharply, compressions (where particles are closer together) and rarefactions (where
particles are spread out) move along the spring. Sound waves in air are also longitudinal waves.

Describing Waves

Waves are described using specific terms, which can be understood with the help of a
displacement-distance graph. This graph represents how parts of the medium are displaced
from their undisturbed positions at a specific moment.
Wavelength

The wavelength (λ) is the distance between two successive crests or troughs in a wave. It
represents the spatial period of the wave.

Frequency

The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete waves generated per second. For
example, if a rope's end is moved up and down twice per second, the wave frequency is 2 hertz
(Hz). The frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the source.

Wave Speed

The wave speed (v) is the distance a wave crest (or any point on the wave) travels in one second.
It depends on both the wavelength and the frequency of the wave.

Amplitude

The amplitude (a) is the maximum displacement of the wave from its undisturbed position,
measured as the height of a crest or the depth of a trough. Amplitude is directly related to the
wave's energy.

Phase

Points on a wave can be in phase if their vibrations are in the same direction and at the same
speed. Conversely, points are out of phase if their vibrations are in opposite directions.

The Wave Equation

The relationship between wave speed, frequency, and wavelength is summarized by the wave
equation:
v = fλ,
where v is the wave speed, f is the frequency, and λ is the wavelength.

For instance, if a wave with a wavelength of 20 cm has a frequency of 3 Hz, the wave speed will
be:
v = 3 × 20 = 60 cm/s.
Wavefronts and Rays
In two dimensions, a wavefront represents a line where all points share the same phase of
disturbance, such as the crests of waves in a ripple tank. Vibrating sources generate wavefronts
of consistent shapes: straight wavefronts arise from a vibrating bar (line source), and circular
wavefronts emerge from a vibrating ball (point source). The direction of travel of a wave is
indicated by a ray, which is a line drawn perpendicular to the wavefront.

Reflection at a Plane Surface

When waves strike a plane surface, like a metal strip in a ripple tank, they exhibit reflection. The
angle of incidence (i), measured between the wave’s direction and the normal to the surface,
equals the angle of reflection (r ). For example, if waves approach at 60°, they reflect at 60°.
This principle applies at any angle, as the angle of incidence always equals the angle of
reflection.

Refraction
Refraction occurs when waves change speed and direction while passing from one medium to
another. In a ripple tank, waves entering shallow water (1 mm deep) from deeper water (5 mm
deep) have shorter wavelengths because their speed decreases while their frequency remains
constant. This causes the waves to bend towards the normal when entering the shallow region
at an angle. Refraction is a result of this speed change, and it applies to light waves as they pass
from air to glass.

Diffraction
Diffraction through a Narrow Gap
When waves encounter a narrow gap, their wavefronts curve significantly, forming circular
wavefronts. This spreading of waves is called diffraction.
Diffraction through a Wide Gap
If the gap is much wider than the wavelength, the wavefronts remain mostly straight, with slight
curvature at the edges. The spreading is less pronounced, but still observable.
Effect of Wavelength and Gap Size on Diffraction
Diffraction is influenced by the relationship between wavelength and gap size. A gap size
similar to the wavelength causes significant spreading and circular wavefronts, while a much
wider gap results in straight wavefronts with minimal spreading.
Diffraction at an Edge
Waves also diffract around single edges, curving and spreading noticeably, especially with
longer wavelengths. This property is particularly evident in radio waves, which can bend around
large obstacles.
Unit 3.2

3.2.1 Reflection of Light

Sources of Light

To see an object, light must enter your eyes. Some objects, like the Sun, electric lamps, and
candles, produce their own light and are called luminous sources. On the other hand, most
objects we see, such as books, the Moon, or even ourselves, do not emit light but reflect light
from luminous sources; these are called non-luminous objects.

Luminous sources radiate light because their atoms get excited when they receive energy. For
example, a light bulb uses electricity to excite its atoms. In most cases, the light emitted is
scattered. However, a laser works differently, producing a narrow, very bright beam of light.
Lasers have countless applications, such as cutting metals, scanning barcodes, playing CDs,
transmitting optical signals, performing medical procedures, and surveying.

Rays and Beams

Light travels in straight lines, as observed when sunbeams pass through trees or a cinema
projector illuminates a screen. This straight path is called a ray and is represented by a line with
an arrow in diagrams. A beam is a collection of rays and can be:

 Parallel (rays travel alongside each other),

 Diverging (spreading apart), or

 Converging (coming together).

Speed of Light

Light travels much faster than sound, as evidenced during a thunderstorm: you see a flash of
lightning before hearing the thunder. The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than
sound. While light appears instantaneous, it does take a small amount of time to travel.

