FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE AND LOCAL

RESISTANCE OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Purpose: By experimentally calculating the coefficients of expanding
pipe and contracting pipe.

THEORETICAL BASIS
Hydraulic losses include longitudinal hydraulic losses and local hydraulic losses.
It is common to use the Weisbach formula to calculate local hydraulic losses:
𝑣2
hc = 
2𝑔
Where:
V − Wet cross-sectional average velocity, m/s;
ζ − local loss coefficient (usually determined experimentally, it depends on
the Re number and the geometric features of the obstruction);
g − free-fall acceleration, m/s2.
Local energy loss is the part of energy expended that occurs concentrated in a
section or region on a narrow range of flow to overcome local resistance (such as valves,
locks, sudden extensions or narrowings, bends, etc.).
Consider the following cases:
a. Local water column loss when the flow expands suddenly (expanding pipe)
from small pipe to large pipe.

Figure 3. Expanding pipe

Local losses in this case are burst losses calculated using the following formula:
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2
hcm = đ𝑚 = ′đ𝑚
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑆 2 𝑆 2
Where: đ𝑚 = (1 − 1) , ′đ𝑚 = ( 2 − 1)
𝑆2 𝑆1

1
 đ𝑚 - the coefficient of local loss when the burst current opens in terms of
the average velocity of the cross - section before the sudden expansion or after the
sudden expansion ′đ𝑚
b. Local water column loss when the flow suddenly narrows (contracting pipe)
from the large pipe into the small pipe.

Figure 4. Contracting pipe

Local losses in this case are sudden losses calculated using the following formula:
𝑣2 2
hdt = đ𝑡
2𝑔
𝑆
Where: đ𝑡 - Local loss factor when the current is sudden: đ𝑡 = 0.5(1 − 2 )
𝑆1

DESCRIPTION OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

The experimental device is represented on figure 5. Water supplied through the supply
valve to damper A flows through the hydraulic loss tube along the way and then
through the local hydraulic loss test tube 1 and through the Bernoulli test tube (see
experiment 1) into damper B. In damper A and B the water level is maintained stable.
On the local hydraulic loss test tube 1 there are attached pressure gauges I, II, III and IV
(order of flow direction) corresponding to the selected sections. The diameter of the pipe
d1 = d4 = 16cm, d2 = d3= 34 cm. Using valve 2 to adjust the flow velocity through the
local hydraulic loss test tube 1, on flowmeter 3 will display the flow value corresponding
to each velocity of the flow.

2
 Figure 5. Local hydraulic loss test tube
A, B. Water tanks; 1. Local hydraulic loss test tube;
2. Flow regulating valve; 3. Flowmeter; I, II, III and IV. Pressure gauge tubes.

SEQUENCE OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study the theoretical basis of local hydraulic losses of the flow.

2. Familiarize yourself with laboratory equipment and measuring equipment.
3. Open the supply valve to supply water to regulators A and B under the
guidance of the instructor of the practical experiment and wait until the cylinders are
supplied with enough water so that the experiment can be conducted.
4. Use a thermometer to measure the temperature of water to determine the
kinematic viscosity coefficient ν correspond.
5. Open valve 2 to adjust the flow velocity through the local hydraulic loss test
tube 1. Record Qi flow values on flowmeter 3 and pitch of pressure gauges I, II, III and
IV on gauges.
6. Conduct experiments with five different velocity values.

3
 PROCESSING OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The results of the experiment need to be presented in table 2.

Table 2 – Results of local hydraulic loss experiments

1. Write the Qi flow values shown on flowmeter 3 in column [2] of table 2.

2. For each Qi flow value measured above, we calculate the velocity.
The microscopic average of the flow at the corresponding cross-sections according to the
formula:
4𝑄 4𝑄
𝑣1 = , 𝑣2 =
𝜋𝑑1 2 𝜋𝑑2 2
Write down the calculated values in columns [7] and [8] of table 2.
3. The values of the pitches of pressure measuring tubes I, II, III and IV are recorded
in columns [3], [4], [5] and [6] corresponding to each flow velocity.
4. The value of local loss in case of a breakthrough should be filled in the column
[9] is calculated by the following formula:
𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 2 −𝑣 2
ℎđ𝑚 = ℎ1 + − (ℎ2 + ) = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + 𝑣1 2
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
(Note that when doing the experiment, it is necessary to adjust valve 2 so that the flow
through the test tube local hydraulic loss is turbulent flow so that the kinetic energy
correction factor α = 1).
5. The local loss coefficient in case of an open breakthrough obtained by
experiment is calculated according to the following formula:𝑇𝑁
đ𝑚
2𝑔ℎđ𝑚
𝑇𝑁
đ𝑚
=
𝑣1 2

