Received: 20 June 2020 | Accepted: 21 July 2020

DOI: 10.1111/ppc.12594

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The mindful shield: The effects of mindfulness training on

resilience and leadership in military leaders

Kelly R. M. Ihme PhD1 | Peggy Sundstrom PhD2

1
College of Doctoral Studies, University of the
Rockies, Colorado Springs, Colorado Abstract
2
Program Chair, Organizational Development
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to address military leader perceptions of
and Leadership, Ashford University College of
Doctoral Studies, San Diego, California their resilience, transformational leadership behaviors, and leadership effectiveness
before and after experiencing Mindfulness‐Based Attention Training (MBAT).
Correspondence
Kelly R. M. Ihme, PhD, 200 N. Roosevelt St, Methods: Participants were formal and informal leaders in the Kansas Air National
Wichita, KS 67208.
Guard. The study used a mixed‐methods sequential exploratory design. Phase I
Email: [email protected]
involved analyzing pretest and posttest results obtained from a Jha Lab study for
three self‐report assessments in an intervention group (n = 36) vs a control group
(n = 37). The qualitative data in phase II was obtained from individual interviews of
participants (n = 12) following the Jha Lab study.
Results: The phase I quantitative results confirmed the null hypotheses—no sig-
nificant differences found—for all research questions. Phase II resulted in eight
thematic codes, six of which were central to the experiences described by partici-
pants (Halting, Sensing, Being, Shielding, Considering, and Engaging) and two that
were not (Obstructing, and Escaping).
Conclusions: The key finding was that the descriptions of mindful thoughts and be-
haviors were consistent across participants indicating that MBAT accurately presents
mindfulness during the course and the training had positive effects on participant
mindfulness, primarily in the areas of being present to self, shielding the self through
reperceiving, and then consciously altering behavior based on the new perspective.
Results should direct future resiliency course development, leadership course curri-
cula, and aid understanding of how leaders mentally conceptualize stress, incorporate
resilient behaviors and then apply that knowledge to their own leadership behaviors.

1 | INTRODUCTION personal resilience contributing to a healthier work environment.3,11

Leaders without positive behaviors may foster an environment that
Leaders are known to affect the workplace, with healthy and resilient promotes social behavioral problems unique to the military such as
leaders demonstrating higher effectiveness and influencing robust increased suicides, increased sexual assaults, increased diagnoses of
organizational communities. Stressed leaders, and those lacking nondeployment related mental illness, and increased substance
healthy leadership qualities, can manifest poor outcomes such as abuse.12‐16 Thus, addressing leader stress and promoting healthy life
anxiety, depression, burnout, ineffective coping behaviors, lower job behaviors, such as resilience, can positively affect both individuals,
satisfaction, and reduced productivity1‐7 and create disorder in the leadership, and workplace environments.
workplace, often without realizing their maladaptive leadership be- The impact of personal resilience and transformational leader-
haviors are the cause of negative outcomes.1,8‐10 Military leaders are ship behaviors on leader behaviors and effectiveness are known.
no exception to these leadership effects with those who demonstrate Transformational leadership behaviors are particularly recognized as

Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2021;57:675–688. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ppc © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC | 675
676 | IHME AND SUNDSTROM

