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XI- Chemistry EM 2023-24

B.tech chemical engineering (Coimbatore Institute of Technology)

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chemistry is basic for our lif

+1 - CHEMISTRY

NAME :
CLASS :
SCHOOL :

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P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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UNIT TOPIC PAGE

Basic Concepts of Chemistry and
1 1
Chemical Calculations
2 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 8

3 Periodic Classification of Elements 12

4 Hydrogen 15
5 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals 19
6 Gaseous State 22

7 Thermodynamics 26

8 Physical and Chemical Equilibrium 31

9 Solutions 37
10 Chemical Bonding 40

11 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry 44

12 Basic concepts of organic reactions 49

13 Hydrocarbons 51
14 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry 55

15 Environmental Chemistry 58

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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XI - STD CHEMISTRY
1. Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculations
1. Define relative atomic mass

2. What do you understand by the term mole.

Mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many elementary
particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 entities
3. Define Avagadro number.
The total number of entities present in one mole of any substance is equal to 6.022 x 1023
This number is called Avagadro number (NA).
4. Define Gram Equivalent mass
Gram Equivalent mass is defined as the mass of the element (or) compound (or) ion that
combines or displaces 1.008 g of Hydrogen (or) 8 g of Oxygen (or) 35.3 g of Chlorine.
5. Define Molar volume.
 The volume occupied by one mole of substance in the gaseous state at a given
temperature and pressure is called molar volume.
 273 K and 1 atm pressure – molar volume 22.4 litre.
6. What do you understand by the term oxidation number.
Oxidation number is defined as the imaginary charge left on the atom when all other
atoms of the compound have been removed in their usual oxidation states that are
assigned according to set of rules.
Ex. Oxidation number of Oxigen in H2O
2(1) + X = 0
X = -2
Oxidation number of Oxigen = -2
7. Define limiting reagent.
When a reaction is carried out using non-stoichiometric quantities of the reactants, the
product yield will be determined by the reactant that is completely consumed.
It limits the reaction from taking place and is called as the limiting reagent.

P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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8. Give the difference between Oxidation and Reduction.

S.No. Oxidation Reduction
1 Addition of Oxygen Removal of Oxygen
2 Removal of Hydrogen Addition of Hydrogen
3 Removal of Electrons Addition of Electrons
4 Oxidation number increase Oxidationnumber decrease
5

9. What is the difference between molecular mass and molar mass? Calculate the
molecular mass and molar mass for carbon monoxide.
S.No. Molecular mass Molar mass
The ratio of the mass of a molecule to The mass of one mole of a substance.
1
the unified atomic mass unit.
2 Unit - u Unit - g mole-1
Molecular mass of carbon monoxide Molar mass of carbon monoxide is
3
is 28 u 28 g mole-1

10. Calculate the molar mass of the following compounds.

i) Urea [CO(NH2)2] ii) Acetone [CH3CO CH3]
iii) Boric Acid [H3BO3] iv) Sulpuric Acid [H2SO4]
i) Urea [CO(NH2)2]
Molar mass = 12 + 16 + (2x14) + (4x1) = 60 g mol-1
ii) Acetone [CH3CO CH3]
Molar mass (C3H6O) = (3x12) +(6x1) + 16 = 58 g mol-1
iii) Boric Acid [H3BO3]
Molar mass = (3x1) +11 + (3x16) = 62 g mol-1
iv) Sulpuric Acid [H2SO4]
Molar mass = (2x1) +32 + (4x16) = 98 g mol-1
11. Calculate the relative molecular mass of Hydrogen
Relative Molecular mass of Hydrogen = 2 x (relative atomic mass of hydrogen)
= 2 x 1.008
= 2.016 u
12. Calculate the relative molecular mass of Glucose
Relative molecular mass of Glucose (C6H12O6)

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13. Write notes on Empirical formula and Molecular formula

Empirical formula Molecular formula
The formula written with the simplest The formula written with the actual number
ratio of the number of different atoms of different atoms present in one molecule
present in one molecule of the compound of the compound as subscript to the atomic
as subscript to the atomic symbol. symbol.
Empirical formula of Benzene is CH Molecular formula of Benzene is C6H6

14. What is the Empirical formula of the following?

15. Calculate the oxidation number of the element

(m) CO2 (,)H2O
x + 2(-2) = 0 2(1) + x = 0
x-4=0 2+x = 0
x=-4 x =-2
Oxidation number of C = - 4 Oxidation number of O = - 2
(M) H2SO4 (<) Cr2O7 2-
2(1) + x + 4(-2) = 0 2x + 7(-2) = -2
2+x - 8 = 0 2x - 14 = -2
x-6 =0 2x = + 12
x=+6 x=+6
Oxidation number of S = + 6 Oxidation number of Cr = - 4

16. Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occurring magnesium using the
following data.

P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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17. Whar are the different types of Redox reactions.

1. Combination reaction
When two substances combine to give a single compound

2. Decomposition reaction
When a compound breaks in to two or more compounds

3. Displacement reaction
When a atom in a compound is replaced by another atom.
(i) Metal displacement reactions

(ii) Non-metal displacement reactions

4. Dispropotination reaction
When a same compound undergoes both oxidation and reduction

5. Competitive electron transfer reaction

18. The density of carbon dioxide is equal to 1.965 kgm-3 at 273 K and 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the molar mass of CO2

19. Which contains the greatest number of moles of oxygen atoms

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20. Mass of one atom of an element 6.645 x 10-23 g.

How many moles of element are there in 0.320 kg
Mass of one atom = 6.645 x 10-23 g
Mass of 1 mole of atom = 6.645 x 10-23 g x 6.022 x 10-23 = 40 g

21. A compound on analysis gave the following percentage composition C = 54.55%

H = 9.09% O = 36.66% Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

22. An acid found in Tamarind on analysis shows the following percentage composition
40% carbon, 6.6% hydrogen and 53.4% oxygen. Find the empirical formula and
molecular formula. (molar mass = 60 gmol-1)

Empirical formula = CH2O

Empirical formula mass = 12 + (2x1) + 16 = 30
molar mass = 60

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23. Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a compound containing

76.6% carbon, 6.38% hydrogen and rest oxygen its vapour density is 47

Empirical formula = C6H6O

Empirical formula mass = (6x12) + (6x1) + 16 = 94

Molecular formula = C6H6O x 1 = C6H6O

24. A compound on analysis gave Na = 14.31%, S= 9.97%, H = 6.22% O = 69.5%

Emperical formula mass

Molar mass = 322

P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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25. Balance the following equations by oxidation number method.

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P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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2. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

1. State Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle.
It is impossible to accurately determine both the position and momentum of
microscopic particle simultaneously.

∆X – uncertainities in determining the position

∆p - uncertainities in determining the momentum
2. Describe the Aufbau principle.
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in the order of their
increasing energies.

3. State and explain pauli exclusion principle.

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of values of all four quantum numbers.
4. Describe Hund's rule
Electron pairing in the degenerate orbitals does not take place until all the available
orbitals contains one electron each.
N (Z=7) : 1S2 2S2 2P3

5. What is exchange energy?

If two or more electrons with the same spin are present in degenerate orbitals, there is a
possibility for exchanging their positions. During process, the released energy is called
exchange energy.
6. Which quantum number reveal information about the shape, energy, orientation and
size of orbitals?
 Principle quantum number : Energy and size of orbitals
 Azimuthal quantum number : Shape of orbitals
 Magnetic quantum number : Orientation of orbitals
7. Derive de Broglie equation
Planck’s quantum hypothesis : E = hν ------- (1)
Einstein's mass-energy relationship : E = mc2 ------- (2)
From equation 1 & 2
hν = mc2
ν = c/λ
h c/λ = mc2
λ = h / mc (or) λ = h / mv
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8. How many orbitals are possible for n =4?

n l m Orbitals Total orbitals

0 0 One s orbital
1 -1 0 +1 Three p orbitals
4 16
2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 Five d orbitals
3 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 Seven f orbitals
9. How many radial nodes and angular nodes for 2s, 4p, 5d, 4f and 3d orbitals exhibit?
radial nodes angular nodes
Orbitals n l (n- l - 1) l
2s 2 0 1 0
4p 4 1 2 1
5d 5 2 2 2
4f 4 3 0 3
3d 3 2 0 2

10. Write notes on assumptions of Bohr’s atom model.

1. The energies of electrons in an atom are quantised.
2. The electron is revolving around the nucleus in a certain circular path of fixed energy
called stationary orbit.
3. Electron can revolve only in those orbits in which the angular momentum mvr = nh/2π
4. An electron revolves in the fixed stationary orbit, it doesn’t lose its energy.
5. When an electron jumps from higher energy state to a lower energy state,
the excess energy is emitted as radiation.
11. What are the limitations of Bohr’s atom model?
 The Bohr's atom model is not applicable to multi electron atoms.
 It was unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field
(Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
 Bohr’s theory was unable to explain the angular momentum of the electron
12. Consider the following electronic arrangements for the d5 configuration.

