Summary    25

CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
Physical quantities and units: Three fundamental physical quantities are mass, length, and time. The
corresponding fundamental SI units are the kilogram, the meter, and the second. Derived units for other
physical quantities are products or quotients of the basic units. Equations must be dimensionally consistent;
two terms can be added only when they have the same units. (See Examples 1.1 and 1.2.)

Significant figures: The accuracy of a measurement can Significant figures in magenta

be indicated by the number of significant figures or by
a stated uncertainty. The significant figures in the result C 0.424 m
p = = = 3.14
of a calculation are determined by the rules summarized 2r 210.06750 m2
in Table 1.2. When only crude estimates are available for
123.62 + 8.9 = 132.5
input data, we can often make useful order-of-magnitude
estimates. (See Examples 1.3 and 1.4.)

Scalars, vectors, and vector addition: Scalar quantities S

A+ B
S
S
are numbers and combine according to the usual rules A
+
S S

of arithmetic. Vector quantities have direction as well as

B = S
A
B
magnitude and combine according to the rules of vector
addition. The negative of a vector has the same magnitude
but points in the opposite direction. (See Example 1.5.)

Vector components and vector addition: Vectors can be Rx = Ax + Bx y

added
S
byS using
S
components of vectors. The x-component
S S
Ry = Ay + By (1.9) S
R
of R = A + B is the sum of the x-components of A and B, Rz = Az + Bz By S

and likewise for the y- and z-components. (See Examples 1.6 Ry B

and 1.7.) Ay S
A
x
O Ax Bx
Rx

Unit vectors: Unit vectors describe directions in space. A S

A = Ax nd + Ay ne + Az kn (1.14) y
unit vector has a magnitude of 1, with no units. The unit Ay en
vectors nd , ne , and kn , aligned with the x-, y-, and z-axes of a
S
A = Axnd + Ay en
en
rectangular coordinate system, are especially useful. (See x
O
Example 1.8.) nd Axnd

The scalar product C = A # B of two A # B = AB cos f = 0 A 0 0 B 0 cos f Scalar product A # B = AB cosf

S S S S S S S S
Scalar product:
S S
(1.16)
vectors A and B is a scalar quantity. ItS can be expressed A # B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
S S
S (1.19) S
in terms of the magnitudes of A and B and the angle f B
between the two vectors, or in terms of the components ofS
A and B. The scalar product is commutative; A # B = B # A.
S S S S S f
S

The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero. A

(See Examples 1.9 and 1.10.)

S S S
Vector product: The vector product C = A : B of two C = AB sin f (1.20) S S

S S S
A : B is perpendicular
S S
vectors
S S
A and B is a third vector C . The
S
magnitude
S
of Cx = Ay Bz - Az By
S
A:B
S
to the plane of A and B.
A : B depends on the magnitudes of A and B and Sthe S Cy = Az Bx - Ax Bz (1.25)
angle f between the two vectors. The direction of A : B Cz = Ax By - Ay Bx
S
A
is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors being f
multiplied,
S S
asSgiven by the right-hand rule. The components B
S

of CS = AS: B can be expressed in terms of the components

S S
(Magnitude of A : B) = AB sinf
of
S
A and
S
B. The
S
vector
S
product is not commutative;
A : B = −B : A. The vector product of two parallel or
antiparallel vectors is zero. (See Example 1.11.)
56     CHAPTER 2 Motion Along a Straight Line

CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY
Straight-line motion, average and instantaneous x-velocity: When ∆x x2 - x1
vav@x =
∆t
=  (2.2) x
p2
a particle moves along a straight line, we describe its position with t2 - t1 x2
respect to an origin O by means of a coordinate such as x. The

∆x = x2 - x1
∆x dx


-x
particle’s average x-velocity vav@x during a time interval ∆t = t2 - t1 vx = lim = (2.3)

av
v
∆t S 0 ∆t dt

=
is equal to its displacement ∆x = x2 - x1 divided by ∆t. The

pe
o
= vx

Sl
instantaneous x-velocity vx at any time t is equal to the average p1 pe
x1 Slo
x-velocity over the time interval from t to t + ∆t in the limit that t
∆t goes to zero. Equivalently, vx is the derivative of the position O t1 t2
∆t = t2 - t1
function with respect to time. (See Example 2.1.)

