Transistors BTJ

Van Su Luong

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 Contents
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure
• Basic BJT Operation
• BJT Characteristics and Parameters
• The BJT as an Amplifier
• The BJT as a Switch
• The Phototransistor
• Transistor Categories and Packaging
• Troubleshooting
• Device Application

• The DC Operating Point

• Voltage-Divider Bias
• Other Bias Methods

• Amplifier Operation
• Transistor AC Models
• The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• The Common-Collector Amplifier
• The Common-Base Amplifier
• Multistage Amplifiers
• The Differential Amplifier

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BJT Structure

The BJT has three regions called the emitter, base, and
collector. Between the regions are junctions as indicated.

The base is a thin lightly C (collector) C

doped region compared
to the heavily doped
emitter and moderately Base-Collector
doped collector regions.
n p
junction
B p B n
(base) Base-Emitter
n p
junction

E (emitter) E
npn pnp

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 BJT Structure
When the electrons that have recombined with holes as valence
electrons leave the crystalline structure of the base, they become
free electrons in the metallic base lead and produce the external
base current. Most of the free electrons that have entered the base
do not recombine with holes because the base is very thin. As the
free electrons move toward the reverse-biased BC junction, they
are swept across into the collector region by the attraction of the
positive collector supply voltage. The free electrons move through
the collector region, into the external circuit, and then return into
the emitter region along with the base current, as indicated. The
emitter current is slightly greater than the collector current because
of the small base current that splits off from the total current
injected into the base region from the emitter

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 BJT Operation

In normal operation, the base-emitter is forward-biased and the

base-collector is reverse-biased.
For the npn type shown, the
collector is more positive than the
base, which is more positive than BC reverse-
BC reverse-
the emitter. biased
biased
+
– +
For the pnp type, the voltages are –+ –
reversed to maintain the forward- +– –
reverse bias. + – –+ +
BEBEforward-
forward-
– + biased
biased
npn
pnp

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BJT Currents

The direction of conventional current is in the direction of the arrow on the emitter
terminal. The emitter current is the sum of the collector current and the small base
current. That is, IE = IC + IB.

+ –
+ –
IC IC
IC IC
n p
IB IB IB IB
+ p + – n –
n p
IE IE
IE IE
– +
– +
npn pnp

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BJT Characteristics

The collector characteristic curves show the relationship of the

three transistor currents.
The curve shown is for a fixed based IC
Breakdown
current. The first region is the region
saturation region.
Active region
C

As VCE is increased, IC increases

B

until B. Then it flattens in region

between points B and C, which is
the active region. Saturation region

After C, is the breakdown region.

A
VCE
0 0.7 V VCE(max)

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BJT Characteristics

The collector characteristic curves illustrate the relationship of the three transistor
currents.
By setting up other values of base
IC

current, a family of collector curves I B6

is developed.
I B5

DC is the ratio of collector I B4

current to base current.
I B3
I
 DC = C
IB I B2

It can be read from the I B1

curves. The value of DC is
nearly the same wherever Cutoff region IB = 0

it is read. 0
VCE

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BJT Characteristics

What is the DC for the transistor shown?

I C (mA)

Choose a base current near the 10.0

IB6 = 60 mA

center of the range – in this

IB5 = 50 mA
case IB3 which is 30 µA. 8.0
Read the corresponding IB4 = 40 mA

collector current – in this case, 6.0

I B3 = 30 mA
5.0 mA. Calculate the ratio:
4.0 IB2 = 20 mA
I 5.0 mA
 DC = C = = 167
I B 30 m A IB1 = 10 mA
2.0

IB = 0
0 VCE

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 Transistor DC model

The input circuit is a forward-biased diode through which there is

base current. The output circuit is a dependent current source
(diamond-shaped element) with a value that is dependent on the
base current, IB , and equal to βDCIB . Recall that independent
current source symbols have a circular shape

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BJT Circuit Analysis
Three transistor dc currents and three dc voltages
can be identified.
IB : dc base current
IE : dc emitter current
IC : dc collector current
VBE : dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB : dc voltage at collector with respect to base
VCE : dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter

VBE ~ 0.7 V (silicon)

Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by

Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB is
VRB = VBB - VBE

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BJT Circuit Analysis
By Ohm’s law,
VRB = IBRB
Substituting for VRB yields
IBRB=VBB- VBE
Solving for IB,
IB = (VBB-VBE)/RB
The voltage at the collector with respect to the
ground emitter is
VCE= VCC - VRC
Since the drop across RC is
VRC = ICRC
The voltage at the collector with respect to the
emitter can be written as
VCE = VCC - ICRC
where IC = 𝛽DCIB .
The voltage across the reverse-biased
collector-base junction is
VCB= VCE - VBE
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example