(i) Which of these represents the ground state

(ii) Which configuration has the maximum exchange energy.

13. Give the electronic configuration of Mn 2+ and Cr3+

2+
 Mn = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s0
3+
 Cr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s0
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14. Explain Quantum numbers

1. Principal quantum number (n)
 The energy level in which electron revolves around the nucleus
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a given shell is 2n2

n -value 1 2 3 4
Energy level K L M N
 Energy of electron is given by

2. Azimuthal Quantum number (l)

 It represents a subshell
 It has the value from 0 to (n -1)
l - value 0 1 2 3
Orbitals s p d f
 The maximum number of electrons in a given subshell is 2(2l +1).
 It is determined by the shape of orbitals.
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml)
 It has the value -l ........ 0 ........+l
 It represent different orientation of orbitals in space.
 It is determined by the directions of orbitals.
 The Zeeman Effect provides the experimental justification for this quantum number.
4. Spin quantum number (ms)
 It represents the spin of the electron
 Electron spins about its own axis either in a clockwise direction or in anti-clockwise
direction.
 ms Values is +1/2, -1/2
15. Give the actual and expected electronic configuration of Chromium and Copper.
 Expected electronic configuration Chromium (Z = 24)

Actual electronic configuration of Chromium:

 Expected electronic configuration Copper (Z = 29)

Actual electronic configuration of Copper:

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16. Explain briefly the time independent schrodinger wave equation?

Ĥ = Hamiltonian operator
Ψ = Wavefunction. It is denoted as Ψ(x,y,z)
E = energyofthesystem

 This equation determines the change of wave function in space depending on the field
of force in which the electron moves.
 The above equation does not contain time as a variable
17. For each of the following, give the sub level designation, the allowable m values and
the number of orbitals

sub level
n l designation ml number of orbitals
4 2 4d -2,-1,0,+1,+2 five 4d orbitals
5 3 5f -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 seven 5f orbitals
7 0 7s 0 one 7s orbitals

18. An atom of an element contains 35 electrons and 45 neutrons. Deduce

i) the number of protons ii) the electronic configuration for the element
iii) All the four quantum numbers for the last electron
The number of Electrons = 35
The number of protons = 35

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3. Periodic Classification of Elements

1. Define modern periodic law.
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers.
2. What are isoelectronic ions? Give examples.
Ions having same electronic configuration is called isoelectronic ions.
Na+ = F- = 1s2 2s2 2p6
3. What is effective nuclear charge ?
The net nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons in the outermost shell is called
the effective nuclear charge.
Zeff = Z – S
4. What is shielding effect ?
The inner shell electrons act as a shield between the nucleus and the valence electrons.
This effect is called shielding effect.
5. What is Ionisation energy ?
The minimum amount of energy required to remove the electron from the valence
shell of the isolated neutral gaseous atom.
M(g) + IE → M+(g) + 1e-
6. What is Electron Affinity?
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the valence shell of an
isolated neutral gaseous atom to form its anion
A(g) + 1e- → A-(g) + EA
7. Define electronegativity.
The relative tendency of an element present in a covalently bonded molecule, to attract
the shared pair of electrons towards itself.
8. Explain the diagonal relationship.
On moving diagonally across the periodic table, the second and third period elements
show certain similarities is called the diagonal relationship.

9. Ionisation potential of N is greater than that of O. Why?

 Electronic configuration of Ntrogen - 1s2 2s2 2p3
 Electronic configuration of Oxygen - 1s2 2s2 2p4
 Since the half filled electronic configuration is more stable

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10. State and explain Dobereiner triads.

The atomic weight of the middle element nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of the
atomic weights of the remaining two elements.

11. State Newlands’ Octaves.

On arranging the elements in the increasing order of atomic weights, he observed that the
properties of every eighth element are similar to the properties of the first element.
12. Mention any two anomalous properties of second period elements.
 Lithium and Beryllium form more covalent compounds, unlike the alkali and alkaline
earth metals which form ionic compounds.
 The elements of the second period have only four orbitals (2s & 2p) in the valence
shell but the other members of the subsequent periods have more orbitals.
13. Why halogens act as oxidising agents?
 Halogens have high electro negativity
 Electronic configuration of halogens are ns2 np5
 Hence it accepts one electron it becomes a stable fully filled ns2 np6 configuration.
14. Give the general electronic configuration of lanthanides and actinides?
 Lanthanides - 4f1-14 5d0-1 6s2
 Actinides - 5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2
15. State the trends in the variation of electronegativity in group and periods.
Group Periods
Electronegativity Decreases Increases
1.When a electron is added to 1.When a electron is added to
Reason the new shell of an atom the same shell of an atom
2. Nuclear charge decreases. 2. Nuclear charge increases.

16. Explain the periodic trend of ionisation potential.

Group Periods
Ionisation potential Decreases Increases
1.When a electron is added to 1.When a electron is added to
Reason the new shell of an atom the same shell of an atom
2. Nuclear charge decreases. 2. Nuclear charge increases.

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17. Explain the pauling method for the determination of ionic radius.
In the Pauling method the Ionic radius was Calculated by using the Inter Ionic Distance

r(C+) - radius of cation, r (A– ) - radius of anion

d = distance between C+ and A– ions
In noble gases,
Ionic radius α Effective nuclear charge

If Zeff = Z – S
From equations (2), (3)

On solving equation (1) and (4) the values of r(C+) and r (A– ) can be obtained
18. Briefly give the basis for pauling's scale of electronegativity.
 According the Pauling the EN value of Hydrogen is 2.1 and for Fluorine is 4.0
 Based on this the electronegativity values for other elements can be calculated using
the following expression

XA, XB is electronegativity of A and B

EAB, EAA, EBB are the bond dissociation energies of AB, A2 and B2 molecules.

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4. HYDROGEN
1. Justify the position of hydrogen in the periodic table?
 The hydrogen has the electronic configuration of 1s1 which resembles with ns1
general configuration of alkali metals
 Hydrogen forms unipositive ion (H+) like alkali metals (Na+..)
 Hydrogen acts as a reducing agent like alkali metals.
 Hydrogen forms halides (HX) like alkali metals (NaX)
2. Explain why hydrogen is not placed with the halogen in the periodic table.
 The electron affinity of hydrogen is much less than that of halogen.
 The tendency of hydrogen to form hydride ion is low compared to that of
halogens to form the halide ions
3. What are isotopes? Write the names of isotopes of hydrogen.
 Elements having same atomic number but different mass number is called as isotopes
 Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.
1. Protium (1H1 or H),
2. Deuterium (1H2 or D)
3. Tritium (1H3 or T)
4. Give the difference between Ortho and para hydrogen
Ortho hydrogen Para hydrogen
1 In hydrogen molecule, if the two In a hydrogen molecule, if the two
nuclei rotates in the same direction nuclei rotates in the opposite direction
2 It is more stable It is less stable
3 75% at room temperature 25% at room temperature
4 It has a net magnetic moment It has Zero magnetic moment
5 Its melting point is 13.95K Its melting point is 13.83K

5. How do you convert para hydrogen into ortho hydrogen ?

 By passing electric discharge
 By heating at 8000C
 By mixing with atomic hydrogen
 By using catalyst like Fe, Pt
 By mixing with paramagnetic molecules like oxygen
6. How is the preparation of deuterium.
Further electrolysis of the heavy water gives deuterium.

