RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
By: Ejalu David Livingstone
Jerusalem IHS

Email: [email protected]
 Research Methodology?
• Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify,
select, process, and analyze information about a topic.
• It simply refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of research.
• It’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and
reliable results that address the research aims and objectives.
• The methodology section answers two main questions:
• What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
• Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
• How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)
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Study Population

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 Specifying the study population
Total Population Population (of the world) Population which
the target population is hoped to represent

Target population
Target population Group from whom study population is drawn
Accessible population / Reference
Accessible population population
Usually defined by time & place
Study
population
SAMPLE Study population,where the sample is
selected from.
Population sample: Selected subset of the
study population 4
 Population
• A population can be defined as including all people or items
with the characteristic one wishes to understand.

• Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather

information from everyone or everything in a population,
the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset)
of that population.

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 Study Population
• Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn
may not be the same as the population about which we actually
want information.
• Often there is large but not complete overlap between these two
groups due to frame issues etc .
• Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we might
study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health,
or we might study records from people born in 2008 in order to
make predictions about people born in 2009.
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 Selecting a study population
• Why select? Rarely possible to study all target population

• Criteria for selection: relevant to the study objectives; practicality

(accessible); usually defined by time & place

• Sources of study population: Community, workplace, school,

hospital;

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 SAMPLING
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)
collection of units from a population used to determine
truths about that population” (Field, 2005)
• Why sample?
• Resources (time, money) and workload
• Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated
mathematically

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 SAMPLING…….
• 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness
• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)

• When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response
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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the
population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in
the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.

• When every element in the population does have the same

probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of
selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-
weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.
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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….
Probability sampling includes:
1. Simple Random Sampling,
2. Systematic Sampling,
3. Stratified Random Sampling,
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling.

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 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
• This is the most basic scheme of random sampling.
✓Make a numbered list of all the units in the population from
which you want to draw a sample.
✓Each unit on the list should be numbered in sequence from 1
to N (Where N is the Size of the population).
✓Decide on the size of the sample
✓Select the required number of sampling units, using a “lottery”
method or a table of random numbers.
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 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
Advantages:
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done
by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine
which units are to be selected.
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 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
• Estimates are easy to calculate.
• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all
EPS designs are simple random sampling.
Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be
present in sample in sufficient numbers for study.

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 2. Systematic sampling
• In systematic sampling, all elements have the same probability of selection (in the
example given, one in ten).
• It is not 'simple random sampling' because different subsets of the same size
have different selection probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-
ten probability of selection, but the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of
selection.

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 2. Systematic sampling
ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with
that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
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 3. Stratified sampling
• Where population embraces a number of distinct categories,
the frame can be organized into separate "strata."
• Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-
population, out of which individual elements can be
randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.

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 3. Stratified sampling
Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.
• First, sampling frame of entire population has to be prepared separately
for each stratum
• Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be
related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and
potentially reducing the utility of the strata.
• Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or
those with a specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling
can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods
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 3. Stratified sampling
• Draw a sample from each stratum

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 4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
1. First stage, a sample of areas is chosen;
2. Second stage, a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based
on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
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 4. Cluster sampling
Advantages:
• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.
• This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
• Sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of
same size.
• Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI
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 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4 22
 Difference Between Strata and Clusters
Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of
the population, they differ in several ways.
• All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of
clusters are in the sample.
• With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when
elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However,
with cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements
within clusters are internally heterogeneous

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 5. Multistage Sampling
Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more
levels of units are embedded one in the other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all regions.
Followed by random number of subcounties, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are
surveyed.
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 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Any sampling method where some elements of population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to
as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability
of selection can't be accurately determined.
• It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria
for selection.

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 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Nonprobability Sampling includes:
• Quota Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Snow-ball sampling

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 1. Quota Sampling
• The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-
probability sampling.
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 2. Purposive Sampling
• Involves selecting elements based on a
researcher's judgment about which elements
will facilitate his or her investigation
• The researcher chooses the sample based on
who they think would be appropriate for the
study.
• This is used primarily when there is a
limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched
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 3. Snowball Sampling
• This involves using members of
the group of interest to identify
other members of the group.