improving leadership effectiveness17 and can mediate employee 1.1 | Mindfulness

well‐being.18 Resilient leaders positively influence subordinate and
workplace resiliency, buffer between a stressful workplace and Mindfulness and mindfulness meditation study has increased over
subordinates, and potentially decrease maladaptive behaviors that the past two decades. Mindfulness, a present‐center nonjudgmental
lead to absenteeism, depression, anxiety, burnout, and decreased awareness stemming from Zen Buddhist traditions70 acts cogni-
7,10,19
performance. Resilience predicts future leadership perfor- tively through a “reperceiving”71 of thoughts and perspectives
mance,20,21 can improve leader adaptability,19 is important to enabling an individual to separate emotionally from internal and
workplace health,7,10 and can be increased with training.15,22 external stimuli. The majority of research in mindfulness utilizes this
Therefore, targeting leaders with resilience training can lead to im- construct and understanding of mindfulness, particularly within the
proved personal outcomes and greater transformational leadership clinical and psychological communities.30 Within organizational lit-
behaviors.23,24 Mindfulness meditation is a way of providing experi- erature, the sociocognitive approach, created by Langer,72 uses the
ential resilience training. term mindfulness, but Langer's definition of mindfulness is instead a
Mindfulness is an evidence‐based practice within the clinical com- type of active awareness, or novelty seeking, and flexibility in
munity with branches in sports medicine25‐28 and organizational effec- thinking,73 a construct this author refers to as cognitive awareness.
tiveness.29 Mindfulness training has been found to decrease pain,30 This approach vastly differs from mindfulness as understood and
increase quality of life,31 decrease depression,32,33 decrease anxiety,34 practiced in the medical community, but is the basis for many or-
decrease workplace stress,35,36 increase emotional regulation,37,38 ganizational models such as high‐reliability organizations.74 The
39
positively impact youth leadership development, and positively assist difference in definitions is important to ensure that mindfulness
in quality relationship management.40 effects are not misattributed to the wrong construct. This study
Researchers have suggested that mindfulness impacts resilience used the Kabat‐Zinn understanding of mindfulness, a present‐
by improving posttraumatic psychological adjustment,41 improving centered nonjudgmental awareness.
positive affect,42,43 and preventing burnout.44 In addition, mindfulness Mindfulness has been used as a successful clinical intervention
can promote positive communication and relationships15,32,45‐47 and for depression, PTSD, poor resilience, chronic pain, anxiety, and at-
improve self‐compassion, self‐efficacy, and self‐care in areas of sleep, tention disorders.38,41,43,75,76 Mindful reflection has been shown to
37,48‐51
stress management, and emotional regulation. Mindfulness increase individual attention,77 communication,40 self‐awareness,56
holds promise as a construct that positively impacts many clinical and integrity,78 and performance.27 Each of these areas, if improved in an
organizational areas. individual, could result in improved leadership behaviors. Healthier
Finally, research has shown that mindfulness changes the brain in leaders are those who properly manage anxiety and depression, who
ways that could affect leaders. Leaders practicing mindfulness have communicate effectively, who model positive behaviors, and who
demonstrated less emotional reactivity and greater awareness of have resilient traits to combat stress.
stress,15 have exhibited more self‐control,52 have higher assessed lea-
dership by subordinates,53 have shown greater flexibility,54 demon-
strated improved decision making,55 and better managed the work 1.2 | Mindfulness and resilience
environment.56 In higher tempo occupations (military and nursing),
mindfulness training improved attention and arousal regulation,57 de- Genetic studies in individuals who meditate or engage in mind-
58
creased mental workload and cortisol response, and acted as a stress fulness practices show positive brain changes in the amygdala and
buffer.59 However, there is scant research on the relationship of mind- neural processes79 and decreases in the harmful chemical cortisol
fulness and resilience and how they impact leader behaviors. At present, and in anterior cingulate signaling.46,68,76,77,80 Johnson et al68 noted
there are only five published studies suggesting a relationship between that mindfulness training reduced brain activation of the right
transformational leadership behaviors and mindfulness,18,23,60‐62 with anterior insula, an area critical to the development of depression
only the one study utilizing a mindfulness intervention to experimentally and anxiety. Mindfulness training also enhances neural switching,
note changes in leadership behaviors.23 improving sustained focus, and cognitive functioning.81 Similarly,
In the military, mindfulness interventions have been largely brain structures involved with resilience are the hypothalamus,
studied for intervention with clinical issues like posttraumatic stress medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, anterior insula, and the anterior
63‐65
disorder (PTSD), with rarer research in deployment perfor- cingulate cortex.46,68 Mindfulness training's effectiveness in facil-
15,66‐69 57
mance, and emotional regulation. While there is increasing itating neurohormonal resilience processes is likely due to the
research on the effect of mindfulness interventions in leadership, this multiple avenues of corresponding effect in the brain.
study was the first of its kind in the military. In addition, most lea- Utilizing mindfulness to increase resilience allows an individual
dership research on mindfulness is based on dispositional, or trait, to create a psychological barrier, or mental shield, to protect against
mindfulness without the use of an intervention experiment. Thus, this future stress or negativity, essentially inoculating against the effects
study served to fill the gap in existing research on the impact of a of prolonged stress.10,68 Recent randomized control trials using a
mindfulness intervention on the perceived transformational leader- mindfulness intervention have correlated mindfulness with deceased
ship behaviors and resilience in military leaders. reactivity, burnout, organizational stress, and sleep disturbance82
IHME AND SUNDSTROM | 677