7. Explain the exchange reactions of deuterium.

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8. Give the preparation of Tritium

Tritium is prepared by bombarding Lithium with slow neutrons.
3Li
6
+ 0n1 → 1T3 + 2He4
9. Give the preparation of Hydrogen using electrolysis
 Anode - Nickel
 Cathode - Iron
 Hydrogen is prepared by the electrolysis of aqueous solution of NaOH.
10. Explain the Lab preparation of hydrogen
Hydrogen is prepared by heating Zinc with dilute HCl

11. List the uses of Hydrogen

It is used for
 preparation of ammonia
 preparation of Vanaspati.
 preparation of Methanol
 Liquid hydrogen - Rocket Fuel
12. Give the uses of heavy water
 Moderators in Nuclear reactor.
 Coolant in nuclear reactors.
 Tracer element to study the mechanisms of organic reactions.
13. What is Hard water and Soft water.
 Hard water are the soluble metal ions such as calcium and magnesium.
 Soft water are the water free from soluble salts of calcium and magnesium.
14. What is Temporary hardness and how it is removed?
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of Bicarbonates of Calcium and Magnesium.
1. It can be removed by boiling and filtration.
2. Clark’s method - lime is added to hard water
15. What is Permanent hardness and how it is removed?
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of Sulphates of Calcium and Magnesium.
1. It is removed by adding washing soda.
2. Passed through an ion exchange Zeolites.
16. Explain the Ion Exchange method of Softening hard water.
 In this method the hard water is passed through an ion exchange Zeolites.
 The Zeolites are hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicates (Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O)
 The Zeolites contains porous structure of mono valent sodium ions,
 which is exchanged with Calcium and Magnesium ions in water.

 The Zeolites can be reused by treating with sodium chloride.

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17. Why hydrogen peroxide is not stored in Glass bottles?

Hydrogen peroxide undergoes a Catalyzed disproportionation reaction of Alkali metals.
18. Hydrogen peroxide can function as an oxidizing agent as well as reducing agent.
Substantiate this statement with suitable examples.
Acidic medium - Oxidation

Basic medium - Reduction

2KMnO4 + 3H2O2 2MnO2 + 2KOH + 2H2O + 3O2
19. List the used of Hydrogen peroxide
 It is used as Antiseptic
 It is used to bleach in paper
 It is used to restore the colour of the old paintings
 It is used in water treatment to oxidize pollutants
20. Compare the structures of H2O and H2O2.
H2O H2O2
Bent V structure Partly opened book structure
0
Bond angle is 104.5 Bond angle is 90.20

21. Discuss the types of hydrides.

1. Ionic (Saline) hydrides – LiH
2. Covalent hydrides (Molecular hydrides)
 Electron deficient hydride – B2H6
 Electron rich hydride – Water, NH3
 Electron Precise Hydride - Methane
3. Metallic (Interstitial) hydrides – MH (M = V, Zn..)
22. Discuss the three types of Covalent hydrides.
 Electron deficient hydride – B2H6
 Electron rich hydride – Water, NH3
 Electron Precise Hydride - Methane
23. Derive hydrogen bonding and types of hydrogen bonding.
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as
fluorine (F) or oxygen (O) or nitrogen (N), the bond is polarized.
Two types of hydrogen bonding.
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond - H2O, NH3
2. Intramolecular hydrogen bond - Salicilaldehyde

Kaw;rp cilahh; - ,fo;r;rp milahh;

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24. What is water-gas shift reaction ?

When carbon mono oxide of Water gas can be converted into carbon di oxide by mixing
the gas mixture with more steam.

25. How do you expect the metallic hydrides to be useful for hydrogen storage ?
 Metallic hydrides are relatively light
 Inexpensive
 Thermally unstable
26. Why interstitial hydrides have a lower density than the parent metal.
 Most of the hydrides are non-stoichiometric with variable composition
(TiH1.5-1.8 and PdH0.6-0.8)
 So it have lower density than parent metal
27. NH3 has exceptionally high melting point and boiling point as compared to those of
the hydrides of the remaining element of group 15 - Explain.
 NH3 has inter molecular Hydrogen bonding.
 So It has high melting point and boiling point.
28. Arrange NH3, H2O and HF in the order of increasing magnitude of hydroge bonding
and explain the basis for your arrangement.
 The order of increasing strength of Hydrogen bonding is NH3 < H2O < HF
 The strength of hydrogen bonding α Electro negativity.
 The order of electro negativity is N < O < F

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5. ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS

1. Explain the important common features of Alkali metals.
 Their general electronic configuration is ns1
 They are highly reactive
 Their common oxidation state is +1
2. What is the reason for the distinctive behavior of lithium
 Smaller in size
 High polarizing power.
 High hydration energy
 Absence of d-orbitals
3. Substantiate Lithium fluoride has the lowest solubility among group one metal
fluorides.
+
 Small size of Li and F-
 High lattice enthalpy
4. Explain the important common features of Group 2 element
 Alkaline earth metals
 General electronic configuration is ns2
 Common oxidation state is +2.
 Highly reactive
5. Discuss the similarities between beryllium and aluminium.
 Soluble in organic solvents
 Strong Lewis acids.
 Same electronegativity values
 Both hydroxides are amphoteric in nature
6. Why beryllium shows anomalous behavior.
 Small size
 High ionization energy and high electro negativity
 High polarizing power
 Absence of d-orbitals
7. Beryllium halides are covalent whereas magnesium halides are ionic why?
 Small size of Be2+
 High electro negativity
 High polarizing power
8. Why alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals.
 Alkaline earth metals are smaller in size
 High density
 Strong metallic bonds.
9. Why sodium hydroxide is much more water soluble than sodium chloride?
 Sodiumhydroxides are strong bases
 It dissolve in water with evolution of heat on account of intense hydration.
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10. Write the flame colour of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
Lithium - Crimson red Caesium - Blue
Sodium - Yellow Calcium - Brick red
Potassium - Lilac (violet) Strontium - Crimson red
Rubidium - Reddish violet Barium - Apple Green

11. How is plaster of paris prepared?

Gypsum 393K Plaster of paris
CaSO4 . 2H2O 393K CaSO4 . ½ H2O + 1½ H2O
12. What is Dead Burnt Plaster?
When Gypsum is heated above 393K, no water of crystallisation is left and
anhydrous calcium sulphate is formed This is called Dead Burnt Plaster.
13. Mention the uses of plaster of paris
 It is used in the treatment of Bone fracture
 It is used in Building industry
 It is used for making Statues
 It is used in Dentistry
14. Give the uses of gypsum.
 It is used for making plaster of paris
 It is used for making cement
 It is used in tooth paste, Shampoos
15. Which is called desert rose? Why?
Gypsum crystals are sometimes found to occur in a form that resembles the petals of a
flower. This type of formation is called as desert rose
16. Mention the uses of Alkali Metals
 Lithium - electrochemical cells
 Liquid sodium - coolant in fast breeder nuclear reactors.
 Potassium - fertilizer.
 Caesium - photoelectric cells.
17. Give the uses of Magnesium
 It is used as a desiccant .
 It is used to removal of sulphur from iron
 Magnesium alloys are used in aeroplane construction.
18. Give the uses of Calcium
 It is used for making cement
 As a getter in vacuum tubes.
 In dehydrating oils
 As a reducing agent in the metallurgy

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19. Write the chemical equations for the reactions involved in solvay process of
preparation of sodium carbonate.

20. Describe briefly the biological importance of Calcium and magnesium.

Biological importance of Calcium
 Calcium is a major component of bones and teeth.
 Deficiency of calcium causes longer time for blood to clot.
It is also important for muscle contraction.
 It is maintained by hormones
Biological importance of Magnesium.
 Magnesium plays a important role in Bio-chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes
 Magnesium is essential for the synthesis and functioning of the DNA
 Magnesium is used for balancing the electrolyte in the body
 Deficiency of Mg caused Neuro -Muscular irritation
 Magnesium is present in Chlorophyll and play a main role in Photosynthesis
21. Give the systematic names for the following
1. milk of magnesia - Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)
2. lye - Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
3. lime - Calcium oxide (CaO)
4. Caustic potash – Pottasium hydroxide (KOH)
5. Baking soda – Sodium bi carbonate (NaHCO3)
6. washing soda - sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
7. soda ash - anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
8. trona – Tri sodium hydrogen di carbonate di hydrate [ Na3H(CO3)2 2H2O ]
9. desert rose - Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O)
10. Plaster of paris - Calcium Sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4. ½ H2O)
11. Cooking salt or Table salt - Sodium chloride (NaCl)
12. Blue john - Calcium fluorite (CaF2)

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6. GASEOUS STATE
1. Boyle’s Law
At constant Temperature and Moles,

V = Volume, P = Pressure.
2. Charles Law
At constant Pressure and Moles,
VαT
V = Volume, T = Temperature.
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
At constant Volume and Moles,
PαT
P = Pressure, T = Temperature.
4. Avogadro’s Hypothesis
At constant Temperature and Pressure,
Vαn
V = Volume, n = number of moles.
5. Give the mathematical expression that relates gas volume and moles.
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
V α n (V = Volume, n = number of moles)
6. Dalton’s law of partial pressures
The total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting gases is the sum of partial pressures of the
gases present in the mixture.
Ptotal = p1 + p2 + p3 +...... (p1, p2, p3 - partial pressures)

7. Graham’ s Law of Diffusion

The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the square root of molar mass.

r - rate of diffusion, M - molar mass.