Determine IB , IC , IE , VBE , VCE , and VCB in the circuit

of Figure. The transistor has a βDC = 150

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Cutoff

In a BJT, cutoff is the condition in which there is no base current,

which results in only an extremely small leakage current (ICEO) in
the collector circuit. For practical work, this current is assumed to
be zero.
In cutoff, neither the base-emitter RC
junction, nor the base-collector
junction are forward-biased.
ICEO
RB + +
the voltage at the collector with respect VCE ≅ VCC VCC
to the emitter can be written as IB = 0 –
–

VCE = VCC – IC.RC

extremely small leakage current (ICEO)
VCE ~ VCC

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Saturation

In a BJT, saturation is the condition in which there is maximum

collector current. The saturation current is determined by the
external circuit (VCC and RC in this case) because the collector-
emitter voltage is minimum (≈ 0.2 V)
In saturation, an increase of base
current has no effect on the collector
RC
– +
circuit and the relation IC = DCIB is no
longer valid.
IC
RB + +
VCE = VCC – IC RC VCC
the voltage at the collector with respect – –
+
to the emitter can be written as VBB
IB
VCE = VCC – IC.RC –
because the collector-emitter voltage
is minimum (≈ 0.2 V)
V − 0.2 V
I SAT = CC
RC
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 DC Load Line

The DC load line represents the circuit that is external to

the transistor. It is drawn by
connecting the saturation and I C

cutoff points. Saturation

IC(sat)
The transistor characteristic curves are
shown superimposed on the load line.
The region between the saturation and
cutoff points is called the active region.

To estimate the working mode of a BJT

- If IB <= 0 (BJT is in Cutoff mode)
- If IB > 0 (determine VCE)
and VCE > 0.2V (Active mode/Linear zone) IB = 0 Cutoff

and VCE <= 0.2V (Saturation mode) 0 VCE(sat) VCC

V CE

(Note: if Ic < Isat , BJT is not saturated)

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DC Load Line

RC 3.3 kW

What is the saturation current and the RB +

VCC
cutoff voltage for the circuit? Assume 220 kW
βDC = 200
–
15 V
+
VCE = 0.2 V in saturation. V BB
3V –

VCC − 0.2 V 15 V − 0.2 V

ISAT = = = 4.48 mA VCO = VCC = 15 V (cutoff voltage)
RC 3.3 kW

3.0 V − 0.7 V
Is the transistor saturated? I B = = 10.45 m A
220 kW
IC =  IB = 200 (10.45 mA) = 2.09 mA Since IC < ISAT, it is not saturated.

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Data Sheets

Data sheets give manufacturer’s specifications for maximum operating

conditions, thermal, and electrical characteristics. For example, an electrical
characteristic is DC, which is given as hFE. The 2N3904 shows a range of ’s on
the data sheet from 100 to 300 for IC = 10 mA.

Characteristic Symbol Min Max Unit

ON Characteristics
DC current g ain hFE –
( IC = 0.1 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 20 –
2N3904 40 –
( IC = 1.0 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 35 –
2N3904 70 –
( IC = 10 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 50 150
2N3904 100 300
( IC = 50 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 30 –
2N3904 60 –
( IC = 100 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 15 –
2N3904 30 –

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DC and AC Quantities

The text uses capital letters for both AC and DC currents and voltages with
rms values assumed unless stated otherwise.

DC Quantities use upper case roman subscripts. Example: VCE. (The second
letter in the subscript indicates the reference point.)

AC Quantities and time varying signals use lower case italic subscripts.
Example: Vce.
Internal transistor resistances are indicated as lower-case quantities with a
prime and an appropriate subscript. Example: re’.

External resistances are indicated as capital R with either a capital or lower-

case subscript depending on if it is a DC or AC resistance. Examples: RC and Rc.

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BJT Amplifiers

A BJT amplifies AC signals by converting some of the DC power from the power
supplies to AC signal power. An ac signal at the input is superimposed in the dc
bias by the capacitive coupling. The output ac signal is inverted and rides on a dc
level of VCE.
Vin RC

VBB

0 RB +
Vc r e′ VCC
Vc –
+
Vin VBB Vb
VCE –

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For example: Base-Biased Amplifier

IB = 9.3 m A
IC = 930 m A
VC = 5.44V

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BJT Switches

A BJT can be used as a switching device in logic circuits to turn on or

off current to a load. As a switch, the transistor is normally in either
cutoff (load is OFF) or saturation (load is ON).