Average and instantaneous x-acceleration: The average x- ∆vx v2x - v1x vx

acceleration aav@x during a time interval ∆t is equal to the change
aav@x =
∆t
=
t2 - t1
 (2.4)
p2
in velocity ∆vx = v2x - v1x during that time interval divided ∆vx dvx
v2x

∆vx = v2x - v1x

by ∆t. The instantaneous x-acceleration ax is the limit of aav@x ax = lim
∆t S 0 ∆t
=
dt
 (2.5)
a av
-x

as ∆t goes to zero, or the derivative of vx with respect to t. (See pe

=
o
Examples 2.2 and 2.3.) Sl
a
p1 e = x
v1x Slop
t
O t1 t2
∆t = t2 - t1

Straight-line motion with constant acceleration: When the x- Constant x-acceleration only: a
acceleration is constant, four equations relate the position x and v
vx = v0x + ax t (2.8) t = 0 x
the x-velocity vx at any time t to the initial position x0 , the initial x- 0
1 2 a
velocity v0x (both measured at time t = 0), and the x-acceleration x = x0 + v0x t + 2 ax t  (2.12) v
t = ∆t x
ax . (See Examples 2.4 and 2.5.) 0
vx2 = v0x2 + 2ax 1x - x02 (2.13) a
v
t = 2∆t x
x - x0 = 12 1v0x + vx2t (2.14) 0
a
v x
t = 3∆t
0
a
v
t = 4∆t x
0

Freely falling objects: Free fall (vertical motion without air

resistance, so only gravity affects the motion) is a case of motion
with constant acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration due ay = -g
to gravity is a positive quantity, g. The acceleration of an object in = -9.80 m>s2
free fall is always downward. (See Examples 2.6–2.8.)

Straight-line motion with varying acceleration: When the t

L0
ax
vx = v0x + ax dt (2.17)
acceleration is not constant but is a known function of time,
we can find the velocity and position as functions of time by t

L0
integrating the acceleration function. (See Example 2.9.) x = x0 + vx dt (2.18)
aav-x

t
O t1 t2
∆t
90     CHAPTER 3 Motion in Two or Three Dimensions

CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
Position, velocity, and acceleration vectors: The position vec- r = xnd + y ne + z kn 
S
(3.1) y
S
tor r of a point P in space is the vector from the origin to P. Its S S
r2 − r1 ∆r
S
∆r
S
components are the coordinates x, y, and z. S
vav = =  (3.2) S
vav =
S t2 - t1 ∆t ∆t
The average velocity vector vav during the time interval ∆t is y1
S S
the displacement ∆r (the change in position vector r ) divided by ∆r dr
S S
S
S
∆r
S
S
v = lim =  (3.3) ∆y r1
∆t. The instantaneous velocity vector v is the time derivative of ∆t S 0 ∆t dt
S
r , and its components are the time derivatives of x, y, and z. The y2
S S dx dy dz
instantaneous speed is the magnitude of v. The velocity v of a
S
vx = vy = vz =  (3.4) r2
dt dt dt x
particle is always tangent to the ­particle’s path. (See Example O x1 x2
3.1.) S
S
v2 − v1 S
∆v
S
∆x
S
The average acceleration vector aav during the time interval aav = =  (3.8)
t2 - t1 ∆t
S S
∆t equals ∆v (the change in velocity vector v) divided by ∆t. S
S ∆v
S
dv
S
v2
The instantaneous ­acceleration vector a is the time derivative of S
a = lim =  (3.9)
S
v, and its components are the time derivatives of vx, vy, and vz . ∆t S 0 ∆t dt y
(See Example 3.2.) dvx
S
v1 S ∆v
S

∆v
S
ax = aav =
The component of acceleration parallel to the direction of the dt ∆t
S
instantaneous velocity affects the speed, while the component of a
S dvy
perpendicular to v affects the direction of motion. (See Examples ay = (3.10)
3.3 and 3.4.) dt S
v1
dvz S
v2
az =  x
dt O