8. Distinguish between diffusion and effusion.
Diffusion Effusion
The movement of the gas molecules The movement of the gas molecules
through another gas from high through a small hole from high
concentration to low concentration is concentration to low concentration is
called as Diffusion. called as Effusion

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9. Derive the ideal gas equation

(P=Pressure, V=Volume, T=Temperature, R=Gas Constant)

10. Compressibility factor Z
The deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour is measured in terms of a ratio of
PV to nRT. This is termed as compressibility factor.

11. What is Boyle temperature or Boyle point?

The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas law over an appreciable range of
pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
12. Define Joule-Thomson effect.
The lowering of temperature when a gas is made to expand adiabatically from a region
of high pressure into low pressure is known as Joule- Thomson effect.
13. Difine Inversion temperature
The temperature below which a gas obeys Joule-Thomson effect is called inversion
temperature.

( a , b - Vander Waals Constant)

14. What are ideal gases? In what way real gases differ from ideal gases.
Ideal gases are gases that obey the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT.
Ideal gases Real gases
Ideal gases obeys the gas law under all Real gases only obey at low pressure and
conditions of temperature and pressure high temperature
There is no attractive force between the There is attractive force between the
gaseous molecules. gaseous molecules.
They obey Ideal gas equation They obey the Van der waals equation.
PV = nRT

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15. Give three methods used for liquefaction of gases

 Linde’s method
 Claude’s process
 Adiabatic process
16. Can a Van der Waals gas with a=0 be liquefied? explain.
If a=0 , there is no attractive force between the gaseous molecules.
So, it can not be liquefied
17. Name two items that can serve as a model for Gay Lusaac’ law and explain.
a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water during summer
During summer, the temperature increases, so the pressure inside the Aerated water
bottles increases and explodes. (Gay-Lussac’s Law)
b) The tyre of an automobile is inflated to slightly lesser pressure summer than in winter
During summer, temperature increases and Pressure of air inside the tube increases.
So the tube will burst.
18. Explain the following observations.
a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water during summer
During summer, the temperature increases, so the pressure inside the Aerated water bottles
increases and explodes. (Gay-Lussac’s Law)
b) Liquid ammonia bottle is cooled before opening the seal.
At room temperature the vapour pressure of liquid ammonia is very high.
If the bottle is cooled before opening the pressure decreases.
This cause avoid the breakage of the bottle. (Gay-Lussac’s Law)
c) The tyre of an automobile is inflated to slightly lesser pressure in summer than in winter
During summer, temperature increases and Pressure of air inside the tube increases.
So the tube will burst.
d) The size of a weather balloon becomes larger as it ascends up into larger altitude
When the balloons ascents, the atmospheric pressure decreases,
So the volume of the balloons increases according to Boyles Law.
19. Write the Vander Waals equation for a real gas.
Explain the correction term for pressure and volume
Vander Waals equation for a real gas

( a , b - Vander Waals Constant)

Pressure Correction

Volume Correction
Videal = V – nb

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20. Derive the values of critical constants in terms of van der Waals constants.

( a , b - Vander Waals Constant)

For 1 mole

Multify the equation V2/ P and arranged in powers of V

-------------------- (1)
At the critical point
V = VC , P = PC , T= TC
If V = VC

----------------------------( 2)

Compare the equations 1 & 2

Critical Volume Critical Pressure Critical Temperature

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7. THERMODYNAMICS
1. Explain Extensive and properties with examples
Extensive properties
The property that depends on the mass or size of the system
Ex. Volume, Mass, Internal energy,
Intensive properties
The property that independent of the mass or size of the system.
Ex. Density, Temperature, Boiling point
2. What are state and path functions? Give two examples.
State function
A state function of a system, which has a specific value for a given state and does not
depend on the path by which the particular state is reached.
Ex. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature(T).
Path function
A path function of a system whose value depends on the path by which the system
changes from its initial to final states.
Ex. Work (w), Heat (q).
3. Identify the state and path functions out of the following:
a) Enthalpy b) Entropy c) Heat d) Temperature e) Work f) Free energy
a) Enthalpy State function
b) Entropy State function
c) Heat Path function
d) Temperature State function
e) Work Path function
f) Free energy State function

4. State the Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

If two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they tend
to be in thermal equilibrium with themselves
5. State the first law of thermodynamics.
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
 but may be converted from one form to another
6. State the third law of thermodynamics.
The entropy of pure crystalline substance at absolute zero is zero.
7. Define Hess's law of constant heat summation.
The enthalpy change of a reaction either at constant volume or constant pressure
is the same whether it takes place in a single or multiple steps provided the initial
and final states are same.

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8. What is lattice energy?

It is defined as the amount of energy required to completely remove the constituent ions
from its crystal lattice to an infinite distance.
9. Define molar heat capacity. Give its unit.
The amount of heat absorbed by one mole of the substance to raise its temperature by 1K.
Unit - JK-1mol-1
10. Define the calorific value of food. What is the unit of calorific value?
The calorific value is defined as the amount of heat produced when one gram of the
food is completely burnt.
Unit - Cal g-1
11. Define enthalpy of combustion.
The enthalpy change when one mole of substance is completely burnt in excess of oxygen.
12. Define enthalpy of neutralization.
The change in enthalpy when one gram equivalent of an acid is completely neutralised
by one gram equivalent of a base in dilute solution
13. Define Isothermal process
The temp. of the system remains constant, during the change from its initial to final state.
dT = 0
14. Define Isobaric process
The Pressure of the system remains constant, during the change from its initial to final state.
dP = 0
15. Define Isochoric process
The Volume of the system remains constant, during the change from its initial to final state .
dV = 0
16. Define Adiabatic process
There is no exchange of heat between the system and surrounding during the process.
q=0
17. What is the usual definition of entropy? What is the unit of entropy?
 Entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder of a system
 s = qrev / T
 Unit - J / K
18. Define standard entropy of formation
The entropy of formation of 1 mole of a compound from its elements in standard
conditions (273K and 1bar) is called as standard entropy of formation.
19. Define is Gibb’s free energy.
Gibb’s free energy G = H – TS
H - Enthalpy T - Temperature S - Entropy
20. Give the applications of the Bomb calorimeter.
 It is used to determine the heat released in a combustion reaction
 It is used to determine the Calorific value of Food
 It is used in Explosive testing.
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21. What are spontaneous reactions? What are the conditions for the spontaneity of a
process?
A reaction that occurs under the given set of conditions without any external driving force
is called spontaneous reaction.
Conditions for the spontaneity
∆S = +Ve, ∆H = -Ve, ∆G = -Ve.
22. Predict the feasibility of a reaction when i) both ΔH and ΔS positive
ii) both ΔH and ΔS negative iii) ΔH decreases but ΔS increases
i) both ΔH and ΔS positive
 spontaneous at high temperature
 non-spontaneous at lowtemperature
ii) both ΔH and ΔS negative
 non-spontaneous at high temperature
 spontaneous at lowtemperature
iii) ΔH decreases but ΔS increases
Spontaneous at all temperature.
23. Define Iinternal energy. List the characteristics of internal energy.
The internal energy of a system is equal to the energy possessed by all its constituents
namely atoms, ions and molecules

Characteristics of internal energy

 Extensive properties
 State function
 The change in internal energy ΔU = Uf - Ui
(Uf - internal energy of final state Ui - internal energy of initial state )
 ΔUcyclic = 0
 Uf > Ui then ΔU = +ve
Uf < Ui then ΔU = - ve
24. List the characteristics of Entropy
 Entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder of a system
 Entropy of an isolated system increases during a spontaneous process.
 Entropy - Extensive property
 Entropy - State function
 s = qrev / T
 Unit - J / K

Process Spontaneous Non-spontaneous Equilibrium

∆S +Ve -Ve 0

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25. List the characteristics of Gibbs free energy.