4
Write these found values in column [10] of table 2.
6. Calculate according to the theory the local loss coefficient in case of an opening
breakthrough according to the following formula:𝑇𝑁
đ𝑚

𝑆1 2 𝑑1 2
𝐿𝑇
đ𝑚
= (1 − ) = [1 −( ) ]
𝑆2 𝑑2
These found values need to be filled in column [11] of table 2.
7. The local loss value in case of sudden seizure needs to be filled in column [12]
is calculated by the following formula:
𝑣3 2 𝑣4 2 𝑣3 2 − 𝑣4 2
ℎđ𝑡 = ℎ3 + − (ℎ4 + ) = (ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) +
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
8. The local loss coefficient in case of sudden collection that we obtain according to
experiments is calculated with the following formula:𝑇𝑁
đ𝑡
2𝑔ℎđ𝑡
𝑇𝑁
đ𝑡
=
𝑣4 2
Write these found values in column [13] of table 2.
9. Calculate according to the theory the local loss coefficient in case of sudden
collection according to the following formula: 𝑇𝑁
đ𝑡

𝑆1 𝑑4 2
𝐿𝑇
đ𝑡
= 0.5 (1 − ) = 0.5 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑆2 𝑑3
These found values need to be filled in column [14] of table 2

COMMENT, EVALUATE THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS

- Compare pairs of hydraulic loss values obtained experimentally and theoretically

in the case of opening and collision, i.e. we need to compare: value (in column [10]) with
value (in column [11]), value (in column [13]) with value (in column [14]).𝑇𝑁 𝐿𝑇 𝑇𝑁 𝑇𝑁
đ𝑡 đ𝑡 đ𝑡 đ𝑡

- From the above comparison results state comments and reviews.

5
 LIQUID AGITATION EXPERIMENT

I. Introduction:
Stirring in liquid media is generally widely applied in the chemical and food
industries to make suspensions, emulsions, to enhance dissolution, heat transfer, mass
transfer and chemical processes.
The most common is mechanical stirring, which means using various types of
paddles to stir.
Depending on the structure, people are divided into the following types of paddles:
paddle type, propeller or pinwheel type, turbine type and other special types.
The characteristic of the stirring process is the required power and agitation
performance. When the paddle rotates, the energy expended is used to overcome the
friction of the paddle with the liquid.
We can think of the moving fluid in the agitator as a special case of fluid
movement. Therefore, to express the stirring process in steady mode we can use the
numerical standard equation of the moving fluid:
Eu = f (Re, Fr,...) (1)

Here: Eu = Euler number
 2

d
Re = Reynouls number


2
Fr = Fr number
gd

 - pressure difference

 - Liquid density, kg/m3

 - velocity of movement of the current, m/s

d - diameter, m
 - viscosity, N.s/m2

For the agitator, d is the paddle diameter, the velocity of movement of the liquid
is replaced by the number of revolutions of the paddle (  = dn ), and the pressure
difference is replaced by the required power. At that time, the hydraulic number
standard will have the following form:
  nd 2 n2d
EuK = ; ReK = ; FrK =
n 3 d 5  g

Here: n – the number of revolutions of the paddle, revs/s

d – paddle diameter, m
N – power on the shaft, W
EuK = f (ReK, FrK)
Experimentally we have: EuK = C. Re mK .FrKn (2)
Where: C, m, n – quantities determined experimentally.
They depend on the paddle size, liquid level, stirring barrel type, barrel wall
smoothness and other mechanisms.
If a funnel is not formed on the surface, then the paddle is deeply embedded in
the liquid, so the effect of gravitational acceleration can be ignored.
m
  nd 2 
We have : = C.   (3)
n 3 d 5   

II. Purpose of the experiment:

1. Get acquainted with the structure of the agitator and the types of paddle paddle
paddles, pinwheels (propellers).
2. Determine the power consumed when stirring, the number of revolutions, the time
of stirring.
3. Determine the Euler, Reynouls equations and the relationship between them.
4. Graph the relationship between Brix concentrations over stirring time.
III. Diagram of the experiment:
Students draw their own figures.
IV. Steps to conduct experiments
1. Check the laboratory equipment system according to the diagram.
2. Consider measuring instruments: power measuring device, photometer
extractometer measuring Brix concentration.
3. Pour 5 liters of water into the barrel, add 1 or 2kg of sugar.
4. Select the number of revolutions of the paddle on the control cabinet.
 5. Turn on the machine for the engine to work, the paddle rotates.
6. Start calculating the stirring time, taking a Brix concentration measurement
sample once every 1 minute (accurate reading to 0.1).
7. Write the figures in table 1 and table 2.
8. Measure until the Bx concentration remains constant, then stop stirring. Determine
the stirring time.
9. After taking all the data, turn off the machine, clean the laboratory site, report the
experimental results to the instructor.
Table 1: Table of experimental results
Number of Paddle Power N
experiments revolution
(W) EuK lgEuK ReK lgReK m lgC C
(Re/s)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 2: Brix concentration measurement results