+ VCC +VCC +VCC +VCC

RC IC = 0 RC RC IC(sat) RC IC(sat)

RB C RB C
0V +
+VBB
IB = 0 E E
IB –

In cutoff, the transistor looks like In saturation, the transistor looks

an open switch. like a closed switch.

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Phototransistors

A phototransistor produces base current when light strikes the exposed

photosensitive base region, which is the active area. Phototransistors have high
gain and are more sensitive to light than photodiodes.

+VCC
Emitter In a typical circuit the base
Light lead is left open. In the circuit
shown, the output voltage is RC
Base maximum with no light and VO U T
n p drops with increasing light.
n

Collector

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Phototransistors

The characteristic curves for a phototransistor are based on light flux

(mW/cm2) to the base rather than base current in an ordinary transistor.
IC (mA)
2
10 50 mW/cm
2
8 40 mW/cm

2
30 mW/cm
6
2
20 mW/cm
4
2
10 mW/cm
2
Dark current
VCE (V)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

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Phototransistors

The output from the phototransistor can be used to activate or deactivate a

relay. In this case, the phototransistor is part of a switching circuit.

+VCC

Is either transistor ON for the circuit when Relay

coil
there is no incident light? Relay
contacts
R

Q2
With no incident light, Q1 will be biased OFF.
Q2 will be forward-biased through R and is Q1
ON. Collector current in Q2 causes the relay
to be energized.

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Optocouplers

An optocoupler is a single package

containing an LED and a phototransistor.
Optical couplers transfer a signal from one
circuit to another while providing a high
degree of isolation.

A key specification for optocouplers is the current transfer

ratio or CTR, which is a measure of efficiency. The CTR is the
ratio of output current to input current. Typically, values are
from 50% to 110% for standard optocouplers.

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Applications for Optocouplers

Optocouplers are used when data or signals need to be

transferred from a control circuit to a power circuit
without making electrical connections between the
circuits. For example, the logic circuits in a traffic light
controller need to be isolated from the lights themselves.
Traffic
Controller

Another application for optocouplers is as a transducer to detect

a light path such as a hole in a rotating disk. In this case, the LED
and phototransistor are separated by a gap.

Optocouplers are also useful for isolating patients

from the monitoring instruments.

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A Sample of Common Transistor Packages

3 Collector
3 Collector
3 3 Collector
2
Base 1
2
1 1 Base
1 Emitter Base
2 2 2 Emitter
3 1 Emitter
3 2
1
TO-92 SOT-23 TO-18
E
C
B
C (case)
B
E
C C
E B

TO-3 TO-220AB TO-225AA

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BJT Basic Test

A basic test for a BJT is to use the Diode Test function of your DMM.

To test the base-emitter junction of a BJT,

0.673 V
OL connect the positive lead to the base and
OFF VH the negative lead to the emitter. You should
see a voltage close to 0.7 V for an npn
Hz

V H

mV H transistor.
W

Reversing the leads will

EBC
A Range
Autorange 1s

show OL for “overload”.

Touch/Hold 1s
10 A
VW

40 m A

The procedure is repeated to test the base-

COM

Fused

collector junction.

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Transistor Bias Circuits

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The DC Operating Point

Bias establishes the operating point (Q-point) of a transistor amplifier; the ac

signal moves above and below this point.
IC (mA)

For this example, the dc base

current is 300 µA. When the input Ic
Load line
Ib

causes the base current to vary

A 400 µ A
40
Q

between 200 µA and 400 µA, the

ICQ 30 300 µ A = IBQ
B
20 200 µ A
collector current varies between
20 mA and 40 mA. 0 1.2 3.4
VCEQ
5.6
VCE (V)

Vce

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 The DC Operating Point

A signal that swings outside the

IC

Q
IB
active region will be clipped.
Input
signal

For example, the bias has

established a low Q- point. As a ICQ
Q

result, the signal is will be 0

VCE

clipped because it is too close

Cutoff VCC

to cutoff. Cutoff
Vce

VCEQ

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Voltage-Divider Bias

A practical way to establish a Q-point is to form a voltage-divider

from VCC.
R1 and R2 are selected to establish VB. If the divider is +VCC
stiff, IB is small compared to I2. Then, +VCC
+15 V

 R2 
VB    VCC
 R1 + R2 
R
R11 R
RCC
27 kW 1.2 kW
Determine the base voltage for the circuit. IB
βDC = 200
 R2  I2
VB =   VCC
 R1 + R2  R
R22
R
REE
12 kW 680 W
 12 kW 
=  ( +15 V ) = 4.62 V
 27 k W + 12 kW 

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Voltage-Divider Bias

+VCC
What is the emitter voltage, VE, and current, IE? +15 V

R1 RC
VE is one diode drop less than VB: 27 kW 1.2 kW
VE = 4.62 V – 0.7 V = 3.92 V 4.62 V
βDC = 200
Applying Ohm’s law:
V 3.92 V R2 RE
IE = E = = 5.76 mA 12 kW 680 W
RE 680 W

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Voltage-Divider Bias

The unloaded voltage divider approximation for VB gives reasonable

results. A more exact solution is to Thevenize the input circuit.