 Gibbs free energy G = H – TS.
 G - state function
 G - Extensive property
 G has a single value for the thermodynamic state of the system.
Process Spontaneous Non-spontaneous Equilibrium
∆G -Ve +Ve 0

26. State the various statements of second law of thermodynamics.

1. The efficiency of a machine never be 100%
2. Efficiency

3. Entropy statement
Entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder of a system
Entropy of an isolated system increases during a spontaneous process.
4. Clausius statement
It is impossible to transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir without
doing some work.
5. Kelvin-Planck statement
It is impossible to construct an engine which operated in a complete cycle will absorb
heat from a single body and convert it completely to work without leaving some changes
in the working system.
27. If an automobile engine burns petrol at a temperature of 816oC and if the
surrounding temperature is 21oC, calculate its maximum possible efficiency.

Th = 816+273= 1089K ; Tc = 21+273= 294K

28. Calculate the entropy change when 1 mole of ethanol is evaporated at 351 K.
The molar heat of vaporisation of ethanol is 39.84 kJ mol -1

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29. Calculate the entropy change during the melting of one mole of ice into water at 0⁰C
and 1 atm pressure. Enthalpy of fusion of ice is 6008 J mol-1

30. The equilibrium constant of a reaction is 10, what will be the sign of ΔG? Will this
reaction be spontaneous?
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT log Keq
Keq = 10
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT log 10
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT × 1
∆G0 = – ve
∆G0 is negative, the reaction is spontaneous
31. Calculate the standard entropy change for the following reaction(ΔSfo), given the
standard entropies of CO2(g), C(s), O2(g) as 213.6, 5.740 and 205 JK−1 respectively.

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8. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

1. Why chemical equilibrium is considered as dynamic equilibrium?
At equilibrium the forward and the backward reactions will proceed at the same rate.
So, the chemical equilibrium is considered as dynamic equilibrium
2. Define Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibrium
When the reactant and the product are in the same phase.

Heterogeneous Equilibrium
When the reactant and the product are in the different phase.

3. Define Law of Mass action

At a given temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the
product of theactive masses of the reactants.
Rate α [Reactant]
4. Define Le-Chatelier Braun principle
If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, then the system will move in the
direction to nullify the effect of the disturbance.
5. Define equilibrium constant
Equilibrium constant is defined as the ratio between the product of the active masses of
the products and the reactants raised to a stoichiometric coefficient.
6. Define Reaction Quotient ‘Q’
Reaction Quotient is defined as the ratio between the product of the active masses
of the products and the reactants raised to a Stoichiometric coefficient under
non equilibrium conditions
7. List the application of Equilibrium constant
 It is used to find the direction of the reaction taking place
 It is used to find the extend of the reaction
 It is used to find the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and the product.
8. Effect of inert gas on a equilibrium reaction
 The total number of moles and pressure of the gas will increase.
 But the partial pressure remains unchanged.
 Hence no effect on Equilibrium reaction
9. Explain how the equilibrium constant Kc is used to find out the direction of the
reaction.
 Q = Kc - Equilibrium reaction
 Q < Kc - Forward direction
 Q > Kc - Reverse direction.

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10. Derive the relation between KP and KC.

PAx = [A]x (RT)x ……

KP = KC (RT)Δng
11. Derive a general expression for the equilibrium constant KP and KC for the reaction
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)

12. Derive a general expression for the equilibrium constant KP and KC for the reaction
2CO2 (g) CO2 (g) + C(s)

13. Write a balanced chemical equation for the equilibrium reaction for which the
equilibrium constant is given by expression

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14. What is the relation between Kp and Kc. Give one example for Kc is equal to Kc
KP = KC (RT)Δng

Δng = 0
KP = KC
15. Derive the equilibrium constant Kp and KC for the formation of HI.

H2 I2 HI
Initial number of moles a b 0
Number of moles reacted x x 0
Number of moles at equilibrium a-x b-x 2x
Active mass

Hence KP = KC

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16. Derive the equilibrium constant KP and KC for the formation of ammonia (NH3)

N2 H2 NH3
Initial number of moles a b 0
Number of moles reacted x 3x 0
Number of moles at equilibrium a-x b-3x 2x
Active mass

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17. Derive the equilibrium constant KP and KC for dissociation of PCl5

PCl5 PCl3 Cl2

Initial number of moles a 0 0
Number of moles reacted x 0 0
Number of moles at equilibrium a-x x x
Active mass

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18. Deduce the Vant Hoff equation.

 Van’t Hoff equation gives the effect of temperature of the equilibrium Constant (K)
 The relation between standard free energy change (ΔG°) and equilibrium constant is

Substituting (1) in equation (2)

Differentiating equation (3) with respect to temperature,

Equation 4 is known as differential form of van’t Hoff equation.

On integrating the equation 4, between T1 and T2 with their respective equilibrium
constants K1 and K2.

It is known as integrated form of van’t Hoff equation

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9. SOLUTIONS
1. Define Molality

2. Define Molarity

3. Define Normality

4. Define Formality

5. Define Mole fraction

6. What are Factors influencing the solubility

 Nature of solute and solvent
 Temperature
 Pressure
7. Explain the effect of pressure on the solubility.
 The change in pressure does not have any effect in the solubility of solids and liquids
as they are not compressible.
 However, the solubility of gases increases with increase of pressure.
 According to Le-Chatelier principle, the increase in pressure will shift the equilibrium
in the irection which will reduce the pressure.
 Therefore, more gaseous molecules dissolves in the solvent and the solubility increases.
8. Define vapour pressure
 In a closed system, at equilibrium, the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of
condensation
 At equilibrium, the pressure of the vapours with its liquid is called as Vapour pressure.
9. State and explain Henry’s law
The Partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase is directly proportional
to the mole fraction of the gaseous solute in the solution at low concentrations
Psolute α X solute in solution
10. Mention the limitations of Henry’s law
 Only the less soluble gases obeys Henry’s law
 Henry’s law is applicable at moderate temperature and pressure only.
 The gases reacting with the solvent do not obey Henry’s law.
 For example, ammonia reacts with water and hence does not obey this law.
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11. Define Raoult’s law

At constant Temperature, the Partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is
directly proportional to the mole fraction.
Partial vapour pressure α mole fraction
12. What are Ideal and Non ideal solutions?
 The solutions in which obeys Raoult’s law is called as Ideal solutions.
Ex. Benzene & Toluene
 The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law are called as Non Ideal solutions.
Ex. Ethyl alcohol & water.
13. Wrte the Examples for non-ideal solutions showing positive deviations
 Ethyl alcohol & water
 Ethyl alcohol & Acetone
 Benzene & Acetone
 CCl4 & CHCl3
14. Wrte the Examples for non-ideal solutions showing negative deviation
 Acetone + Aniline
 Acetone + Chloroform
 Chloroform + diethyl ether
 Chloroform + Benzene
15. Define the term ‘isotonic solution’.
Isotonic solutions - Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature.
16. Define Colligative property. What are they?
The properties of a solution depends on the number of solute particles present in the
solution is called as as Colligative property.
1. Elevation of boiling point
2. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
3. Depression in freezing
4. Osmotic pressure
17. Define Relative Lowering of Vapour pressure
The ratio between the lowering of vapour pressure and the vapour pressure of the pure
solvent is called as Relative lowering of vapour pressure
18. What is molal depression constant? Does it depend on nature of the solute ?
 The molal depression constant (Kf) is equal to the depression in freezing point for
one molal solution
 It depends on the number of solute particles present in the solution and
independent to nature of the solute.

ntw;wpf;Fk; Njhy;tpf;Fk; rpW tpj;jpahrk;jhd;……

flikia nra;jhy; ntw;wp.. flikf;F nra;jhy; Njhy;tp!!