and increased resilience.83 Newer research has expanded modalities leader mindfulness and decreased destructive leadership beha-
for mindfulness interventions, including internet‐based platforms, viors,62 and (b) new books on leadership88,89 that explain mindfulness
suggesting that the web‐based Mindfulness@Work program corre- as a path to effective leadership, but without any empirical studies to
lated with increased resilience and psychological flexibility.84 validate the assertion. However, new exploratory work with in-
Researchers have shown mindfulness intervention effects on the digenous Amazon people, using a process called Mindfulness into
ability to mediate resilience, train adaptable behaviors, and help in- Action, shows promise as a theory for explaining how mindfulness
dividuals mitigate stress. Each of these outcomes is continuously may influence leadership, but will need further study in organiza-
sought by leaders, workers, and organizations through various tional environments.90 In addition, Carleton et al60 found a correla-
training curricula, retreats, and programs. tion between leader affect and self‐efficacy with dispositional
mindfulness. Finally, there are no current studies where researchers
identified the effect that mindfulness has on resilience with the
1.3 | Mindfulness in organizations purpose of addressing leader behaviors and effectiveness despite the
known mental health and wellness benefits of mindfulness in both
Research on mindfulness in organizational literature has been in- clinical and military populations.91,92 The lack of research replicating
creasing. Current research explores the positive impact of mindfulness the premise of this study identified a significant gap in the literature.
interventions in relation to working memory,29 workplace coping,75 Studies particularly addressing transformational leadership and
perceived stress and medical costs,36 positive leadership develop- mindfulness are rare. As noted earlier, just seven academic studies
ment,53 and employee stress and performance.85 Research studies in suggested a link between transformational leadership and mind-
dispositional mindfulness, an already present state of mindfulness fulness18,60‐62,93‐95 and only half of those studies defined mindfulness
without training or intervention in mindfulness, suggest correlations as understood and described in the current study.18,60‐62 The rest
10
with leaders’ mental well‐being and reduced employee stress and defined mindfulness as understood by Langer's cognitive awareness
destructive leadership.62 There are also correlates to increased em- construct. This current study is the only contemporary study that
ployee well‐being18 and leader affect and self‐efficacy.60 utilized a mindfulness intervention as part of the experiment.
While nonmilitary researchers have and continue to study
mindfulness and resilience in organizational leaders,86 researchers in
the military have not followed suit. The few studies before this one 1.5 | Current study
focused on active duty predeployment resilience,67 on the use of
mindfulness in operational combat units,15,66,68 on mental health in The current study began with hypotheses that military leaders who
veterans,65 or on military academy cadets.20,21 International re- were trained in mindfulness could increase their resilience, thereby
searchers conducting studies of military personnel not on deploy- leading to increased transformational leadership behaviors, such as
ment have indicated that the stress of a military lifestyle can be modeling and promoting healthy behavior in others, which would
34,57,87
positively affected by mindfulness practice. As part of the then lead to resilient behaviors in subordinates and improved func-
United States Air Reserve Component, the Air National Guard is tioning in the organization.19,24,62,96 The overarching research
rarely studied due to time and budget constraints that are unique to question was: How did participants of MBAT perceive the effects of
a predominantly part‐time workforce. Thus, the current study re- that training on their transformational leadership behaviors, leader-
presents a new and unique contribution to the literature on mind- ship effectiveness, and resilience? The results of this study (a) helped
fulness in military organizations. fill a gap in the literature about the effects of mindfulness training on
Compared with Army and Marine studies of mindfulness effects on perceived resilience, perceived transformational leadership beha-
the resilience of organizational members of all ranks, the current study viors, and perceived leadership effectiveness; and (b) could direct
is the first to involve members of the Air Force and the first to address future resiliency course development, leadership course curricula,
leadership behaviors. Historically, there were two mindfulness‐based and aid understanding of how leaders mentally conceptualize stress,
programs for military members, designed and studied through uni- incorporate resilient behaviors, and then apply that knowledge to
versity programs, Mindfulness‐Based Mind Fitness Training (also their own leadership behaviors.23
known as MindFit) and Mindfulness‐Based Attention Training
(MBAT15,66‐69). As of late 2016, only MBAT remains as a program to
study mindfulness in military members due to grant limitations. 2 | METHO DS

This study was conducted through an alliance with Jha Lab from the
1.4 | Gaps in the research University of Miami. Jha Lab was conducting the final phase of a
4‐year grant studying the MBAT program, which was designed as a
No studies were found using mindfulness as an intervention for im- train‐the‐trainer model for facilitating courses in mindfulness speci-
proving leader wellness or perceived effectiveness, despite (a) iden- fically for military personnel. Since the MBAT program was in a grant
10
tification by Roche et al of a relationship between dispositional status, the actual training curriculum cannot be released or
678 | IHME AND SUNDSTROM

