Stereophonic Magnetic Tape Recorders and the Collection of Ethnographic Field Data

Author(s): Ivan Polunin

Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Apr., 1965), pp. 227-230
Published by: University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for
Anthropological Research
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RESEA-RCH REPORTS track"), and the other can contiain
audible information providedby the
observerand anyhelpershe mayhave
(the "observertrack").
StereophonicMagneticTape Recorders Recordingwitha stereorecorderin
thisway is not stereorecording, as no
and the Collectionof EthnographicField Data stereoeffectis produced,and is better
calledtwinchannelrecording (Fig. 2).
Batteryoperated magnetictape re- separately using stereo headphones To obtainthe maximumseparation
cordingis widelyused by studentsof which confinethe playback signals betweenthe 2 recording channels,the
language and music,and now that on the 2 tracksto the corresponding 2 microphones should be as widely
stereophonic (stereo)batteryoperated ears or throughtwin loudspeakers separatedas possible,and as close to
tape recordersare available, it is widelyspaced,in whichcase someof the desiredsources of sound as is
worthconsidering theirspecialuseful- the sound from one loudspeakeris possiblewithoutdistortion.The line
ness to the ethnographic fieldworker. picked up by the oppositeear. of sightbetweenthe 2 microphones
Carrying out a disease survey among Stereo sound reproduction owes its shouldbe blockedby somesoundab-
Meo (Miao) villagersin Laos in an popularityto the greaterrealismand sorbingmaterial.I use a disc shaped
area remotefromsourcesof electric ''presence"of stereoplayback. This baffle made of polyurethanefoam,
power,I tooka batteryoperatedstereo does not justifyits use as a research with the observermicrophonethrust
tape recorderwith me to recordthe tool, thoughit can enable the field- througha hole in-thecentre.As most
local music. A desire to study the workeron his returnto base to relive microphones usedwithstereorecorders
shamanistic cult prevalentamongthe his experiences morevividly;and this show directionalvariationsin sensi-
villagersled me to explorethe pos- could lead to a betterdescription of tivity, the microphonesshould be
sibilitiesof thisinstrument. theoriginalevent. pointed at the desired sources of
In essentials a tape recorderconsists sound. It should be possibleby this
of a tape deck whichtransports tape meansto avoid recording whatis said
RecordingTechniques by theobservers on the "eventtrack,"
past recordingand playbackhead(s)
(Fig. 1), with provisionsto amplify A stereotape recorderis an essential unlessthe eventis a veryquiet one,
the input (microphone)signal for tool for the fieldworker who desires while the observertrack should be
recordingand for playback. The to producethemostcompletepossible clearlyintelligible.
stereotape recorderdiffersfromthe documentation of manytypesof social It shouldbe obviousthatstereore-
usual monaural -tape recorder in event.It allows the productionof 2 cordingof a noisyceremony withall
having provisionsto feed in 2 in- more or less independentsound re- audiblecentreof interest is muchmore
dependentsignals,say from2 micro- cordings which are exactly syn- intelligible thana monauralrecording,
phones;and to recordeach independ- chronized,as they are situatedside- (Fig. 1), whenit is desiredto record
ently,side by side on separateparts by-sideon the same piece of tape. 1 wordsspokenat a ceremony together
(tracks)of thetape. of these trackscan be a sound re- with the observer'sdescription. With
The recordings can be played back cording of the event (the "event a monauralrecordingit is necessary
fortheobserverto be placed nearthe
centerof theeventand to competein
Recorder the makingof sound with the event
itself.It is,however,possibleto record
Microphone monaurally using more than one
microphonepreferably through a
mixer which allows independent
volumecontrolof thedifferent micro-
phone signalsas in Fig. 3. The ob-
FIG. 1. Monaural recording. serverdoes not thenneed to make a
noise which will interferewith the
StereoRecorder event,but eventand observation can-
not be separatedso an unadulterated
recordof the eventcannotbe made,
and it is mentallydifficult to separate
EetMcrophone eventfromdescription.
(\ < Observer
Various kinds of information can
Microphone be recordedon the "observertrack."
A runningcommentary can be given
of the event,and questionscan be
FIG. 2. Twin channel recording producing an events track and an observer track on
asked of bystanders.Announcements
a stereo recorder.
of still and cine camerashotscan be
made, and the exact timingrecorded
Recorder
by the click or whirrof the camera
shutter.
{ <[ ~~~~~~~~~Microphone
,
It is important to providesometime
record,particularlyif the recording
is to be studiedin the field for the
productionof further data. Such data
will usuallybe writtendown,and the
timerecordswill allow reference to a
\k Observer
Microphone particularsectionof tape. In my ca2e
it was as necessaryforan interpreter
in
the field tO translatewords spoken at
FIG. 3. Monaural recordingusing the mixed outputs from-twomicrophones, an event. During playback of the tape