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19. Define Osmosis

The moment of the solvent molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration
through a semi permeable membrane is called as Osmosis
20. Define Osmotic pressure
The pressure applied on the solution to stop the moment solvent through a semi permeable
membrane is called as Osmotic pressure.
21. What is reverse osmosis ?
When the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the Osmotic pressure, the solvent moves in
the opposite direction of osmosis through a semi permeable membrane is called as
Reverse Osmosis.
22. What is Van’t Hoff equation of Osmotic pressure.
According to Van’t Hoff for a dilute solution the osmotic pressure is directly proportional
to the temperature and the molar concentration of the solute.
 = CRT
C - concentration, R - Gas constant, T - temperature

23. Define Van’t Hoff factor

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10. CHEMICAL BONDING

1. Define Bond order

Nb = Total number of electrons present in the bonding molecular orbitals

Na = Total number of electrons present in the antibonding molecular orbitals
2. Define Hybridisation
Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals of same atoms with same energy to
give equivalent number of new orbitals with same energy.
3. what are types of chemical bonds?
1. Ionic or electrovalent bond - Nacl
2. Covalent bonds - H2, O2
3. Coordinate covalent bond - NH3  BF3
4. What is a σ and π bond? Which bond is stronger σ or π? Why?
 When two atomic orbitals overlap along the axis linearly it forms Sigma bond (σ).
 When two atomic orbitals overlap Sideways it forms Pi - bond (π).
 σ bond strong. It is formed due to linear overlapping
5. Define bond energy (Bond Enthalpy).
It is the minimum energy required to break one mole of a bond in a molecule in the
gaseous state.
Unit – KJ/mol
6. What is dipolemoment?
 The Polarity of a covalent bond can be measured by using the Dipolemoment.
 µ = q x 2d Debye
q = Charge, d = distance between the two charges.
7. State and Explain Molecular Orbital ( MO ) theory.
 When atoms combines to form molecules, their atomic orbitals forms new orbitals called
as Molecular orbitals.
 The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to number of combining atomic orbitals
 The shapes of molecular orbitals formed is equal to shapes of combining atomic orbitals
 Molecular orbitals having lower energy are called as Bonding molecular orbitals.
σ, π, δ.
 Molecular orbitals having higher energy are called as Anti Bonding molecular orbitals.
σ*, π*, δ*.
 The electrons are filled following Hund’s rule, Pauli’s rule and Aufbau rule

Nb = Total number of electrons present in the bonding molecular orbitals

Na = Total number of electrons present in the antibonding molecular orbitals
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8. Discuss the formation of N2 molecule using MO Theory

N (7 e- ) : 1s2 2s2 2p3
N2 (14 e- ) : σ1s2, σ*1s2 , σ2s2, σ*2s2, π2py2, π2pz2, σ2px2
No unpaired electrons - diamagnetic

9. Draw the M.O diagram for oxygen molecule and show that O2 is paramagnetic.
O (8 e- ) : 1S2 2S2 2p4
O2 (14 e- ) : σ1s2, σ*1s2 σ2s2, σ*2s2, σ2px2, π2py2, π2pz2, π*2py1, π*2pz1
Two unpaired electrons - paramagnetic

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10. Draw MO diagram of CO molecule and calculate its bond order.

C (6 e- ) : 1S2 2S2 2p2
O (8 e- ) : 1S2 2S2 2p4
CO (14 e- ) : σ1s2, σ*1s2 , σ2s2, σ*2s2, π2py2, π2pz2, σ2px2
No unpaired electrons - diamagnetic

Carbon CO Oxygen
11. Which one of the following has highest bond order? N2, N2+ or N2 -
 N2 = 3 N2+ = 2.5 N2 - = 2.5
 N2 has highest bond order
12. Describe Fajan's rule.
 When the charge of the Cation or Anion increases, the covalent character also increases.
 The smaller cation and larger anion show greater covalent character due to the greater
extent of polarisation.
 Cations having ns2 np6 nd10 show greater covalent character.
13. Explain VSEPR theory. Applying this theory to predict the shapes of IF7, and SF6
 The shape of the molecules depends on the number of valence electron pair.
 There are two types of electron pair. Bond pair (bp) and lone pair of electrons(lp).
 The bonding pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
 The lone pair of electrons is not involved in bonding.
 The valance electrons around the central atom repels each other and hence they are
located far way to minimize the repulsion.
The repulsions are in the order : lp – lp > lp – bp > bp – bp
 SF6 - octahedral, IF7 - Pentagonal bi pyramidal
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14. Explain the covalent character in ionic bond.

 The partial covalent character in ionic compounds can be explained on the basis of a
phenomenon called polarization.
 In an ionic compound, there is an electrostatic attractive force between the
cation and anion.
 The positively charged cation attracts the valence electrons of anion while repelling
the nucleus.
 This causes a distortion in the electron cloud of the anion and its electron density drifts
towards the cation, which results in some sharing of the valence electrons between
these ions.
 Thus, a partial covalent character is developed between them.
This phenomenon is called polarisation
15. What type of hybridisations are possible in the following geometeries?
a) octahedral b) tetrahedral c) square planer
a) octahedral - sp3d2 and d2sp3
b) tetrahedral - sp3
c) square planer - dsp2
16. Draw the Lewis structures for the following species.
Water (H2O) Ammonia (NH3) Methane (CH4)

Nitric Acid (HNO3) Sulphur tri oxide (SO3) NO3-

SO42- OZONE (O3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO3)

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11. FUNDAMENTAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1. Give the general characteristics of organic compounds?
 They are insoluble in water
 Highly inflammable
 Form isomerism
 Low boiling and melting points
 Covalent compounds of carbon
2. Write a note on homologous series.
 Successive member differ by –CH2 group in their molecular formula
 similar functional group
 similar chemical property
 They contain a characteristics functional group
 prepared by general methods.
 similar general formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2 Alkenes CnH2n Alkynes CnH2n-2
3. Describe the classification of organic compounds based on their structure.

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4. What is meant by a functional group? Identify the functional group in the following
compounds.
(a) Alcohol (b) acetaldehyde (c) oxalic acid (d) di methyl ether (e) methylamine
An atom or group of atoms which is responsible for the characteristics properties of
organic compounds is called a functional group.
(a) Alcohol -OH (b) acetaldehyde -CHO (c) oxalic acid -COOH
(d) di methyl ether -O- (e) methylamine -NH2
5. Give the general formula for the following classes of organic compounds
(a) Aliphatic monohydric alcohol (b) Aliphatic ketones (c) Aliphatic amines.
(a) Aliphatic monohydric alcohol : R-OH
(b) Aliphatic ketones : R-CO-R
(c) Aliphatic amines : R-NH2
6. Explain the various types of constitutional (structural) isomerism organic compounds.
The structural or constitutional isomerism have same molecular formula but differ in their
bonding sequence.
1. Chain or nuclear or skeletal isomerism:
Differ in the nature of the carbon skeleton
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH -CH3
I
CH3
2. Position isomerism:
Differ in the position of functional group
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH CH3-CH -CH3
I
OH
3. Functional isomerism:
Differ in the different functional groups
CH3-CH2-OH CH3 -O-CH3
4. Metamerism:
It is due to the unequal distribution of carbon atoms on either side of the functional group
CH3 -CH2-O-CH2-CH3 CH3 -CH2- CH2-O- CH3

5. Tautomerism:
Differ in the position of Hydrogen atom
Nitro form - Aci-Nitro form

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7. Define Cis and Trans isomer with examble. (or)

Explain geometrical isomerism in alkene by considering 2- butene as an example.
 The cis isomer is one in which two similar groups are on the same side of the double bond.
 The trans isomers is that in which the two similar groups are on the opposite side of the
double bond.

8. what are the conditions for the optical activity?

 The molecule must be asymmetric carbon atom.
 The molecule should possess a chiral plane (Non-Super imposible image)
9. Describe optical isomerism with suitable example.
Compounds having same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of
plane of the polarized light are known as optical isomers.
The phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.
Ex. Lactic Acid

10. How is prepared lassaignes extract or sodium fusion extract?

 A small piece of sodium metal is dried using a filter paper and melting in a fusion tube.
 Add the given organic compound and again heat the tube becomes red hot.
 Break the tube in 50ml of distilled water in a dish
 Boil and filter. The filtrate is called as Lassaignes extract.
 It is used to detect Sulphur, Nitrogen and halogens.
11. Describe the reactions involved in the detection of nitrogen in an organic compound
by Lassaigne method.
 If nitrogen is present it gets converted to sodium cyanide
 Add freshly prepared Ferrous sulphate solution and Conc. HCl
 It gives Prussian blue colour or green colour precipitate.
 It confirms the presence of Nitrogen.

eP Vioahf gpwg;gJ cd; Fw;wkpy;iy....