discussed. Both the Jha Lab study and this study were approved by interviews. Snowball sampling captured 10 additional potential
Institutional Review Boards and the Air Force Survey Agency. participants.
Following email or verbal response of interest, potential parti-
cipants were introduced to the study, provided informed consent,
2.1 | Design and scheduled their 60‐minute, individually recorded, qualitative
interview. An alphanumeric coding system protected participant
This study used a mixed‐methods sequential exploratory design, identities and made it easier to track interviews.
using data from the Jha Lab study completed in cooperation with A total of 12 participants (36.3% of the original MBAT group)
the Kansas Air National Guard at the 184th Intelligence Wing, volunteered and consented to individual interviews out of an eligible
McConnell Air Force Base, Kansas. For its study, Jha Lab collected sample of 33. Seven of the participants had prior service in the
pretest data, taught MBAT to the study participants, and collected Regular Air Force, while the other five had served exclusively in the
posttest data. The MBAT course had a predetermined length, time Air National Guard. The participants' age range was 24 to 51 years,
commitment, and participation requirement. Phase I of this study with an average age of 40. Participant gender was comprised of three
started by obtaining data from the Jha Lab study, but will not be females and nine males. All participants were American citizens. The
discussed in this article due to restricted permissions. Phase II star- number of years in service ranged from 6 to 28. Nine participants
ted after full analysis of phase I data. endorsed having formal supervisory experience, while three partici-
Phase II involved recruiting participants who had participated in pants categorized their leadership role as “informal.”
the MBAT intervention and conducting 60‐minute semi‐structured Only one participant had any previous familiarity or exposure to
interviews. The interviews took place 8 months after participants mindfulness and another participant had taken a military‐sponsored
completed MBAT, and were conducted in either a private location or stress management course. Every participant acknowledged the
by phone at a time convenient for the participant. The interview MBAT course had some effect in his or her life.
script featured open‐ended questions that covered participants' ex-
periences during and after MBAT and any perceived effects of
mindfulness on their transformational leadership behaviors and lea- 2.4 | Interviews
dership effectiveness. Further questions explored personal resilience
and wellness including the participants' experiences with stress Half of the interviews were conducted face‐to‐face, and half were
perception, interpersonal relationship, communication, and emo- telephone interviews to account for the restricted work environ-
tional regulation. ments and the time limitations of some participants. Interviews
ranged from 39 to 80 minutes. A total of 12 interviews were suc-
cessfully completed and following the twelfth interview, no unique
2.2 | MBAT intervention information was provided, indicating saturation. Interviews were
audio‐recorded and later transcribed by the researcher before data
As described by Jha Lab, following informed consent and collection of analysis.
demographic and initial pretest survey data, some participants re-
ceived a 4‐week MBAT intervention and other participants served as
a control group. Participants in both groups completed the posttest 2.4.1 | Interview protocol
surveys following the completion of the intervention. The MBAT was
conducted for 2 hour, once a week, for 4 weeks. The delivery method Interview questions were developed in consideration of results from
of the curriculum was face‐to‐face didactic, facilitated by a trained the phase I quantitative analysis. The Leadership Practices Inventory
facilitator who had extensive experience educating and training was used in phase I of this study and the specific actions and beha-
military members. Participants were asked to practice the mind- viors from that assessment were used as guidelines for phase II
fulness techniques daily. questions to capture perceived transformational leadership beha-
viors not measured by the assessment. The components of trans-
formational leadership are individualized consideration, inspirational
2.3 | Participants for current study motivation, idealized influence, and intellectual stimulation.
This same method was used to compose interview questions
All participants for this study were members of the Kansas Air related to resilience, drawing question wording from the Connor
National Guard, worked for the 184th Intelligence Wing, and were Davidson Resilience Scale used in phase I. Further questions were
serving in full‐time active status at the time of this study as either Air developed based on gaps in phase I data, but congruent with prior
Technicians, Active Guard‐Reserve, or on a short‐term orders status. research on mindfulness impact on communication, relationship, and
Potential participants were contacted through email by a military emotional regulation, to capture participant experiences that were
liaison who assisted in the Jha Lab study. This resulted in four not measured by phase I assessments.
IHME AND SUNDSTROM | 679