Vol. 6 * No. 2 * April 1965 227

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 StereoRecorder studiedis a staticone whichneedsno
shiftof observeror microphonep )-
sition,it should be possiblefor the
operationsdescribedto be carr:edout.

(~
by a singleperson.
0g Recorderfor
Observer
obs*erver
~
0
time-signal
playback
Microphn
Mcohn Equipmentused
Micro- 0pabc
phone A
The recordingmachineI have been
I Mixing unit
usingis the Uher 4002 ReportStereo
(manufactured by Uher Werke,Mu-
FIG. 4. Twin channel recording with provision for feeding previously recorded time nich, West Germany)which weighs
signal onto "observertrack" froma 2nd tape recorder.
about 7 pounds withoutbattery.I
have not heard of any otherbattery
StereoRecorder
operated stereo recorderin current
production.
This recorderaccepts 5 inch tape
Microphones spools,which,whenloaded with900
feetof long-playtape,will give more
than 3 hours of uninterrupted re-
cordingusing the slowesttape speed
FIG. 5. Stereophonicrecordingof an event. of 15/16 inchesper second.Perfect-
ly intelligiblerecordings(Frequency
response50-4,500 cyclesper second)
with an interpreteror informant or informationtrack can be made on can be made at thisspeed,thoughat
hearingthe "event track" by loud- 2nd tape recorder,while the original the highest speed of 7 1/2 inches per
speaker,and the investigator hearing recordingis played back. second the machine has a useful
the event track or both tracks on Synchronization marks should bc frequency response of 50-20,000
stereoheadphones,'it is possibleto placed at least at the start and finish cyclesper second,which allows ex-
transcribea translation.A timescale of each tape to reveal a loss of syn- cellenthigh-fidelity
recordingsto be
helps relate the translationto the chrony which may develop anld it made.
originalspeechand othersoundsand would be wise to use tapes made from The recorderprovidesindependent
data. A timescale can also be made the most dimensionallystable material volume controls with volume-unit
to give useful information on any available. metersforrecording on each channel,
interruptions made in therecording. Where an "observer track" is not and playback is possible through
In mycase I had to be contentwith necessary,a stereotape recordercan of stereoheadphonesand the (monaural)
occasional spoken time records. If course be used in a conventional loudspeakeron eitherchannelor both
word-to-word transcriptionis needed, manner to produce a stereo recording simultaneously with both trackselec-
and if a monauralbatteryoperated (Fig. 5). Such a recordingwill contain tor buttonsin the 'out' position.
recorder, evenof thecheapestkind,is informationwhich cannot be obtained A special "dryfit"6 volt battery
also available, it should not be dif- froma monaural recording.Slight dif- giving several hours runningtime
ficultto recorda moredetailedtime ferences in the relative loudness of rechargeable-froma main supplyor
scale on theobservertrack.Thiscould differentsounds, and in their timing from a motor car batterycan be
be done simultaneously by playing (if the 2 microphone elements are fitted.WhenI am away froma power
back a previously recordedtimesignal slightly separated) allow the listener supplyfor severalweeks I preferto
tape on a second(monaural)tape re- to "place" differentoriginal sounds use U.2. flashlightcells. A seriesof
corder,and mixingthe outputsignal approximately at their position of 4 such cells can be mountedinside
withthe"observer" microphone signal origin relative to the microphones.As the recorderbut the power drain is
as in Fig. 4. This could also be done the mind has the ability to concentrate too greatforsatisfactory runningfor
after the event had been recorded; on sounds "coming" from one direc- morethana few minutes.I therefore
providingthat steps were taken to tion to the exclusion of sounds from use 2 extrasetsof cellsin magaziiues.
preventerasureof thetape.A suitable other directions, it is possible to This allows forseveralhoursrunning
previouslyrecordedtimingtape can analyse a more complex pattern of time withoutchangingcells or for
be preparedby usinga metronome or original sound than is possible by changingcells while recording.The
a tickingalarm clock, and making monaural recording.' This is par-
crisply spoken statementsof time ticularly useful where several people
elapsed at 15 or 30 secondintervals, are talking or where several musical
and recordingtheseon the recorder instruments are playing simultaneously.
which will be used to playbackthe Independent twin channel recording
timerecord,or any recorderrunning and stereo recording are 2 main ap-
at thesamespeed. plications of the stereorecorderwhich
Visible marks on the tape would can be useful for the fieldworker.
also be an advantage,but thesecan be There are many possible ways in
put onto the tape at requiredpoints which the microphonescan be placed
afterrecording. and the ideal positions of the micro-
If exact synchrony is not required, phones differ with the circumstalnces
a subsequentlyproduced translation of the event to be recorded. Other
applications which have not been
mentioned should suggest themselves FIG. 6. Polar diagramof a cardioid
1 This can be done on the apparatusto be
to the reader,and it is hoped that this micro-
described,by puttingthe "events track" on phone. (The distance of the heavy black
the left hand channel. If the observeronly note will stimulateinterestin the use line to the microphoneis proportionalto
wants to hear the "observer track" he can of the stereotape recorderin the field. the sensitivityof the microphone in that
plug his otherear! Providing that the event to be direction).