VioahfNt ,wg;gJjhd; cd; Fw;wk;….
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12. Give the principle involved in the estimation of halogen in an organic compound by
carius method.
 A known weight of the organic compound is heated with fuming HNO3 and AgNO3.
 C, H & S get oxidized to CO2, H2O and SO2.
 Halogen combines with AgNO3 to form a AgX precipitate.
 The precipitate is washed, dried and weighed.
 From the mass of AgX and the mass of the organic compound taken, percentage of
Halogens are calculated.
13. Explain the estimation of Nitrogen by Kjeldahl’s method.
 A known weight of the organic compound is heated with Conc. H2SO4
 The nitrogen present in the organic compound is converted in to Ammonium Sulphate.
 The formed Ammonium Sulphate is heated with sodium hydroxide in a Kjeldahl’s flask
to form ammonia gas.
 The ammonia gas is absorbed by Std H2SO4
 The amount of ammonia formed is determined by titrating the Std acid against a
Std solution of NaOH using Phenolphthalein indicator.
Calculation:
Weight of the substance = W g
Volume of the Std. Sulphuric acid consumed = V ml
Normality of the Std. Sulphuric acid = N

14. Explain sublimation and what type of compounds are purified in this method ?
When is solid is heated, if it directly changes into vapour without melting.
Ex. Camphor, Naphthalene.
 It is useful technique to separate volatile and non-volatile solid.
 Subtance to be purified is taken in a beaker.
 The beaker is covered with a watch glass.
 When the beaker is heated
 The pure compound sublimes and condenses on the watch glass.
 From the watch glass, the pure compound is collected.
15. What are the steps in Crystallization
1) Selection of the solvent
2) Preparation of the solution
3) Filtration of the solution
4) Crystallization
5) Isolation and drying of the crystals
16. Define chromatography, principle and various types of chromatography
The process of separation of a mixture by the differential movement of
the compound through a porous medium under the influence of a moving solvent .
Principle: It is selective distribution of the mixture of organic
substances between two phases - a stationary phase and a moving phase.
There are 5 types
1. Column chromatography 2. Thin layer chromatography
5. Paper chromatography 4. Gas-Liquid chromatography
4. Ion exchange chromatography
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17. What is Retention factor (or) Rf value?

18. IUPAC Name of Organic compounds

3-Methyl pentane

2,4-DiMethyl pent-2-ene

Pent-2-ene
Ethoxy ethane
Pent-3-ene-1-yne

2-hydroxy propanoic acid

2-hydroxy butanal

1,3-buta diene

Cyclo hexa-1,4- diene

Propyne
2-buta dyne
Oct-2,4- diene-6-yne

19. Write structural formula for the following compounds

m - dinitrobenzene p-dichloro benzene 1, 3, 5- Trimethyl benzene

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12. BASIC CONCEPT OF ORGANIC REACTIONS

1. Give the difference between Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
Nucleophiles Electrophiles
1 Negatively charged ions Positive charged ions
2 They are electron rich They are electron deficient
3 Donates a pair of electron Accept a pair of electron
4 Lewis bases Lewis acids
5 NH3 BF3

2. Explain inductive effect with suitable example.

Inductive effect is defined as the change in the polarisation of a covalent bond due to the
presence of adjacent bonds, atoms or groups in the molecule.

+I effect
Their ability to release the electron through sigma covalent bond is called +I effect
Ex. COO-, CH3O-
-I effect
Their ability to withdraw the electron through sigma covalent bond is called and -I effect
Ex. F-, Cl-
3. Explain electromeric effect.
Electromeric is a temporary effect which operates in unsaturated compounds in the presence
of an attacking reagent.

+E effect
When the π electron is transferred towards the attacking reagent

-E effect
When the π electron is transfered away from the attacking reagent

4. Define Hyper Conjugation (no bond resonance)

The delocalisation of electrons of σ bond is called as hyper conjugation.

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5. Define Resonance or Mesomeric effect

Certain organic compounds can be represented by more than one structure and they differ
only in the position of bonding and lone pair of electrons are called resonance.
Ex. Benzene

Positive resonance effect

When the electrons move away from substituent attached to the conjugated system.
Ex. –OH, –SH
Negative resonance effect
When the electrons move towards the substituent attached to the conjugated system.
Ex. –CN, –NO2
6. Define Substitution reactions? Write the type of Substitution reactions?
Substitution reactions
When a group attached to a carbon atom is replaced by a another group.
a) Nucleophilic substitution reaction.
CH3Br + OH - CH3OH + Br -
b) Electrophilic substitution reaction
C6H6 + NO2+ C6H5NO2 + H+
c) Free radical substitution reaction

7. What are Addition reaction? Write the type of Substitution reactions?

Addition reaction : When two molecules combine to give a single product
a) Nucleophilic Addition reaction.

b) Electrophilic Addition reaction

c) Free radical Addition reaction

8. Give examples of the β - elimination reactions

β α
CH3 -CH2 -CH2-Br alcoholic KOH CH3 -CH =CH2 +H2O + Br -

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13. HYDROCARBONS
1. Sabatier Sendersen’s reaction

2. Decarboxylation reaction
CH3COONa + NaOH CaO / Δ CH4 + Na2CO3
3. Kolbe’s Electrolysis
2CH3COONa + 2 H2O Electrolysis CH3 - CH3+ 2CO2 + H2 +NaOH
At Anode At Cathode
4. Wurtz reaction
CH3Cl + 2Na + CH3Cl Dry Ether CH3-CH3 + 2NaCl
5. Fittig reaction (Biphenyl Preparation)
C6H5Cl + 2Na + C6H5Cl Dry Ether C6H5-C6H5 + 2NaCl
6. Wurtz – Fittig reaction
C6H5Cl + 2Na + CH3Cl Dry Ether C6H5-CH3 + 2NaCl
7. Preparation of Ethylene (dehydration of Alcohol)

8. Ethylene react with cold dilute alkaline KMnO4 Solution (Baeyer’s Reagent)

9. Ozonolysis

Alkene + Ozone Ozonide Zn/ H2O Aldehyde

ek;gpf;if ,oe;jtd; nty;tJ fbdk;

ek;gpf;ifNahL ,Ug;gtd; tPo;tJ fbdk;
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10. Substitution reaction of Methane

11. Markovnikov rule

When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with HX, the H adds to the carbon that has
more number of hydrogen and X add to the carbon having fewer hydrogen.
CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr CH3-CH -CH3
I
Br
12. Anti- Markovnikov rule ( Peroxide effect ) ( Kharasch addition )
In the presence of organic peroxide, an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with HX,
the H adds to the carbon that has more number of hydrogen and X add to the carbon
having fewer hydrogen.

CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr Peroxide CH3-C H2-CH2Br

13. Polymerization

14. What happened when acetylene gas is passed through red hot tube ?
When acetylene gas is passed through red hot tube to give Benzene

15. Phenol to Benzene (m) Phenol react with Zinc

Phenol + Zinc Δ acetylene
C6H5OH + Zn Δ C6H6 + ZnO

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16. Birch reduction

17. Friedel craft reaction (Methylation)

Benzene Anhydrous AlCl3 Toluene
C6H6 + CH3Cl Anhydrous AlCl3 C6H5-CH3 + HCl
18. Friedel craft reaction (Acetylation)
Benzene Anhydrous Al Cl3 Acetophenone
C6H6 + CH3COCl Anhydrous AlCl3 C6H5-CO-CH3 + HCl
19. Preparation of Gammaxane ( Lindane ) BHC ( Benzene Hexa Chloride ) BHC
Gammaxane (or) Lindane is Benzene Hexa Chloride (BHC)
Uses - Insecticide
C6H6 + 3 Cl2 uv C6H6Cl6
20. Describe Conformations of n-Butane
Eclipsed conformation
 The distance between the two methyl group is minimum.
 So there is maximum repulsion between them
 It is least stable conformer.

Anti or staggered form

 The distance between the two methyl group is maximum.
 So there is minimum repulsion between them
 It is most stable conformer.

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21. Explain the structure of Benzene

 Elemental Analysis and molecular weight determination have proved that the
molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 . and it is highly unsaturated compound.
 Benzene did not react with water in the presence of acid. so straight chain or ring
compound is not possible.
 Benzene reacts with bromine in the presence of AlCl3 to form mono bromo benzene.
show that all the six carbon atoms are identical with a cyclic structure.

 Benzene react three moles of hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst to give
cyclohexane. This confirms cyclic structure of benzene and the presence of three
carbon-carbon double bond.

 Resonance description of benzene

 Spectroscopic measurements show that benzene is planar and all of its carbon-carbon
bonds are of equal length 1.40A°.
 All the six carbon atoms of benzene are sp2 hybridized.
 All the σ bonds in benzene lie in one plane with bond angle 120°.
There are three ways in which benzene can be represented.