2.5 | Qualitative analysis process working together, being aware of areas to improve, and having a
greater awareness of the environment.
Interviews analysis was a multistep process using thematic analysis. The other deductive codes focused on resilience behaviors such
The first part of the process was a listening analysis following by an as communication, ability to be self‐reflective, and awareness of
analysis of the codes developed during listening and analyzing the stress. Post‐MBAT communication themes noted were an increase in
interviews. reading body language, seeking understanding, and using alternative
ways to communicate.
Themes regarding self‐reflection and self‐awareness were simi-
2.5.1 | Listening analysis lar, with participants identifying a greater awareness of stress, taking
time to breathe or think, identifying emotions, and having a greater
The first step was a three‐part listening analysis, which included: perspective.
listening during transcription, listening without taking notes, and Other deductive codes were directly related to military service
listening while taking notes to associate participants' answers to in- and rapport building questions, such as “What differences or chal-
terview questions. Next, participants' answers were aligned with the lenges do you notice between the Air National Guard and Active
four components of transformational leadership and resilience be- Duty/Regular Air Force?,” “What were your perceptions of the MBAT
haviors. Finally, transcripts were read for familiarization of each itself?,” and “Would you recommend MBAT to others, and if not, why
participant's experience and to delineate emerging themes. not?” Answers to these questions were coded under Guard/RegAF
Issues, perceptions of MBAT, and recommendations for MBAT.
During the deductive coding process, two categorical inductive
2.5.2 | Code analysis codes emerged: Internal Processes and External Behaviors. The in-
ternal activities described by the participants were labeled Internal
The final step involved coding the transcripts based on deductive Processes and noted to be something that others would not be able
analysis of transformational leadership components and inductive to see, but that the participant was actively engaged in such as:
analysis of thoughts directly from the participants.
I actually learned how to feel my feet on the floor.
Deductive coding (Participant 2)
Deductive themes identified during initial analysis were based on
participants' behaviors and perceptions that aligned with preassigned Participant experiences labeled External Behaviors were con-
categories, including the four components of transformational lea- sidered to be something that others might notice or be directly in-
dership (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual volved in, but also were physical behaviors that a participant would
stimulation, and individualized consideration), and three components engage in such as:
related to resilience and mindfulness (communication, self‐
awareness, and self‐reflection). During this process, some experi- Slow down. Don't talk so fast. Lay off the Monsters [drink]
ences were noted as thoughts and others were noted as behaviors. if you have to.
Each category was assigned a before or after MBAT delineation based (Participant 6)
on how participants described the behavior that transpired.
Ten participants perceived a change in Idealized Influence that The Internal Processes and External Behaviors codes were used
they directly attributed to MBAT, with the most common post‐MBAT to categorize subsequent codes and were not used as unique iden-
themes being slowing down and clearing the mind, increased pur- tifiers once the final inductive codes were discovered (Table 1).
poseful verbal interaction with peers and subordinates, and taking a Groups were further reduced into categories or codes. Epoché
break away from subordinates when feeling stressed. was used to reflect on the thematic groups, to ensure that meaning
Nine participants noted a direct effect in factors associated with was not being added and that words and phrases were grouped
individualized consideration, or their dealings with peers and sub- correctly based on the context of the participants' experiences. It
ordinates. The primary themes were increased awareness of the was during reflection that illuminated the thematic pattern that led
other person/people, more consideration or empathy for others, and to final codes. Figure 1 is an illustration of all the assigned codes and
increased active listening. the initial thematic group assigned to the codes.23
Eight participants noted a positive difference in qualities asso-
ciated with inspirational motivation. The changes included having an Final thematic codes
increased awareness of the need to focus on one thing, increased Eight thematic codes emerged directly from participants' descrip-
goal‐oriented work, and changing teaching tactics based on reflection tions and perceptions related to the mindfulness training: Halting,
and subordinate need. Sensing, Being, Considering, Shielding, Engaging, Obstructing, and
Following MBAT, 10 participants identified changes that were Escaping. Six codes were central the participants’ experiences:
associated with intellectual stimulation, including being quiet, Considering, Engaging, Shielding, Sensing, Being, and Halting.
680 | IHME AND SUNDSTROM

Overarching codes Themes

T A B L E 1 Thematic groups

Internal Processes How am I perceived, think before speaking, perspective, respect

Listen, look for cues, be aware
Lower assumptions, control emotions, what can I control, remove
emotion, be myself (authentic)
Focus, priorities, appreciation, be in the moment, purpose
Mentally turning off, exercise, zone out, disconnect, “I'm gone,” autopilot

External Behaviors Breathe, slow down, sit back, quiet mind

Goal setting, mission, planning, modeling, buffer, mission
Close‐minded, stigma, preconceived notions, resistance to the language,
fought the process

The Obstructing and Escaping codes were minimally referenced and 3 | RE SU LTS
were exclusively experienced before MBAT.
The mindfulness intervention targeted resilience and drew at-
Code validation tention to the behaviors associated with the four components of
A qualitative coding program, NVivo, was used to validate the codes transformational leadership—idealized influence, individualized
and identify any additional trends. Two new thematic categories consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual
emerged under the Engaging code: management‐related behaviors stimulation—and helped to identify whether mindfulness posi-
(M) such as creating checklists and task managing, and leadership‐ tively influences resilience and perceived leadership effective-
related behaviors (L) such as leading by example and problem solving. ness.23 Interview analysis resulted in eight thematic codes.
There were also nonleadership themes in the Engaging code due to Six key themes were about the beliefs and perceptions of parti-
participants' experiences with family or outside of a work environ- cipants regarding their military and leadership experiences after
ment. Table 2 details the codes and full accompanying themes. experiencing mindfulness practice:

FIGURE 1 Mind map of initial code names. MBAT, Mindfulness‐Based Attention Training [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
IHME AND SUNDSTROM | 681

T A B L E 2 Codes, themes, and number of NVivo

participant references in NVivo Code Themes total

Engaging • Achieve goals • How I treat • Participating 169

• Ask for help others • Problem solve
• Checklists • Express self • Talk about stress
• Defend troops • Lead by example • Use technology
• Effective • Mentor • Thank people
• Normalize stress