VTH = VB(no load)

+ VCC +VCC
+15 V +15 V

= 4.62 V RC R1 RC
RTH = R1||R2 = 1.2 kW 27 kW 1.2 kW
+V TH R TH
= 8.31 kW 4.62 V
+ – +
βDC = 200 βDC = 200
IB VBE –
8.31 kW
The Thevenin input circuit
+ RE R2 RE
IE 12 kW 680 W
680 W
can be drawn –

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Voltage-Divider Bias

Now write KVL around the base emitter circuit and solve for IE.
VTH = I B RTH + VBE + I E RE
I𝐸 = IC + IB + VCC
VTH − VBE IC = 𝛽IB +15 V
IE =
R
RE + TH I𝐸 = (𝛽 + 1)IB
β DC
RC
1.2 kW
Substituting and solving,
4.62 V − 0.7 V +V TH R TH
IE = = 5.43 mA + – +
βDC = 200
680 W + 8.31 kW 4.62 V
200 IB VBE –
and VE = IERE = (5.43 mA)(0.68 kW) 8.31 kW
+
IE RE
= 3.69 V –
680 W

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Voltage-Divider Bias

LTspice allows you to do a

quick check of your result.

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 VDB Design Guideline
Figure shows a VDB circuit. This circuit will be used to demonstrate a simplified design
guideline to establish a stable Q point. This design technique is suitable for most
circuits, but it is only a guideline. Other design techniques can be used. Before starting
the design, it is important to determine the circuit requirements or specifications. The
circuit is normally biased for VCE to be at a midpoint value with a specified collector
current. You also need to know the value of VCC and the range of βdc for the
transistor being used. Also, be sure the circuit will not cause the transistor to exceed its
power dissipation limits.
Start by making the emitter voltage approximately one-tenth (10%) of the supply
voltage: VE = 0.1VCC
Next, calculate the value of R E to set up the specified collector current:
RE = VE/IE
Since the Q point needs to be at approximately the middle of the dc load line, about
0.5 VCC appears across the collector-emitter terminals. The remaining 0.4 VCC
appears across the collector resistor; therefore:
RC = 4RE
Next, design for a stiff voltage divider using the 100 :1 rule: RTH ≤ 0.01 βdcRE
Usually, R2 is smaller than R1 . Therefore, the stiff voltage divider equation can be
simplified to: R2 ≤ 0.01 βdc  RE

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 VDB Design Guideline

Start by making the emitter voltage approximately one-tenth (10%) of the supply
voltage: VE = 0.1VCC
Next, calculate the value of R E to set up the specified collector current:
RE = VE/IE
Since the Q point needs to be at approximately the middle of the dc load line, about
0.5 VCC appears across the collector-emitter terminals. The remaining 0.4 VCC
appears across the collector resistor; therefore:
RC = 4RE
Next, design for a stiff voltage divider using the 100 :1 rule: RTH ≤ 0.01 βdcRE
Usually, R2 is smaller than R1 . Therefore, the stiff voltage divider equation can be
simplified to: R2 ≤ 0.01 βdc  RE
You may also choose to design for a firm voltage divider by using the 10 :1 rule:
R2 ≤ 0.1 βdc  RE
In either case, use the minimum-rated βdc value at the specified collector current.
Finally, calculate R1 by using proportion:
R1 = V1 R2 /V2

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phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Ltspice simulation of VDB design

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H.W:

VCC = 10 V VCE @ midpoint

IC = 10 mA 2N3904’s βdc = 100–300

VCC = 10 V VCE @ midpoint

IC = 1 mA βdc = 70–200

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H.W: VCC = 10 V
IC = 10 mA
VCE @ midpoint
2N3904’s βdc = 100–300

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Voltage-Divider Bias

A pnp transistor can be biased from either a positive or negative supply.

Notice that (b) and (c) are the same circuit; both with a positive supply.

− VEE
+ VEE

R1 RC R1 RC R2 RE

R2 RE R2 RE
R1 RC

+ VEE
(a) (b) (c)

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Voltage-Divider Bias

Determine IE for the pnp circuit. Assume a stiff

voltage divider (no loading effect).