228 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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 phones with a wider frequencyre-
sponse.I have found2 A.K.G. D19 C.
cardiodmicrophones satisfactory.The
"observermicrophone"can be held
in thehand,hungroundthe neck,or < Insulatingmaterial
put in a breastpocketto leave hands Flashlightcall
<-

free for photography.I mount the

"eventmicrophone" on a heavyduty
clip-onlampstandof the typeused in
motorworkshops,aftermodifying it
FIG. 7. Polar diagrams of 2 cardioid to accept2 microphones at adjustable Metal band for
and pointingat +L; @ L +
microphones superimposed angles to each other (or at right attaching magazines
*

rightanglesto each other,in the direction angles), and dampingvibrationsby to each other
of the arrows. application of rubber to bearing
surfacesand springs.It can be safely
magazines can easily be made from clampedon to roofbeams,furniture,
suitably modified flashlights(Fig. 9), camera tripod or branchesof trees, FIG. 9. Accessory magazines suitable for
taking care to make the right con- or it can be placed with arms ex- runninga "Uher 4002 Report Stereo" tape
nections with the recorder, and to tendedon a flat surfaceand used as recorder off flashlightcells when remote
a source of current for recharging
put the cells into the magazine the a dwarftripod.1 or 2 ball and socket from
batteries.Each magazine is made from the
right way, otherwise the transistors joints allow the microphonesto be batterycompartmentof a flashlightusing
will be destroyed. If the "dryfit" pointedin any direction(Fig. 8). four 11/2 volt flashlight cells, and the
battery is left in the completely dis- magazines are connected in parallel. The
charged state, it becomes quickly un- OtherContinuousRecordingMethods wires are knottedinside the magazines to
serviceable. In case of emergency, relieve the strain on the electricalcontacts,
however, a preservative charge can It mightbe thoughtthat the ideal but theknotsare not shownso as to simplify
be put into it by a series of flash- recordof eventsforresearchpurposes the diagram. The ends of the magazine
compartmentscan be finished by bending
light cells, as shown in Fig. 10. is a continuousfilmedrecordof the over the metal and covering rough edges
Most microphones used for stereo event with sound track. Equipment with adhesive tape.
recording are moderately directional forthispurposeis extremely expensive
in their sensitivity.Such microphones and cumbersome, and even the wide
are called cardioid microphones angle lens has a limited angle of Slitin side
of bamboo tube >
because a polar diagram of their view and cannotsee aroundcorners.
sensitivity is roughly heart shaped Costs and weightmay, however,be
(Fig. 6). As can be seen from Fig. 7, reduced by futuredevelopmentsin
when 2 cardioid microphones are video tape recording,and may make
mounted pointing horizontally and such continuousaudio-visualrecord-
at right angles to each other, the ing feasibleand highlysuitablefor Flashlightcall -+
magnitude and ratio of sensitivities certainapplications.At the present
Rubber
of the 2 microphonesare differentin timevideo tape recordsof eventsare band to
all horizontal directions. This forms beingmadeby thousandsof television press
wire
the basis for our ability to determine stationsoverwide areas of theworld. +