Halting • Breathe • Retreat • Slow down 79

• Clear mind • Sit back • Step away

Being • Be in the moment • Focus • Paying attention 146

• Concentrate • Grounded

Considering • Appreciating • Individual • Team 175

• Available to help consideration • Think before
• Aware of impact • Learning reacting
on others • Know/ • Trust
• Flexibility understand
• How perceived people
• Perspective

Sensing • Aware • Read body • Noticing 147

• Listen language

Shielding • Accept feedback • Prepare for • Thinking 156

• Affirmation stress purposefully
• Be myself • Reflecting about stress
• Balance • Relax • What can I
• Control emotions • Release emotion control
• Lower • Resilience
assumptions

Obstructing • I did what I • Silly, hokey 16

wanted • Close‐minded
• Stigma
• Preconceived
ideas

Escaping • Autopilot • Running/ 24

• “I'm out” exercise
• Zone out

• individual stress (themes: Halting, Sensing, and Being), I've found that once you start feeling stressed, if you start
• the effect the identification of stress had on changing individual clearly spelling out and thinking why are you stressed,
perceptions of resilience (theme: Considering and Shielding), you're probably going to find out under there somewhere,
• how resilience and stress shielding modified individual leadership you're being – you're stressed about an environment
behaviors (theme: Halting and Shielding), and you're in and it's the environment that you just can't help,
• the potential changes to leadership performance (themes: Con- so you realize – once you identify that particular stressor,
sidering and Engaging). “Oh, okay, well, I'm worried about something that I can't
worry about.” You're trying to control something when all
Two codes that were not central to participants experience, but actuality, you have no control over this. So, mindfulness
were mentioned by multiple participants—Obstructing, and Escaping— helps you – forces you to uncover those things you are
are noted here and mentioned again as needed. worrying about.
Participants' general experience of MBAT trended towards con- (Participant 9)
sidering others during interactions and increasing the quality of inter-
personal interactions, both at home and in the workplace. These are For some participants, the training was described as having a
transformational leadership qualities. Participants also expressed feel- minimal effect, such as reaffirming previously used behaviors or
ings of increased personal effectiveness as a result of recognizing their adding professional tools, and in others the impact was as profound
own stress and shielding themselves from preceding negative thoughts as preventing a divorce and being able to appreciate time with
and actions through reflection. These are resilience behaviors. family.23
682 | IHME AND SUNDSTROM

I think it just verified what I was already doing was The lowest effect appeared in inspirational motivation, with eight
working. participants describing a post‐MBAT difference. The most identified
(Participant 8) themes were in the Engaging code, with goal orientation, checklists,
and setting priorities as the primary actions identified. The Being
code and themes were also identified, including focusing on one thing
I can have confidence to sit back and go, “No, we're in the and paying attention.
right, and I'm sorry that they were upset, you can't please
everybody. But this is how it works, whereas before I tell you, one of the things that I've just done here re-
[MBAT], I think I had just would've been like, “They always cently, because I'm like, we've got to have more purpose
pick on me and I always lose." and understanding of what we do when we come in…so I
(Participant 7) just created a calendar for the section…these are our daily
tasks, these are what we have to get done and these are
The following sections explain these effects in three categories, the tasks that we're going to work by week.
transformational leadership, communication and relationships, and (Participant 4)
resilience.

3.1 | Effects on transformational leadership 3.2 | Effects on communication, relationships,

and mission
In all four of areas of transformational leadership, a majority of
participants (n ≥ 8) experienced a difference in their thoughts and/or Participants identified the greatest impact from MBAT in the areas of
behaviors after MBAT. The two areas with the largest effect were communication, building relationships, and mission accomplishment.
idealized influence and intellectual stimulation, with 10 participants Three participants expressed that their subordinates noted a differ-
in each category noting a post‐MBAT change. The differences in ence in their approaches since the training.
idealized influence had the most identified actions categorized under The impact on communication, which correlated with mission
the Halting code, particularly through behaviors such as an inten- accomplishment, had themes under the Considering and Engaging
tional slowing down of thoughts and actions to prevent rash or codes. The nine participants who identified a post‐MBAT
emotional reactions to situations. The differences in intellectual sti- effect frequently associated actions in these two codes sequen-
mulation had the largest proportion of themes under the Shielding tially, such as being aware of how others perceived them and then
code, with participants' thoughts and feelings centering around actively talking or acting in a way that reflected an understanding
accepting feedback, reflecting, and controlling emotions. of that consideration. Additional communication themes fell
under the Sensing and Halting codes, with a process that parti-
I would probably say certain instructional styles, or you cipants described: a thought or desire to act was noticed,
know, downfalls that I've had in the past, I don't think I've the action was stopped, options were internally considered, and
brushed them off, but I wasn't so aware of them. So I would then an action was taken that was different than originally
say that certain things, once I sit down and I can kind of intended.
think of the day, or think of what I am doing and I reflect
back upon that, I have more time to improve myself. So, with the MBAT training, I think it helped me realize
(Participant 10) that one guy [who gave me negative feedback] is not the
whole world. I'm still gonna do the best that I can do. I've
The post‐MBAT effect on individualized consideration was noted had to sit back and think about it and I'm usually pretty
by nine of the participants and fell under the Considering code, with good about being angry and then getting over it, but this
themes of considering others, thinking before reacting, and one held on a little bit. I had a dealing with him yesterday
perspective. too. So yesterday he called me and asked if I could come
help them do something and I had to sit there for a few
[Mindfulness is] just kind of listening to what they really minutes and just think about it, and I had to realize that
want as opposed to talking about what I think they want. it's not about me, it's not about me right now, it's about
It's really gaining that understanding. “What are you helping them do what they need to do, so I went and did
looking for from me when you're asking these questions?” it. Before MBAT, probably, I wouldn't have taken the time
And my way of approaching it is different. I know lea- to sit down and really think about it. I would have been
dership can be intimidating but I know that there's a more rash, and I know I would have been like, “Not coming
person behind the stripe or the rank. to help you."
(Participant 5) (Participant 2)
IHME AND SUNDSTROM | 683