Projectile motion: In projectile motion with no air resistance, x = 1v0 cos a02t (3.19) y
S
v S
v
vy
ax = 0 and ay = - g. The coordinates and velocity components y = 1v0 sin a02t - 1 2
(3.20) vx
2 gt  vy
are simple functions of time, and the shape of the path is always vx S
vx = v0 cos a0 (3.21) S
v vy v
a parabola. We usually choose the origin to be at the initial posi- vx ay = -g
tion of the projectile. (See Examples 3.5 –3.10.) vy = v0 sin a0 - gt (3.22) O
x

Uniform and nonuniform circular motion: When a particle moves v2 S

v
arad =  (3.27)
in a circular path of radius R with constant speed v (uniform R S
S
v
S arad S
circular motion), its acceleration a is directed toward the center arad
S 4p2R
of the circle and perpendicular to v. The magnitude arad of this arad =  (3.29) S S
arad
T 2 v
radial acceleration can be expressed in terms of v and R or in S
S
v
arad
terms of R and the period T (the time for one revolution), where
S
v = 2pR>T. (See Examples 3.11 and 3.12.) arad S
arad
If the speed is not constant in circular motion (nonuniform S
v
S S
circular motion), there is still a radial component of a given by v
S
Eq. (3.27) or (3.29), but there is also a component of a parallel
(tangential) to the path. This tangential component is equal to
the rate of change of speed, dv>dt.

Relative velocity: When an object P moves relative to an object vP>A@x = vP>B@x + vB>A@x
 (3.32)
S
vB>A
(or reference frame) B, and B moves r­ elative to an object (or refer- (relative velocity along a line) S S
vP>A = vP>B + vB>A
S

S
ence frame) A, we denote the velocity of P relative to B by vP>B S
S S S
vP>A = vP>B + vB>A
S S
vP>A vP>B
, the velocity of P relative to A by vP>A, and the velocity of B rela-  (3.35)
S
tive to A by vB>A . If these velocities are all along the same line, (relative velocity in space)
P (plane)
their components along that line are related by Eq. (3.32). More
generally, these velocities are related by Eq. (3.35). (See Examples
3.13 –3.15.) B (moving air)

A (ground
observer)
 4.6 Free-Body Practice    121
GuidedDiagrams    

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY
Force as a vector: Force is a quantitative measure of the R = g F = F1 + F2 + F3 + P  (4.1)
S S S S S
S S S S
­interaction between two objects. It is a vector quantity. S R = ΣF = F1 + F2
F1
When several external forces act on an object, the effect
on its motion is the same as if a single force, equal to the
vector sum (resultant) of the forces, acts on the object. S
F2
(See Example 4.1.)

The net external force on an object and Newton’s first law: g F = 0

S
(4.3) S
v = constant
Newton’s first law states that when the vector sum of all
S S S
external forces acting on a object (the net external force) is F1 F2 = −F1
zero, the object is in equilibrium and has zero acceleration. S

If the object is initially at rest, it remains at rest; if it is ini- ΣF = 0

tially in motion, it continues to move with constant velocity.
This law is valid in inertial frames of reference only. (See
Examples 4.2 and 4.3.)

Mass, acceleration, and Newton’s second law: The inertial g F = ma

S S
(4.6)

g Fx = max
properties of an object are characterized by its mass. Newton’s S

g Fy = may
second law states that the acceleration of an object under the
S
F2 ΣF S S
a = ΣF>m

g Fz = maz
action of a given set of external forces is directly proportional (4.7)
to the vector sum of the forces (the net force) and inversely S

proportional to the mass of the object. Like Newton’s first F1

Mass m
law, this law is valid in inertial frames of reference only. In SI
units, the unit of force is the newton (N), equal to 1 kg # m>s2.
(See Examples 4.4 and 4.5.)

w = mg
S
Weight: The weight w of an object is the gravitational force (4.8)
Mass m
exerted on it by the earth. Weight is a vector quantity. The
magnitude of the weight of an object at any specific location S
w = mg
S S
g
is equal to the product of its mass m and the magnitude of
the acceleration due to gravity g at that location. The weight
of an object depends on its location; its mass does not. (See
Examples 4.6 and 4.7.)