against
of
the horizontal componentof the direc- It should be practicablefor ethnog- Node
bamboof ( battery
~~~~contact
tion from which the sound came. raphersto-makeuse of some of this -
,Dryfit"
For ordinaryrequirementsthe TJher materialthroughthe good officesof 6 volt battery
b26 dynamic stereo microphone can thosewho controlsuch facilities.
be used. This is a convenient instru- For themoment, however,themain FIG. 10. Emergencymethod of recharging
ment with 2 directional microphone use of moving picturesin research the 6 volt "dryfit"batteryusing old flash-
elements which can be clipped one is the recording of excerpts of light cells, mounted in series in a bamboo
on top of the other or mounted especially significantor rapid and tube, to preventirreversibledamage which
separately by means of a slip-on repetitiveaspects of events.This is would occur if the batterywere left per-
not of course writtento decry the manently discharged. The flashlight cells
adapter and branched cable. To get will continue to charge the batteryuntil
the best possible results from this value of descriptive ethnographic theircombinedvoltagefalls to below 6 volts.
recorder it is necessaryto use micro- films, which have an unequalled

ability to convey to the viewer many

of the less easily describable aspects
of otherwise inaccessible events.
However, these are more akin to
descriptive writing than to the data
on which such writingis based, which
is the subject of this note.

SUMMARY

1. Where a sound recording of an

event is desired,as well as audible
information on that event, it is
desirable to record both of these
FIG. 8. Microphone stand suitable for stereo recordingin the field. The extensiblelegs, as independently of one another
powerful clamp, and universal joint increase its versatility. as possible.

Vol. 6 - No. 2 - April 1965 229

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2. Such independenttwinchannelre- 4. Where a recordingof an event versational or musical groups.
cordingsallow preservationof an is all that is required,a stereo- This is becauseof our abilityto
unadulteratedrecordof the event, phonic recordingcan be made concentrateon sound heard to
and ease analysisof all the re- using closely placed microphones come fromone direction.
cordedmaterial. with theiraxes at rightanglesin 6. Lightweight batteryoperatedap-
3. Theycan be made in perfectsyn- the horizontalplane (Fig. 5). paratus suitablefor these opera-
chronyusing2 tracksof a stereo 5. Stereophonicrecordinghelps the tions is brieflydescribed.
tape recorderand widely spaced analysis of complex patternsof
directionalmicrophones(Fig. 2). sound,suchas thosemadeby con- Reportedby IVAN POLUNIN

SnowshoesAmongPresent-day
Araucanians The Arauciansput on knittedwool
(sheep or goat) stockings,moccasins
(of goat, horse,or cow hide)-some-
During2 fieldtripsto theCordilleran crosswise,weft-like,completingthe timeslinedinsidewithrags-and then
area of the province of Neuquen, mesh by a wrappingtechnique.In the snowshuoes.
Argentina, sponsoredby theNational otherspecimens thestripformsa mesh These are made by the men and
Institute of Anthropology in 1963 and moreirregularly, drawingtrajectories wornby themforhunting or watching
1964,mywife(SusannaChertudi)and withdifferent angleswhen- the cattle,in winterand with deep
reflection
I documentedthe use of snowshoes, ever the frameis reached.The tech- and softsnow.
moccasins,and skin leggingsamong niquesmay also be mixed. The snowshoesare named chigua
theAraucanianssettledin theancient I specimenof ellipticalsnowshoes ['ciyiua]by the creoles; the Arau-