“ek;gpf;if epiwe;j xUtd; ahhplKk;

kz;bapLtJkpy;iy, ifNae;JtJkpy;iy”
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14. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

1. Gattermann reaction (Benzene diazonium chloride to Choloro benzene)
C6H5N2Cl Cu / HCl C6H5Cl + N2
2. Sandmayers reaction (Benzene diazonium chloride to Choloro benzene)
C6H5N2Cl Cu2Cl2 / HCl C6H5Cl + N2
3. Carbylamine reaction (Test for primary amine)

4. Dow process (or) Phenol from Choloro benzene

Choloro benzene react with base to give Phenol.
C6H5Cl + NaOH 633 K C6H5OH + NaCl
5. Finkelstein reaction
CH3CH2Br + NaI Acetone CH3CH2I + NaBr
6. Swarts reaction
CH3CH2Br + AgF Δ; CH3CH2F + AgBr
7. Williamsons ether synthesis (Preparation of Diethyl Ether)
Sodium alkoxide + Alkyl halide Alcohol Ether
C2H5ONa + C2H5Br Alcohol C2H5-O- C2H5 + NaBr
8. Explain the preparation of Chloropicrin and uses.

 Chloropicrin - Insecticide
9. Preparation of Carbon tetra chloride from Carbon-di-sulphide

10. Swartz reaction (Preparation of Freon-12 from Carbon tetra chloride)

11. Preparation of DDT

 DDT - Pesticide

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12. What are Freons? Discuss their uses and environmental effects
The chloro, fluro derivatives of methane and ethane are called Freons.
Uses :
 Freons are used as a refrigerants in refrigerators.
 It is used as a propellant for aerosols and foams.
 It is used as propellant for foams to spray out deodorants and insecticides.
Environmental effects : Highly toxic in nature and affects nervous system.
13. Compare SN1 and SN2 reaction mechanisms.
SN1 SN2
1 Unimolecular reaction Bimolecular reaction
2 Two steps process Single step process
3 First order kinetic reaction Second order kinetic reaction
4 Rate of reaction α [Substrate] Rate of reaction α [Substrate] [nucleophile]
5 Carbocation mediated reaction Transition phase mediated reaction
6 Order of reactivity of alkyl halide Order of reactivity of alkyl halide
30 >20 >10 10 >20 >30

14. Complete the following reactions

CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr Peroxide CH3-CH2-CH2Br

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - SUMS

1. An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C2H5Cl reacts with KOH gives
compounds (B) and with alcoholic KOH gives compound (C). Identify (A), (B) and (C).

(B) (C)

===================================================================
2. Simplest alkene (A) reacts with HCl to form compound (B).Compound (B) reacts with
ammonia to form compound (C) of molecular formula C2H7N. Compound (C)
undergoes carbylamine test. Identify (A), (B) and (C).

===================================================================
3. A hydrocarbon C3H6 (A) reacts with HBr to form compound (B). Compound (B)
Reacts with aqueous potassium hydroxide to give (C) of molecular formula C3H6O.
What are (A), (B) and (C). Explain the reactions.

Compound Molecular Formula Name

(A) CH3 – CH = CH2 Propylene
(B) CH3 – CHBr – CH3 Isopropyl bromide
(C) CH3 – CHOH – Isopropyl alcohol
CH3
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15. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

1. What are degradable and non-degradable pollutants?
Degradable Pollutants
The pollutants which can be decomposed by natural biological processes
Ex - Plants wastes, animal wastes.
Non -Degradable Pollutants
The pollutants which cannot be decomposed by natural biological processes
Ex - Plastics, Metal wastes.
2. Explain how does greenhouse effect cause global warming
 The heating up of the earth’s surface due to trapping of infrared radiations reflected by
earth’s surface by CO2 layer in the atmosphere is known as green house effect.
 Hence we can understand that green house effect causes global warming.
Effects of Global warming
 The average global temperature will increase.
 It causes the melting of the polar ice which creates floods in coastal areas.
 As result it causes diseases like malaria and dengue.
3. How is acid rain formed? Explain its effect
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere is absorbed by the water in the clouds
and converted into sulphuric acid and nitric acid. pH of rain water drops below the level
5.6, it is called acid rain.
Effects of acid rain
 Affects agriculture
 Respiratory ailment in humans and animals
 Damage to marble buildings. (stone leprosy)
 It corrodes drinking water Iron pipes and causes toxic effect.
4. On the basis of chemical reactions involved, explain how do CFC’s cause depletion of
ozone layer in stratosphere?
 In the presence of uv radiation, CFC’s break up into chlorine free radical.
 Chlorine free radical continuous attack of ozone layer, which leads to formation of
ozone hole.
 It is estimated that one chlorine atom are depleted 1,00,000 molecules of ozone.
5. What is Eutrophication?
 Eutrophication is a process by which water bodies receive excess nutrients that
stimulates excessive plant growth.
 The growth of algae reduces the oxygen concentration in water and prevent the growth
of other living organisms in water body.
 It’s results in loss of biodiversity is known as Eutrophication.

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6. What is green chemistry?

Green chemistry is a chemical philosophy encouraging the design of products and
processes that reduce the use and generation of hazardous substances.
7. Which is considered to be earth’s protective umbrella? Why?
 Ozone layer is earth’s protective umbrella
 It prevents the UV radiation from the sun.
 It protects us from skin cancer.
8. What would happen, if the greenhouse gases were totally missing in the earth’s
atmosphere?
In the absence of green house gases, the average earth temperature will decrease 0oF.
At very low temperature, life is impossible.
9. Explain how oxygen deficiency is caused by carbon monoxide in our blood?
Give its effect
 Carbon monoxide gas produced as a result of incomplete combustion of coal are firewood.
 It binds with hemoglobin and form carboxy hemoglobin
 Hence the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.
 Effect - headache, tension, cardiac arrest, Loss of consciousness, blurring of eye sight
10. What are particulate pollutants? Explain any three.
Particulate pollutants are small solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in air.
1. Smoke - Solid and liquid particles formed by combustion of organic matter
Ex- Cigarette smoke, oil smoke,
2. Dust - Formed by crushing a of solid materials.
Ex- Saw dust from wood works, cement dust from cement factories
3. Mists - Formed by particles of spray liquids and condensation of vapours in air.
Ex- Sulphuric acid mist, herbicides and insecticides sprays can form mists.
11. Difference between Viable particulates Non-viable particulates
Viable particulates Non-viable particulates
1 Small size living organisms such Small solid particles and liquid droplets
as bacteria, fungi, algae, etc. suspended in air.
which are dispersed in air. Ex- Smoke, dust, mists
2 Its cause allergy in human beings Its cause lung disease and cancer in human
and diseases in plants. beings and affect photosynthesis in plants.
12. Define smog. How does classical smog differ from photochemical smog?
Smog is a combination of smoke and fog which forms droplets that remain suspended
in the air.
Classical smog (London smog) Photochemical smog (Los Angel Smog)
1 It occurs in cool humid climate. It occurs in warm and dry climate
2 It forms in the morning It forms in the sun shines
3 Reducing smog Oxidising smog
4 The chemical composition is the The combination of smoke, dust and fog with
mixture of SO2, SO3 and humidity. air pollutants
5 It causes acid rain and poor visibility It causes irritation of eyes, skin and lungs
P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110
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13. Difference between BOD and COD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The total amount of oxygen in milligrams consumed by microorganisms in decomposing
the waste in one liter of water at 20oC for a period of 5 days.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The amount of oxygen required by the organic matter in a sample of water for its
oxidation by a strong oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7 in acid medium for a period of 2 hrs.
14. What are the various methods you suggest to protect our environment from
pollution?
 Growing more trees
 Waste management and proper disposal of wastes
 Recycling waste materials and reusing them.
 Methanol is used as a fuel in automobiles.
 Using fuels with low sulphur content
15. Mention the standards prescribed by BIS for quality of drinking water

P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

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1. Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculations

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2. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

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3. Periodic Classification of Elements

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4. Hydrogen

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5. Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals

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6. Gaseous State

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7. Thermodynamics

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8. Physical and Chemical Equilibrium

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9. Solutions

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10. Chemical Bonding

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11. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry

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12. Basic concepts of organic reactions

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13. Hydrocarbons

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14. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry

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15. Environmental Chemistry

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ALL THE BEST

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P. KATHIRVEL, M.Sc., B.Ed.,
PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY,
GOVT. BOYS HR. SEC. SCHOOL
ANTHIYUR – ERODE (Dt). Cell 9150550110

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