Newton’s third law and action–reaction pairs: Newton’s FA on B = −FB on A

S S
(4.10) B
third law states that when two objects interact, they exert S
forces on each other that are equal in magnitude and FA on B
­opposite in direction. These forces are called action and A
­reaction forces. Each of these two forces acts on only
one of the two objects; they never act on the same object. S
FB on A
(See Examples 4.8–4.11.)

Chapter 4 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

angle of 36.9° counterclockwise from the + x-direction. Find the x-

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS
and y-components of the net external force on the belt, and find the
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 4.1 (Section 4.1) before attempting these force’s magnitude and direction. u
problems. VP4.1.2 Three forces act on a statue. Force F1 (magnitude 45.0 N) points
u
VP4.1.1 Three professional wrestlers are fighting over a champion’s in the +x-direction, force F2 (magnitude 105 N) points in the + y-­direction,
u
belt, and each exerts a force on the belt. Wrestler 1 exerts a force and force F3 (magnitude 235 N) is at an angle of 36.9° from the - x-­direction
F1 = 40.0 N in the + x-direction, wrestler 2 exerts a force F2 = 80.0 N and 53.1° from the +y-direction. Find the x- and y-­components of the net
in the - y-direction, and wrestler 3 exerts a force F3 = 60.0 N at an external force on the statue, and find the force’s magnitude and direction.
156    CHAPTER 5 Applying Newton’s Laws

to a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino—and these nuclei decay at a known rate. By

measuring the fraction of carbon-14 that is left in an organism’s remains, scientists can
determine how long ago the organism died.
In the 1960s physicists developed a theory that described the electromagnetic and
weak interactions as aspects of a single electroweak interaction. This theory has passed
every experimental test to which it has been put. Encouraged by this success, physicists
have made similar attempts to describe the strong, electromagnetic, and weak interac-
tions in terms of a single grand unified theory (GUT) and have taken steps toward a
possible unification of all interactions into a theory of everything (TOE). Such theories
are still speculative, and there are many unanswered questions in this very active field of
current research.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY
Using Newton’s first law: When an object is in equilib- Vector form: y
g F = 0
rium in an inertial frame of reference—that is, either at S
(5.1) n n
rest or moving with constant velocity—the vector sum of
forces acting on it must be zero (Newton’s first law). Free- Component form:
T
g Fx = 0 g Fy = 0
body diagrams are essential in identifying the forces that w sin a
act on the object being considered. T
Newton’s third law (action and reaction) is also fre- w cos a x
a a
quently needed in equilibrium problems. The two forces in
w
an action–reaction pair never act on the same object. (See w
Examples 5.1–5.5.)
The normal force exerted on an object by a surface is
not always equal to the object’s weight. (See Example 5.4.)

Using Newton’s second law: If the vector sum of forces Vector form: y
g F = ma
on an object is not zero, the object accelerates. The accel- S S
(5.2)
eration is related to the net force by Newton’s second law. n n
a
Just as for equilibrium problems, free-body diagrams Component form: ax
T
g Fx = max g Fy = may
are essential for solving problems involving Newton’s sec-
m T w sin a
ond law, and the normal force exerted on an object is not
always equal to its weight. (See Examples 5.6–5.12.) w cos a x
a a
w
w

Friction and fluid resistance: The contact force between Magnitude of kinetic friction force: Static Kinetic
two objects can always be represented in terms of a normal f = m n (5.3) f friction friction
S k k
force n perpendicular
S
to the surface of contact and a fric- 1 fs2max
tion force f parallel to the surface. Magnitude of static friction force:
fk
When an object is sliding over the surface, the friction
fs … 1fs2max = msn (5.4)
force is called kinetic friction. Its magnitude fk is approxi-
mately equal to the normal force magnitude n multiplied by O T
the coefficient of kinetic friction mk .
When an object is not moving relative to a surface, the friction force is called static friction. The maximum
possible static friction force is approximately equal to the magnitude n of the normal force multiplied by the
coefficient of static friction ms . The actual static friction force may be anything from zero to this maximum value,
depending on the situation. Usually ms is greater than mk for a given pair of surfaces in contact. (See Examples
5.13–5.17.)
Rolling friction is similar to kinetic friction, but the force of fluid resistance depends on the speed of an
object through a fluid. (See Example 5.18.)
 Guided Practice    157