 R1  +VEE
VB =   VEE +15 V
 R1 + R2 
 27 kW 
=  ( +15.0 V ) = 10.4 V R2 RE
 27 kW + 12 kW  12 kW 680 W
11.1 V
VE = VB + VBE = 10.4 V + 0.7 V = 11.1 V 10.4 V

VEE − VE 15.0 V − 11.1 V

IE = = = 5.74 mA R1 RC
RE 680 W 27 kW 1.2 kW

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Base Bias

Base bias is used in switching circuits because of its simplicity,

but not widely used in linear applications because the Q-point
is  dependent.
Base current is derived from the collector supply through +VCC
a large base resistor. +VCCV
+15

What is IB? RC
1.8 kW
RB
VCC − 0.7 V 15 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 25.5 mA 560 kW
RB 560 kW

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Base Bias

Compare VCE for the case where  = 100 and  = 200.

+VCC
For  = 100: I C = βI B = (100 )( 25.5 μA ) = 2.55 mA +15 V
VCE = VCC − I C RC
= 15 V − ( 2.55 mA )(1.8 kW ) = 10.4 V
RC
For  = 300: I C = βI B = ( 300 )( 25.5 μA ) = 7.65 mA 1.8 kW
RB
VCE = VCC − I C RC
= 15 V − ( 7.65 mA )(1.8 kW ) = 1.23 V 560 kW

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Emitter-Feedback Bias

An emitter resistor changes base bias into emitter-feedback bias,

which is more predictable. The emitter resistor is a form of negative
feedback.
The equation for emitter current is found by +VCC
writing KVL around the base circuit. The result is:

V −V RC
I E = CC BE
R RB
RE + E
β DC

RE

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Emitter Bias

Emitter bias has excellent stability but requires both a

positive and a negative source.
For troubleshooting analysis, assume that VE VCC
for an npn transistor is about -1 V. +15 V

RC
Assuming that VE is -1 V, what is IE? 3.9 kW

−VEE − 1 V −15 V − (−1 V) −1 V

IE = = = -1.87 mA RB
RE 7.5 kW 68 kW RE
7.5 kW

VEE
−15 V

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 Emitter Bias

A check with LTspice shows

that the assumption for
troubleshooting purposes is
reasonable.

For detailed analysis work, you

can include the effect of DC.
In this case,

−VEE − 1 V
IE =
R
RE + B
β DC

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 Collector-Feedback Bias
Collector feedback bias uses another form of negative feedback to
increase stability. Instead of returning the base resistor to VCC, it is
returned to the collector.
The equation for collector current is found by
writing KVL around the base circuit. The result is +VCC

VCC − VBE RC
IC = RB
R
RC + B
β DC

The Q point is usually set near the middle of the

load line by using a base resistance of:

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Collector-Feedback Bias

Compare IC for the case when  = 100 with the case when  = 300.

+ VCC
+ 15 V
When  = 100,
VCC − VBE 15 V − 0.7 V
IC = = = 2.80 mA RC
RB 1.8 kW + 330 k W RB
RC + 100 1.8 kW
β DC
330 kW
When  = 300,
VCC − VBE 15 V − 0.7 V
IC = = = 4.93 mA
R
RC + B 1.8 kW + 330 kW
β DC 300

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Summary

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BJT Amplifiers

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AC Quantities

AC quantities are indicated with an

V

italic subscript; rms values are

assumed unless otherwise stated. rms
avg
Vce
Vce Vce

VCE Vce
The figure shows an example of a specific
waveform for the collector-emitter voltage. vce

Notice the DC component is VCE and the ac

component is Vce.
0 t
0

Resistance is also identified with a lower-case subscript when analyzed from an

ac standpoint.

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Linear Amplifier

A linear amplifier produces a replica of the input signal at the

output.
+VCC
Ic
Vb ICQ
VBQ R1 RC

Vce C2
Rs VCEQ
C1 Ib
I BQ
Vs R2 RE RL

For the amplifier shown, notice that the voltage waveform is inverted
between the input and output but has the same shape.

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Capacitors appear as an “Open” to
DC and a “Short” to AC.

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 Capacitors appear as an “Open” to
DC and a “Short” to AC.
The capacitive reactance is much smaller than the In words: The reactance should be at least 10 times
input impedance on the base smaller than the resistance at the lowest frequency
of operation.
When the 10:1 rule is satisfied, Figure a can be
replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. b. Why? The
magnitude of impedance in Fig. a is given by:
Z = √[R2 + XC2 ]
When you substitute the worst case into this, you get:
Z = √[R2 + (0.1R)2] = √[R2+ 0.01R2] = √1.01R2 = 1.005R
Since any well-designed circuit satisfies the 10:1 rule,
we can approximate all coupling capacitors as an
ac short

There- fore, we will use these two approximations for

X C  0.1R a capacitor:
1.For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
2.For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.