In the area of relationships, 11 participants noted a positive I have found at times, that I'll sit back and relax and shut
change following MBAT largely under themes from the Considering my eyes, just kind of take a moment. Five minutes here,
and Shielding codes. Some thoughts and feelings identified were five minutes there, get up and walk around. I probably did
perspective and controlling emotions, both at home and in the that less before.
workplace. Some participants discussed sharing MBAT with their (Participant 12)
spouses and actively attempting to engage their spouses in mind-
fulness practice. Stress awareness was described most frequently with Sensing
actions that included noticing stress, being aware of internal
So, I've been able to identify it, “Hey, we need to back off a thoughts, and noticing the environment. Participants also identified
little bit,” – because people kind of feed off of each other. Shielding actions, such as being proactive in planning for stressful
And I noticed that if she [my wife] gets stressed about times. Both types of actions relate to resilient behaviors.
something and then I get stressed about it and that ends
up making situation worst, whereas if I pay attention to I guess [I notice] it a little more, the fact that whenever I
what's going on than I can – it's like, “Okay, let's joke get stressed, instead of waiting until the point that, you
around about something or change the subject or let's do know, wanting to kick my computer or something, it's just
this, get our mind off of it.” So, I'd say that's helps out a like “Okay, back away, kind of take a break for a couple of
lot. minutes” then go back and work the problem.
(Participant 12) (Participant 11)

Participants were open about their personal military service and Three participants identified either a stress management
the responses fell into the category of relationships and commu- course or religious activities as resilience behaviors before MBAT.
nication, with most participants preferring the closeness within the Despite these preexisting contributors to resilience, a majority of
Guard unit provided by lower turnover and familial ties. participants noted that there is no current military training, to
include Professional Military Education lessons or base training,
In the Guard, you're a family, it feels like, and regardless of that addresses experiential stress awareness and resilience in the
where you are in the family, or in what section you are in way MBAT did.23
the family, you can still get to know everybody else…So Overall, the participants' experiences with MBAT were positive
you get to build upon those relationships that you start, as regardless of whether they have a large effect or not and all were
opposed to they're just moving away and you don't even supportive of mindfulness being considered as part of the military
see them ever again [like in RegAF]. curricula.
(Participant 5)
It's not the emotional side of leadership that they teach
you about [in military education] and that's why I feel that
MBAT kind of helped with that.
3.3 | Effects on resilience (Participant 2)

Eleven participants described differences in their personal resi-

lience and stress awareness following MBAT. One participant ex-
plicitly mentioned rebounding from stress while other participants
implied a rebound such as “I get over it [anger] quicker.” There were 4 | D IS C U S S I O N
no overt descriptions of differences in personal buffers; however,
a number of behaviors and mental processes would be categorized The overall impression of participants' experiences with mindfulness
as buffering, such as “I will take a walk.” In addition, three partici- training was that it had a positive effect on their transformational
pants endorsed that the mindfulness training had a positive effect leadership behaviors, resilience, and perceived effectiveness. Positive
on their religious life, allowing for more active participation, which change was noted in relationship building, communication, resilience,
is a known stress buffer, “I've noticed it [MBAT effect] in my own and self‐awareness of stress. Participants' thoughts and behaviors
prayer life.” were identified in all coded areas, with many areas demonstrating
In the area of personal resilience, described actions fell largely cross effects (communication and mission accomplishment) or se-
under the Shielding code with themes such as reflecting, preparing quential patterns (Sensing, then Halting, and then Considering).23 In
for stress, and knowing what is controllable. Other codes identified addition, all participants described the mindfulness training as a fa-
included Being, Sensing, and Engaging, with accompanying behaviors vorable experience and acknowledged praise for the instructor.
such as awareness of others, focusing on the present, and asking This study occurred 8 months after MBAT, and only three par-
for help. ticipants were still actively practicing mindfulness. Despite a lack of
684 | IHME AND SUNDSTROM