Forces in circular motion: In uniform circular motion, Acceleration in uniform circular motion: S
v
the acceleration vector is directed toward the center of the 2 2 S
S
arad
v
gF = ma. (See Examples 5.19–5.23.)
4p R ΣF
circle. The motion is governed by Newton’s second law, arad = =  (5.13), (5.15)
S S R T2 S
v S
arad S
ΣF
S S
ΣF arad
S
v

Chapter 5 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP5.15.3 You are using a lightweight rope to pull a sled along level
ground. The sled weighs 475 N, the coefficient of kinetic friction
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 5.5 (Section 5.1) before attempting these between the sled and the ground is 0.200, the rope is at an angle of
problems. In all problems, ignore air resistance. 12.0° above the horizontal, and you pull on the rope with a force of
VP5.5.1 In a modified version of the cart and bucket in Fig. 5.5a, the 125 N. (a) Find the normal force that the ground exerts on the sled.
angle of the slope is 36.9° and the bucket weighs 255 N. The cart moves (b) Find the acceleration of the sled. Is the sled speeding up or slow-
up the incline and the bucket moves downward, both at constant speed. ing down?
The cable has negligible mass, and there is no friction. (a) What is the VP5.15.4 A large box of mass m sits on a horizontal floor. You attach a
weight of the cart? (b) What is the tension in the cable? lightweight rope to this box, hold the rope at an angle u above the hori-
VP5.5.2 You increase the angle of the slope in Fig. 5.5a to 25.0° and zontal, and pull. You find that the minimum tension you can apply to the
use a different cart and a different bucket. You observe that the cart and rope in order to make the box start moving is Tmin. Find the coefficient
bucket remain at rest when released and that the tension in the cable of of static friction between the floor and the box.
negligible mass is 155 N. There is no friction. (a) What is the weight of
the cart? (b) What is the combined weight of the cart and bucket? Be sure to review EXAMPLES 5.20, 5.21, and 5.22 (Section 5.4)
VP5.5.3 You construct a version of the cart and bucket in Fig. 5.5a, but ­before attempting these problems.
with a slope whose angle can be adjusted. You use a cart of mass 175 kg VP5.22.1 You make a conical pendulum (see Fig. 5.32a) using a string
and a bucket of mass 65.0 kg. The cable has negligible mass, and there of length 0.800 m and a bob of mass 0.250 kg. When the bob is mov-
is no friction. (a) What must be the angle of the slope so that the cart ing in a circle at a constant speed, the string is at an angle of 20.0° from
moves downhill at a constant speed and the bucket moves upward at the vertical. (a) What is the radius of the circle around which the bob
the same constant speed? (b) With this choice of angle, what will be the moves? (b) How much time does it take the bob to complete one circle?
tension in the cable? (c) What is the tension in the string?
VP5.5.4 In the situation shown in Fig. 5.5a, let u be the angle of the VP5.22.2 A competition cyclist rides at a constant 12.5 m>s around a
slope and suppose there is friction between the cart and the track. You curve that is banked at 40.0°. The cyclist and her bicycle have a com-
find that if the cart and bucket each have the same weight w, they re- bined mass of 64.0 kg. (a) What must be the radius of her turn if there is
main at rest when released. In this case, what is the magnitude of the to be no friction force pushing her either up or down the banked curve?
friction force on the cart? Is it less than, greater than, or equal to w? (b) What is the magnitude of her acceleration? (c) What is the magni-
tude of the normal force that the surface of the banked curve exerts on
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 (Section 5.3) be- the bicycle?
fore attempting these problems. VP5.22.3 An aerobatic airplane flying at a constant 80.0 m>s makes
VP5.15.1 You pull on a crate using a rope as in Fig. 5.21a, except the a horizontal turn of radius 175 m. The pilot has mass 80.0 kg. (a)
rope is at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal. The weight of the crate What is the bank angle of the airplane? (b) What is the pilot’s appar-
is 325 N, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and ent weight during the turn? How many times greater than his actual
the floor is 0.250. (a) What must be the tension in the rope to make the weight is this?
crate move at a constant velocity? (b) What is the normal force that the VP5.22.4 A sports car moves around a banked curve at just the right
floor exerts on the crate? constant speed v so that no friction is needed to make the turn. During
VP5.15.2 You pull on a large box using a rope as in Fig. 5.21a, except the turn, the driver (mass m) feels as though she weighs x times her ac-
the rope is at an angle of 15.0° below the horizontal. The weight of the tual weight. (a) Find the magnitude of the net force on the driver during
box is 325 N, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the turn in terms of m, g, and x. (b) Find the radius of the turn in terms
the floor is 0.250. (a) What must be the tension in the rope to make the of v, g, and x.
box move at a constant velocity? (b) What is the normal force that the
floor exerts on the box?
190    CHAPTER 6 Work and Kinetic Energy