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Ex

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 Base-Biased Amplifier
VCC − VBE I C =  dc  I B
IB =
RB I C = (100)  9.3μA
10V − 0.7 V
IB = I C = 930μA
1MΩ
I B = 9.3μA

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 Base-Biased Amplifier
VRC = I C  RC VC = VCC − VRC
VRC = 930μA  4.9kΩ VC = 10 V − 4.56 V
VRC = 4.56 V VC = 5.44 V

I B = 9.3μA
I C = 930μA

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Base-Biased Amplifier
I B = 9.3μA

I C = 930μA

VC = 5.44 V

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Base-Biased Amplifier

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AC Amplifier Symbol

vout
AV =
vin

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Bypass Capacitor
A bypass capacitor is similar to a coupling
capacitor because it appears open to direct current
and shorted to alternating current. But it is not used
to couple a signal between two points. Instead, it is
used to create an ac ground

When used in this way, the capacitor is called a

bypass capacitor because it bypasses or shorts point
E to ground. A bypass capacitor is important
because it allows us to create an ac ground in an
amplifier without disturbing its Q point.
For a bypass capacitor to work properly, its
reactance must be much smaller than the resistance
at the lowest frequency of the ac source. The
definition for good bypassing is identical to that for
good coupling:

X C  0.1R

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Ex

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VBB = VR 2
R2
VR 2 =  VCC
R1 + R2
2.2kΩ
VR 2 =  10V
10kΩ + 2.2kΩ
VR 2 = 1.8V

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V

KVL
VR 2 − VBE − VE = 0
VE = VR 2 − VBE
VE = 1.8V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.1V

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V
VE = 1.1V

VE
IE =
RE

1.1V
IE =
1kΩ

I E = 1.1mA

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V
VE = 1.1V
I E = 1.1mA

IC  I E
I C = 1.1mA

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V
VRE = 1.1V
I E = 1.1mA
I C = 1.1mA
VRC = I C  RC
VRC = 1.1mA  3.6kΩ
VRC = 3.96 V

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V
VRE = 1.1V
I E = 1.1mA
I C = 1.1mA
VRC = 3.96 V
VCE = VCC − VRC − VE
VCE = 10 V − 3.96 V − 1.1V
VCE = 4.94 V

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 Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

VR 2 = 1.8V
VE = 1.1V
I E = 1.1mA
I C = 1.1mA
VRC = 3.96 V
VCE = 4.94 V

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Voltage Divider Biased Amplifier

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AC Load Line

Operation of the linear amplifier IC

can be illustrated using an ac

Q
load line.

IB
Ib
The ac load line is different than the Ic

dc load line because a capacitor ICQ

Q
looks open to dc but effectively acts
as a short to ac. Thus, the collector
resistor appears to be in parallel with
the load resistor. 0 V CE
Vce

VCEQ

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 Transistor AC Model

The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be used for

detailed analysis of a BJT circuit. For most analysis work, the
simplified r-parameters give good results.
The simplified r-parameters are shown in
relation to the transistor model.
C C

An important r-parameter is re'. It βac Ib βac Ib

appears as a small ac resistance
re′
between the base and emitter. B B
Ib
25 mV re′
re' =
IE
E E
'
Note: The prime (ʹ) in r tells us the resistance is
e
inside the transistor.

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“π” Model

Z in(base) =  re '

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is applied to

the base and the inverted output is taken from the collector. The
emitter is common to ac signals.

VCC

RC
C3
R1
Vout
C1
Vin
RL
R2
RE C2

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

VCC
+15 V
 27 kW 
VB =  15 V = 4.26 V
 68 kW + 27 kW  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V 68 kW
C1
V 3.56 V 10 mF
IE = E = = 1.62 mA
RE 2.2 kW 1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
25 mV 25 mV
r =
e
'
= = 15.4 W 27 kW RE C2
IE 1.62 mA 2.2 kW 100 mF

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 AC Transistor Models

• Replace DC
supply with an ac
ground.
• Replace
capacitors with
“shorts.”
• Redraw the circuit
using the π model.

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Analyzing an Amplifier

Recall the superposition theorem discussed in basic electronics courses. In applying

superposition to Fig.a, we can calculate the effect of each source acting separately while the
other is reduced to zero. Reducing the dc voltage source to zero is equivalent to shorting it.
There- fore, to calculate the effect of the ac source in Fig. a, we can short the dc voltage
source.
From now on, we will short all dc voltage sources when analyzing the ac operation of an
amplifier. As shown in Figure b, this means that each dc voltage supply point acts like an ac
ground.