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 4. Convenience Sampling
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or
accidental or haphazard sampling.
• Involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. That is, readily
available and convenient.
• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically
make generalizations about the total population from this
sample because it would not be representative enough.

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3. Convenience Sampling

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 Choosing a Sampling Technique
• Is it desirable to sample at all or can the whole population be used?
• Is it important to generalize to a larger population?
• Political preference polls
• Do you have the access and ability to perform probability sampling?
• Major considerations
• Methods
• Theory
• Practicality
• Ethics
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Questions???

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Sample size determination

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 Sample size determination
• In planning any investigation we must decide how many people need
to be studied in order to answer the study objectives.
• In order to calculate the required sample size, you need to know the
following facts
a) The reasonable estimate of the key proportion to be studied. If you
cannot guess the proportion, take it as 50%.
b) The degree of accuracy required. That is, the allowed deviation from
the true proportion in the population as a whole. It can be within 1%
or 5%, etc.
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 Sample size determination
c) The confidence level required, usually specified as 95%.
d) The size of the population that the sample is to represent. If it is
more than 10,000 the precise magnitude is not likely to be very
important; but if the population is less than 10,000 then a smaller
sample size may be required.

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 Estimating Sample size
• Estimate how big the proportion might be (P)
• Choose the margin of error you will allow in the estimate of the proportion (say ±
d)
• Choose the level of confidence that the proportion in the whole population is
indeed between (p-d) and (p+d). We can never be 100% sure. but want to be 95%
sure.
• The minimum sample size required, for a very large population (N>10,000) is:
• n = Z2 p(1-p) / d2
• Adjusted by N=n/(1+n/pop’n)
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 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• These describes how participants shall be included or
excluded from the study.
• Participants who meet the inclusion criteria will be excluded if
they don’t meet the exclusion criteria.

• Note. Inclusion is NOT the opposite of exclusion

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Data Analysis

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 What is data analysis?
Kisilu Kombo & Delno Tromp (2006)
• Refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or
experiment and making deductions and inferences
• Involves uncovering underlying structures; extracting
important variables, detecting any anomalies & testing any
underlying assumptions
• It involves scrutinizing the acquired information and making
inferences

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 Why carry out data analysis?
• The major purpose is to obtain usable and useful information
• The analysis whether qualitative or quantitative, may :
• Describe and summarise data
• Identify relationships between variables
• Compare variables
• Identify the difference between variables
• Forecast outcomes

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 Analysis in Qualitative cont.
• Although procedures and outcomes of qualitative data
analysis differ from those of quantitative data analysis, the
principles are not so different.
• In both cases the researcher will have to:
• describe the sample population;
• order and reduce/code the data (data processing);
• display summaries of data in such a way that interpretation
becomes easy, e.g., by preparing compilation sheets, flowcharts,
diagrams or matrices. 42
 Approaches for Qualitative DA
1. Thematic analysis
• Identify themes or topics that come up in discussions
• Categorize major topics/ major concepts and themes
• Peruse through the collected data & identify the information relevant to
research questions and objectives
• Develop a coding system
• Classify the major issues or topics covered
• Reread the text & highlight key quotations / insights and interpretations

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 2. Content Analysis
• Examines the intensity with which certain words have been used
• Requires that specific words or images are defined in advance.
• You count for instance the number of times they occur in an
article, you work with indicators,
• Content analysis can adopt quantitative approaches.
• Data in the form of a grid obtain number frequencies` and do the
counting as well as make inferences.
• With small samples avoid making generalisations.
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 3. Discourse Analysis
• Analyzes written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant
semiotic event.
• The objects of discourse analysis-writing, conversation,
communicative event are variously defined in terms of
coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech or
turns-at-talk.
• Analyze naturally occurring language use.
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 4. Narrative Analysis
• Looks at the way in which stories are told within an
organization or society so as to understand more about the
way in which people think & are organized within groups.