active practice, most participants were able to incorporate mind- improve interactions with others. These improved shielding actions
fulness traits into their daily lives. Participants experienced a dif- provided participants with the mental clarity and calm to engage with
ference in resilience most frequently in personal awareness of stress, stressful situations purposefully and to consider coworkers and
with 78 references, and in controlling emotions, with 70 references. family in more meaningful ways. Based on the results of the study,
These experiences fell under the Sensing and Shielding codes, re- the conclusion is that MBAT was successful in teaching military
spectively. The participants' abilities to assume a greater awareness leaders effective ways of dealing with their own stress and negative
(Sensing) of personal stress, through mindfulness, were identified as a thinking patterns that improved outward expression of ideas and
key component to decreasing overall stress. Shielding actions, such as affect, while subsequently enhancing interpersonal interactions and
mental processes to control and process emotions, reflect, and ob- job‐oriented effectiveness.23
jectify personal control, are essential components of resilient beha-
vior and confirm the supposition that mindfulness training can impact
resilience by providing individuals with actionable behaviors to im- 4.1 | Study limitations
prove self‐care and personal stress buffering.37,48‐51 This is particu-
larly important for a military population that lacks a current training A primary limitation of this study was recruiting interview partici-
course to teach resilience through experiential methods, such as pants from a predetermined sample, those who had taken MBAT,
mindfulness. which limits generalized conclusions. Using a more diversified
Several participants noted positive effects in their personal sample of military, or civilian, participants would provide more
relationships following the MBAT. These effects correlate with normative data. Future studies should seek to interview all parti-
previous researchers who suggested that mindfulness stimulates cipants who complete a mindfulness course and the members of a
10,15,32,45‐47
resilience through strengthening relationships. control group to determine if themes were similar or divergent. In
Relationship and communication themes described by partici- addition, 360‐degree interviews were not accomplished with par-
pants fell under the Shielding and Engaging codes and indicate an ticipants' supervisors, peers, or subordinates. The addition of those
active buffering against stressful situations often followed by interviews could have helped determine whether the MBAT parti-
reaching out for support and engaging more effectively with loved cipants’ experience of behavioral change was also experienced by
ones.23 In particular, participants indicated that the ability to note those around them and allow assessment of global impact vs per-
and better shield against stressful thoughts and situations were sonal impact.
areas most affected by MBAT. Participants noted these behaviors
helped prevent emotional overreaction, which improved both the
work environments and personal stress levels. In addition, the 4.2 | Implications for practice and research
themes of recognizing and buffering against stress were fre-
quently mentioned when participants were describing changes in Thich Nhat Hanh, the Vietnamese Zen Master and
their leadership thoughts and behaviors, indicating that MBAT's Nobel Peace Prize nominee, conducted a 10‐day re-
effect on personal resilience led to some effect on leadership treat specially tailored for law‐enforcement officers,
execution. prison officials, and managers of every stripe. In the
The themes most frequently noted by participants in relation course of his talks he repeatedly pointed out that
to transformational leadership behaviors fell under the Consider- people responsible for managing others would be better
ing code—perspective, think before reacting, and awareness of off if they learned how to manage their own lives
impact on others—with 178 references, followed by the Engaging (emphasis added).97
code with 170 references—self‐expression, problem solving, and
achieving goals. Considering actions were most frequently de- MBAT was qualitatively successful in teaching military
scribed as an Internal Process, which suggests that mindfulness leaders effective ways of recognizing and internally managing
training could be used by a leader to gain an objective perspective, their own stress and negative thinking. These new ways of acting
or awareness, assess the effects of his or her behaviors, which may improved individuals' outward expression of ideas and affect,
result in an enhanced ability to lead others with more individual while subsequently enhancing interpersonal interactions and
consideration. In regards to Engaging actions, the themes aligned job‐oriented effectiveness. Mindfulness training is an evidence‐
with the transformational leadership behavior of openness, with based practice that can increase resilience in military
participants describing a willingness to try new processes, try to members.57,67,69,91,98 MBAT, in particular, offers a small‐time
understand others' views, and approach goals from a different investment of eight total classroom hours, can be tailored to an
perspective. organization's time limitations, and is scalable through its train‐
The MBAT course did produce a qualitative effect in participants the‐trainer model, thus negating the need for specialized em-
in the focus and awareness aspects of mindfulness. Those mind- ployees to deliver the course. While this course was implemented
fulness aspects also affected participants' self‐awareness of stress with a military sample, similar designs could be explored with a
and buffering, or shielding, behaviors to prevent distress and to civilian workplace population.
IHME AND SUNDSTROM | 685

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