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Analyzing an Amplifier

Base bias amplifier VDB bias amplifier Emitter bias amplifier

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 Distortion

• Defined as the stretching or compressing of

alternate half cycles of the sine wave.
• Distortion is undesirable in high-fidelity amplifiers.
• Distortion can be kept to a minimum by keeping the
ac input small.

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Small-Signal Operation

Large input signals can

produce distortion.

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 The 10% Rule of Thumb

• The total current flowing through the emitter is made

of both dc and ac current.
• To minimize the distortion, ie • must be small as
• compared to I .
EQ
• The ac signal is small when the peak-to-peak ac
emitter current is less than 10 percent of the dc
emitter current.

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The 10% Rule of Thumb

I E = I EQ + i e
• I E = the total emitter.
• I EQ = the dc emitter.
• ie = the ac emitter current.

• For Small-signal operation: ie ( p -p )  0.1I EQ

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The 10% Rule of Thumb

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 AC Transistor Models

• Replace DC
supply with an ac
ground.
• Replace
capacitors with
“shorts.”
• Redraw the circuit
using the π model.

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AC Transistor Models
25mV
r =
e
'
Z in(base) =  re'
IE
25mV Z in(base) = 100  22.73Ω
re =
'

1.1mA Z in(base) = 2273Ω

re' = 22.73Ω

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AC Transistor Models

re' = 22.73Ω
1
Z in(stage) =
1 1 1
+ + '
R1 R2  re
 = 100 1
Z in(stage) =
1 1 1
+ +
10 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 100(22.73Ω)
Z in(stage) = 1005.5Ω

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AC Transistor Models

rc = RC || RL RC  RL
Z out =
RC + RL
3.6 kΩ  100 kΩ
Z out = rc Z out =
3.6 kΩ + 100 kΩ
Z out = 3475Ω

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AC Transistor Models

Z in(base) =  re' rc = RC || RL
Z in(stage) = R1 || R2 ||  re' Z out = rc

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 AC Transistor Models

AV = ?

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AC Transistor Models

vout ic (rc )
AV = = ib  = ic 
vin ib  re '

vout ic (rc ) ic (rc ) rc

AV = = = = '
vin ib  re '
ic re'
re

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AC Transistor Models

Z in(base) =  re' rc
AV = '
re
Z in(stage) = R1 || R2 ||  re'
Z out = rc = RC || RL

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

What is the gain of the amplifier?
VCC
+15 V
Vout R R / /R
Av = = c' = C ' L
Vin re re RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
3.9 kW / /3.9 kW
Av = = 127 68 kW
15.4 W C1
10 mF

The gain will be a little lower if the 1.0 mF RL

input loading effect is accounted for. R2 3.9 kW

27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Greater gain stability can be achieved by adding a swamping resistor to the

emitter circuit of the CE amplifier. The gain will be lower as a result.
VCC
+15 V

What is the gain with the addition RC

C3
of the swamping resistor? (Ignore R1
68 kW
3.9 kW
the small effect on re'.) C1
10 mF
Vout R R / / RL
Av = = ' c = C' 1.0 mF
Vin re + RE1 re + RE1 RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
3.9 kW / /3.9 kW
Av = = 38.2 R2
15.4 W + 33 W 27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

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Swamped Amplifier

• The emitter resistor is only partially

bypassed with a capacitor.
• Voltage gain is less susceptible to thermal
runaway.
• The input impedance is increased.
• Large-signal distortion is decreased.

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Swamped Amplifier

rc
AV = '
re + re

If re re'

rc
AV =
re

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Swamped Amplifier

Z in(base) =  (re + re' )

If re re'
Z in(base) =  re

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Swamped Amplifier

vbe
r =
e
'
Large input signals can
ie produce distortion.

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 Swamped Amplifier

The distortion is reduced.

r = nonlinear
e
'

re = linear

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 Swamped Amplifier

A swamped amplifier is an example of single-stage

feedback.
The voltage gain is decreased, however, the voltage
gain is more stable.

• Th
e Z in(base) • is increased.
• Large-signal distortion is decreased.

• re r.
e
'

• re swamps out the effects of re' .