Stirring time t (minutes) 1 2 3 .....
Brix concentration (Bx)

I. Calculation of experimental results, graphing

1. Determination of Euler equation

EuK = (4)
n 3 d 5

N – power, W
n – number of paddle revolutions, revs/s
d – paddle diameter, m
  - Liquid density, kg/m3

2. Determination of Reynouls equation

nd 2
ReK = (5)

 - liquid viscosity, N.s/m2

Do 5 experiments with different ReK values.

On the lgEuK - lgReK axis through the points we draw a straight line. On the basis of
the line we have the equation :
lgEuK = lgC + m.lgReK (6)
there is EuK = C. Re mK Comments (7)
It is necessary to determine the value of m, C in the equation (7).
lgEuK

lgReK
3. Graph the relationship between Brix concentrations over stirring time.
(with 2 different paddle speeds). Draw comments.

Bx

t (min)
Observe:.................................................................................
.............................................................................................
 CALCULATION OF THE SEDIMENTATION VELOCITY OF
PARTICLES IN A LIQUID MEDIUM

1. Theoretical basis:
In production and in chemical industries, environmental technology, sedimentation
methods are often used to separate solids and suspended particles from liquid, gaseous media,
e.g. separation of dust from air, separation of sludge from wastewater, etc. Therefore, the study
of the sedimentation of particles plays an important role. In this experiment, students
sedimented glass particles in cooking oil media, measured the sedimentation velocity,
calculated the Reynolds standard, resistance coefficient and settling velocity. The difference
between actual and theoretical deposition velocities is compared and discussed.
In a liquid medium, according to Archimedes' law, the gravity of the spherical particle
KS is calculated as follows:
πd3
KS = (ρ1 − ρ2 )g, (N) (1)
6
Where: ρ1: density of globular particle (kg/m3)
ρ2: density of liquid (kg/m3)
g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
When the globular particle falls (settles) at the velocity u, it will be subjected to
resistance caused by the liquid medium. This resistance depends on the physical properties of
the liquid medium (density, viscosity), depends on the size and shape of the object, and
depends on the fall velocity and gravitational acceleration. According to Newton, the S-
impedance is defined as follows:
u2
S = ξ Fρ2 , (N) (2)
2
Where: ξ: resistance coefficient.
F: the cross section of the grain in the direction of motion
For spherical beads:

πd2 u2
S=ξ ρ , (N ) (3)
4 2 2
Suppose the spherical particle settles at a constant velocity. Then S = KS:
πd2 u2 πd3
ξ ρ = (ρ1 − ρ2 )g (4)
4 2 2 6

4gd(ρ1 − ρ2 )
u=√ (5)
3ρ2 ξ

1
 The resistance coefficient ξ is a function of Renolds, that is, depends on the
sedimentation rate, particle size, density of the liquid and viscosity of the liquid. The
dependence ξ = f(Re) is determined experimentally, specifically as follows:
24
Re ≤ 0,2 ξ=
Re
18,5
0,2 < 𝑅𝑒 < 500 𝜉=
Re
500 < 𝑅𝑒 < 15. 104 ξ = 0,44
with:
ρ2 ud
Re = (6)
μ
μ: dynamic viscosity of fluids, Pa.s
2. Description of the experiment and steps:
Students conduct experiments on sedimentation of spherical glass beads in cooking oil
medium (kinematic viscosity ν = 65mm2/s). The glass bead size is determined by a caliper or
according to the manufacturer's parameters, and then dropped into a glass tube containing
cooking oil with a height of h = 35cm. Measure the falling time of the glass bead t(s).
Steps to conduct experiments:
Step 1: Determine the mass of the glass bead using an electronic scale: m1 (g).
Step 2: Determine the mass of 1l of cooking oil using an electronic scale: m2 (kg).
Step 3: Proceed to glass bead settling, measure the settling time with a stopwatch t(s).
Repeat the experiment 5 times.
3. Calculation of results and comments:
Calculate the density of glass beads ρ1 and cooking oil ρ2
Determine the true deposition velocity: utt = h/t. From this velocity and the measured size of
the glass bead, calculate the standard Re, thereby determining the resistance coefficient (6).
Calculate the theoretical deposition velocity by formula (5).
Compare actual and theoretical sedimentation velocities, make comments.

Data sheet:
2
 Sedimentation time Actual Theoretical
t(s) sedimentation sedimentation velocity
velocity utt (m/s) u (m/s)

1st time
2nd time
3rd time
4th
5th