habitatof thePeweniche. measured27 x 22 cm.,and a subovoid canians, generally,call the chigua
As early as 1674 FatherDiego de one,31 x 24 cm.Theyare tied to the [Zi'yua] or chig [ci'yue],although
Rosaleswrotethat the Pegiuenches: feet with anotherstrip of rawhide someold peoplekow andusethename
aunqueayamucha nieve, about 1 yard to 1 meterlong,which maullu['mauiiu],maullx[maiu'Au], or,
passanponi6ndoseis brought over the back of the foot seldom,maulu['maiuluJ. It is interesting
unoszapatosque hacende coleos,anchos to
comochapin, con que passansin undirse and woundaroundtheframe(Fig. 3). thenoticethat the word is foundin
en la nievequandoquieren. Araucanianvocabularyof Father
AndresFebres (1765): "Mai'ghblu,o
Althoughthe classification 6zapatos" maghllu-ciertocalzado para andar
and thecomparison withthewidthof en la nieve."
a chapbnare misleading, the designa- We think the name chigua was
tion of the materialas 'coleos" (a adopted because of the similarity
well-knownkind of grass) suggests betweenthesnowshoeand a similarly
that he is referringto snowshoes. named device for carryingburdens,
Some recentauthors,suchas JohnM. consistingof 2 biggerframes,each
Cooper, Salvador Canals Frau and with a networkof thongs,between
Juan Schobinger, have acceptedthat which the burden is placed. These
snowshoesweremeant. carriersare widelyused in-Argentina
Sister M. Inez Hilger (1957) has and Chile. Cradlesand hurdlescalled
recordedthe followinguse of snow- chigua,of a shape similarto thatof
shoesin Neuquen: the snowshoes,have also been used.
The namecbiguais probablyQuechua.
Snowshoes, knownas chigua,wereused
whenthesnowwas ankledeep;if less deep E~~~~~~~~~~~~~ We have recorded the use of
snowshoesin Ruca Choroy,but our
I
the ojota (tranu),the commonly wom foot
covering,sufficed.Chigua were made by ,indigenousinformantstold us that
tyingtogether the ends of a colihiie[sic] they were also worn among the
stalkto forman oval-shaped bandand then | ["1 1 it]
Araucanians of lake lorquinco,
l |

weavinga networkin it with stripsof farthernorth. Some creoles of the

horsehide. The chiguawas tiedto the foot |~~~~~. area reportedtheir being used at
with two bands of woven material:one _ -
Trapa
I
Trapa, Chile. Due to very
was broughtoverthe instepand the other
frombehindthe heel to the frontof the limited mobility the present-day
ankle. CordilleranAraucanianshave little
FIG. 2. SuhovoidAraucanian snowshoes.knowledgeof the whole region;for
Among the Araucanians of Ruca thatreason,theuse of snowshoes must
Choroywe saw 2 shapesof snowshoes: be moreor less coextensivewith the
elliptical(Fig. 1) and subovoid(Fig. 'It
habitatof theAraucaria,i.e., thecore
2). They consistof a framemade of t E 1f territoryof the ancientPeweniche.
a bentkila reed(willowtwigin other The Araucaniansnowshoe,a direct
areas), elliptical or subovoid-shaped surivivalof the Pewenicheone, is
(in thiscase theyhave a side of less hitherto the only known South
curvature which is worn inside), FIG. 3.
Method~I oftyn te
Americanoocurenceof thismeansof
nwso

whichservesas a supportfora mesh transportation,since the Shelk'nam,

made of a stripor raw horsehideor at most, owned a proto-snowshoe
cowhide.In themostelaboratepieces, made of a small bundle of twigs.
this thong runs 1st in 1 direction, F}G. 3. Methodof tying thesnowshoe This fact poses anew an old ethno-
constituting a warp, and then runs to thefoot. logical question: diffusion versus
230 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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