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Swamped Amplifier

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Swamped Amplifier

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Multisim is a good way to check your calculation. For an input of 10 mVpp, the
output is 378 mVpp as shown on the oscilloscope display for the swamped CE
amplifier.

input

output

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The Common-Emitter Amplifier

In addition to gain stability, swamping has the advantage of increasing the ac input
resistance of the amplifier. For this amplifier, Rin(tot) is given by
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||ac(re' + RE1)
VCC
Zin(base) = vin/iin=icr’e/ib=ac(re' + RE1) +15 V
Ic/ib=ac
What is Rin(tot) for the amplifier if ac = 200?
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||ac(re' + RE1)
C1
10 mF

= 68 kW||27 k W ||200(15.4 W + 33 W) 1.0 mF

RE1
RL
33 W
= 6.45 k W R2
3.9 kW

27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

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The Common-Collector Amplifier

The common-collector amplifier (emitter-follower) has a voltage gain of

approximately 1 but can have high input resistance and current gain. The input
is applied to the base and taken from the emitter.

+VCC

R1
C1
Vin
C2
Iin
Vout
R2
RE RL

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The Common-Collector Amplifier

The power gain is the ratio of the power delivered to the input resistance
divided by the power dissipated in the load. This is approximately equal to the
current gain. That is, Ap ≈Ai.
You can also write power gain as
a ratio of resistances:
VCC
VL2
PL RL Rin ( tot )
Ap = = 2 = Av
2
R1
Pin Vin RL C1
Rin (tot ) Vin
C2
 Rin (tot )  Rin (tot ) Vout
 1 =
 L 
R RL R2
RE RL
The next slide is an example…

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The Common-Collector Amplifier

Calculate the power gain to the load for the CC amplifier using a ratio
of resistances. Assume Av = 1 and ac = 200. Use re' = 2 W.
VCC
+15 V
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||ac(re' + RE||RL)
= 39 kW ||220 kW ||200(2 W + 500 W)
R1
= 24.9 kW C1 39 kW
Vin
RL = 1.0 kW
C2
0.22 mF Vout
Rin (tot ) 24.9 kW
Ap = = = 24.9 R2
RL 1.0 kW 220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
1.0 kW 1.0 kW

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The Common-Collector Amplifier

The input voltage-divider in the previous example is not “rock-solid” but the
overall power gain is good. A “rock solid” stiff voltage-divider is not always
the best design. Can you spot the problem illustrated here?
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||ac(re' + RE||RL) VCC
= 10 kW||10 kW||200(25 W + 3.0 kW) +10 V

= 4.96 kW R1
C1 10 kW  = 200
RL = 10 kW Vin

4.96 kW
C2
Rin (tot )
= 0.496!
Vout
Ap = =
RL 10 kW R2
10 kW RE RL
4.3 kW 10 kW
The problem is the power gain is less
than 1!

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phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
The Darlington Pair

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected as shown. The two transistors act as
one “super ” transistor. Darlington transistors are available in a single package.
Notice there are two diode drops from base to emitter.
VCC
VCC

R1
RC C1
Vin Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2

RE RL

CE Amplifier Darlington CC amplifier Load

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The Sziklai Pair

Another high  pair is the Sziklai pair (sometimes called a complementary Darlington),
in which a pnp and npn transistor are connected as shown. This configuration has the
advantage of only one diode drop between base and emitter.

+VCC

What is the relation between IE2 and IB1?

Vin βDC1
IB1
The DC currents are: βDC2
IC1 is DC1 x IB1 and is equal to IB2 IC1
IE2
IE2 is approximately equal to DC2 x IC1
RE
Therefore, IE2 ≈ DC1DC2IB1

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The CB Amplifier
The common-base (CB) amplifier is used in applications where a low input
impedance is acceptable. It does not invert the signal, an advantage for
higher frequencies as you will see later when you study the Miller effect.

What is the purpose of C2?

+VCC

C2 forces the RC C
3
base to be at C2
R1
Vout
ac ground.
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE

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Multistage Amplifiers

To improve amplifier performance, stages are often cascaded where the output
of one drives another. This an example of a two-stage direct-coupled

amplifier in which the input and VCC

output signals are capacitively
+12 V

coupled.
R1 RC RE3 C3
10 kW 1.0 kW 330 W Vout

Q2 10 µF RL
C1 2N3906 330 W
V in Q1
2N3904
VS 1.0 µF
100 mV pp R2 RE1
4.7 kW
1.0 kHz 100 W

RE2 C2
330 W 47 µF

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Differential Amplifiers

A differential amplifier (diff-amp) has two inputs. It amplifies the difference in

the two input voltages. This circuit is widely used as the input stage to
operational amplifiers. Differential-mode inputs are illustrated.

+VCC

Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2

Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2

RE

–VEE

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Differential Amplifiers

The same amplifier as in the last slide now is shown with common-mode inputs. Diff-
amps tend to reject common-mode signals, which are usually due to noise. Ideally,
the outputs are zero with common-mode inputs.

+VCC

Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2

Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2

RE

–VEE

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