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 5. Conversation Analysis
• Largely used in ethnographic research.
• Assumes that conversations are governed by rules & patterns,
which remain the same whoever is talking.
• What is said can only be understood by looking at what went
before and after.
• Requires a detailed examination of data, including exactly
words used, where emphasis is put, etc.
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 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach to investigations
during which numerical data is collected and/or the researcher
transforms what is collected into numerical data.
• Quantitative data analysis often describes a situation or event,
answering the “what” and “how many” questions you may have
about some thing.
• Quantitative data is processed before actual analysis by conducting :
editing/cleaning and coding
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Quantitative data analysis procedure/process
1. Identification of problem area
2. Develop the theoretical frame work
3. Generate the hypotheses
4. Determine the research design
5. Collect data using quantitative inclined methods
6. Analyze data collected
7. Test hypotheses
8. Interpret findings
9. Refine theory
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 Levels of data analysis in quantitative analysis
Univariate Data Analysis
• Univariate data analysis-explores one variable at a time
• Serves as a good method to check the quality of the data
• Inconsistencies or unexpected results should be investigated using the original
data as the reference point
• Frequencies can tell you if many study participants share a
characteristic of interest (age, gender, etc.)
• Graphs and tables can be helpful

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 Univariate Data Analysis (cont.)
• Examining continuous variables can give you important
information:
• Do all subjects have data, or are values missing?
• Are most values clumped together, or is there a lot of variation?
• Are there outliers?
• Do the minimum and maximum values make sense, or could there
be mistakes in the coding?

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 Univariate Data Analysis (cont.)
• Commonly used statistics with univariate analysis of continuous variables:
• Mean – average of all values of this variable in the dataset.
• Median – the middle of the distribution, the number where half of the
values are above and half are below.
• Mode – the value that occurs the most times.
• Range of values – from minimum value to maximum value.
• Standard deviation. – how the values deviate from the central
value(mean).

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 Bi- variate Analysis
• This analysis considers two variables at a time.
Techniques used include
1. Correlation analysis techniques i.e. Persons product moment
correlation coefficient, spearman's rank correlation coefficient
and Kendal rank correlation coefficient.
2. Cross tabulations. This will lead test like chi square, t-test,
ANOVA- one way analysis of variance etc
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 Multivariate Analysis
• Here you are looking at what is termed as dependent variable to be
explained by a series of independent variables.
E.g. Y=a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+…+bnXn
The use of each technique depends on data type I.e. it depends on the data
you have.
Data types include:
• Numeric
• Categorical. This is grouped data.
• Ordinal data
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 Results
Findings should be presented in:
• Tables and graphs could be used (should be well titled and captioned)
• The tables should be well constructed
• Avoid too many decimal places
• Graphs should clarify and not complicated
• If appropriate statistical tests are used, the results should be included.
P-values alone are not very helpful. Confidence intervals and the type
of tests used should be indicated.
 Discussion of findings
• The findings can now be discussed by objective
• or by cluster of related variables or themes,
• The author interprets the findings shown in the results section.
• Why do the findings appear the way they do.
• The discussion may include findings from other related studies that
support or contradict your own.
• Limitation of the study and generalizability of the finding should
also be mentioned.
 Conclusions and recommendations
• Should follow logically from the discussion of the findings.
• Conclusions shows the major findings that provide answers to the research
questions
• Recommendations may be summarised to;
• Policy-makers,
• Health and health-related managers at district or lower level,
• Health and health-related staff who could implement the activities,
• Potential clients, and
• Community at large.
 References
• The references in your text should follow the institutions’
recommended format e.g
• Vancouver system
• Harvard system
• APA
 Avoid Plagiarism
What is it?
◦ All knowledge in your head has either been copied from
some place or originally discovered by you.
◦ Most knowledge was copied.
◦ This is true in most settings. General knowledge is
copied. Most teachers’ lectures are copied knowledge.

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 Plagiarism cont….
• Document every source for information that is not “general
knowledge”—this includes facts and ideas.
• Cite every time a fact or idea is used unless it is clear that one
citation is referring to a group of facts or ideas.
• If you quote material directly, put quotation marks around the
quoted stuff and include a page number within the citation.
• It is alright to paraphrase material, but you still have to cite from
where the paraphrased material came.
• When in doubt, cite the source.

Improper citing is grounds for failure on the course paper

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Thank You
Jah Bless

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