Reflection of Light

When light reflects off a surface, its direction changes. This principle allows mirrors to alter the
path of light, such as when mirrors are placed at driveways to detect approaching vehicles.
An ordinary mirror is made by coating one side of glass with silver and protecting it with paint.
The silver surface reflects light. If the reflective surface is flat, the mirror is called a plane
mirror.

Law of Reflection

The law of reflection governs how light behaves when it reflects off a surface. Key terms
include:

 Normal: A line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray strikes.

 Angle of Incidence (i): The angle between the incoming ray and the normal.

 Angle of Reflection (r): The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

The law of reflection states:

8. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

9. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.

Periscope

A periscope is a tool that uses two plane mirrors set at 45° angles to reflect light and allow the
observer to see over obstacles or behind them. It is commonly used in submarines and can be
built with simple materials like cardboard and mirrors. Advanced versions use prisms for better
reflection.

Plane Mirrors

Looking into a plane mirror creates an illusion of another room behind the mirror. This effect is
used in restaurants to make spaces appear larger. The image's position in the mirror depends on
the object's position in front of it.

Real and Virtual Images

 Real Image: Formed by rays that actually pass through a point, such as on a screen in a
pinhole camera.

 Virtual Image: Formed by rays that appear to come from a point but do not actually pass
through it.

A plane mirror creates a virtual image. Rays from an object reflect off the mirror and seem to
come from behind it, even though they don't physically exist there.
Properties of the image

The image in a plane mirror is (i) as far behind the mirror as the object is in front, with the line
joining the same points on object and image being perpendicular to the mirror (ii) the same size
as the object (iii) virtual.

3.2.2 Refraction of Light

When light travels through a transparent medium like air, it follows straight lines. However, if it
transitions into another medium, such as water, its path bends at the boundary—this phenomenon
is called refraction. Refraction is responsible for effects like the coin trick.

Certain terms are essential to understand refraction, as depicted in Figure 3.2.21. The normal is
the perpendicular to the boundary between two media. The angle of incidence (i) is the angle
between the incident ray and the normal, while the angle of refraction (r) is the angle between
the refracted ray and the normal.

Facts about Refraction

10. When light enters a denser medium, such as from air to glass, it bends towards the
normal. Consequently, the angle of refraction (r) is smaller than the angle of incidence (i).
11. Light bends away from the normal when moving into a less dense medium, like glass to
air.
12. A light ray exiting a parallel-sided block emerges parallel to the entering ray but is
displaced sideways.
13. If a ray strikes the boundary along the normal direction, it remains unrefracted.

Note: Optically denser means greater refractive ability, not necessarily higher physical
density.

Refractive Index

Light refracts because its speed changes upon entering a new medium. A helpful analogy is
marching: imagine three people (A, B, C) marching in line. When they encounter marshy
ground, A slows first, followed by B and C, causing a change in their marching direction.

In air (or a vacuum), light travels at 300,000 km/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s), but in glass, it slows to 200,000
km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s). The refractive index (n) is defined as:
n = sin i / sin r
A higher refractive index means greater bending of light.

Critical Angle

When light moves from a denser to a less dense medium, like glass to air, the angle of refraction
increases with the angle of incidence. At a particular incidence angle called the critical angle
(c), the refracted ray runs along the boundary (angle of refraction = 90°).

For angles of incidence beyond the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs—light is
entirely reflected within the denser medium, with no refraction.

 Critical Angle Definition: The angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction of
90°.
 Total Internal Reflection Definition: Complete reflection of light at the boundary,
without crossing into the second medium.

For example, if the refractive index (n) is 3/2, then sin c = 2/3, and the critical angle is
approximately 42°.

Multiple Images in a Mirror

Ordinary mirrors produce several blurred images due to multiple reflections within the glass.
This issue is absent in front-silvered mirrors but these are prone to damage.

Totally Reflecting Prisms

Using a 45° right-angled glass prism overcomes mirror defects. In such prisms:

 A ray striking face PQ (Figure 3.2.29a) undergoes total internal reflection at face PR and
turns 90°.
 Similarly, light can be reflected through 180° (Figure 3.2.29b), used in binoculars and
periscopes.
Light Pipes and Optical Fibres

Light can be trapped inside a bent glass rod through total internal reflection and transmitted
along curved paths. This principle applies to optical fibres—extremely thin glass fibres bundled
together to create flexible light pipes.

Applications:

 Medical Endoscopes: Provide internal body images.

 Telecommunications: Optical fibres transmit telephone, broadband, and TV signals
using light pulses.

Advantages of Optical Fibres:

 Higher data transmission rates.

 Resistance to electronic interference.
 Lower power loss over long distances.
 Cheaper, lighter, and easier to handle than copper cables.

Disadvantage: They are more fragile and prone to breaking if bent excessively.