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
S S S
Work done by a force: When a constant force F acts on W = F ~ s = Fs cos f S

F# F W = FŒs
a particle that undergoes a straight-line displacement s ,
S
S
 (6.2), (6.3) = (F cos f)s
S
f = angle between F and s f
the work done by the Sforce on the particle is defined to be
S
the scalar product of F and s . The unit of work in SI units FΠ= F cos f
is 1 joule = 1 newton@meter 11 J = 1 N # m2. Work is a
scalar quantity; it can be positive or negative, but it has no
direction in space. (See Examples 6.1 and 6.2.)

Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy K of a particle equals K = 12 mv2 (6.5) m 2m

the amount of work required to accelerate the particle S
v v
S

from rest to speed v. It is also equal to the amount of work

the particle can do in the process of being brought to rest. Doubling m doubles K.
Kinetic energy is a scalar that has no direction in space; it is
always positive or zero. Its units are the same as the units of
work: 1 J = 1 N # m = 1 kg # m2>s2.
m m
S S
v 2v

Doubling v quadruples K.

The work–energy theorem: When forces act on a particle Wtot = K2 - K1 = ∆K (6.6)
m
Wtot = Total work done on
while it undergoes a displacement, the particle’s kinetic v1 particle along path
energy changes by an amount equal to the total work done v2
on the particle by all the forces. This relationship, called m
K1 = 12 mv12
the work–energy theorem, is valid whether the forces are
constant or varying and whether the particle moves along a
straight or curved path. It is applicable only to objects that K2 = 1
2
mv22 = K1 + Wtot
can be treated as particles. (See Examples 6.3–6.5.)

x2
Work done by a varying force or on a curved path: When
Lx1
W = Fx dx (6.7)
a force varies during a straight-line displacement, the Area = Work done by
Fx
work done by the force is given by an integral, Eq. (6.7). force during dis-
(See Examples 6.6 and 6.7.) When a particleSfollows a P2 placement
LP1
S S

curved path, the work done on it by a force F is given by W = F ~ dl

an ­integral that involves the angle f between the force and (6.14) x
the displacement. This expression is valid even if the force P2 P2 O x1 x2
LP1 LP1
magnitude and the angle f vary during the displacement. = F cos f dl = FΠdl
(See Example 6.8.)

Power: Power is the time rate of doing work. The ­average ∆W

Pav =  (6.15) ∆t = 5 s Work you do on the
power Pav is the amount of work ∆W done in time ∆t ∆t
box to lift it in ∆t = 5 s:
­divided by that time. The instantaneous power is the ∆W dW ∆W = 100 J
limit of the average power as ∆t goes to zero. When a P = lim =  (6.16)
S S ∆t S 0 ∆t dt Your average power output:
force F acts on a particle moving with velocity v, the ∆W 100 J
S Pav = =
­instantaneous power (theS rate at which the force does work) P = F~v
S
 (6.19) ∆t 5s
S
is the scalar product of F and v. Like work and kinetic t = 0 = 20 W
energy, power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is
1 watt = 1 joule>second 11 W = 1 J>s2. (See Examples 6.9
and 6.10.)
224     CHAPTER  7 Potential Energy and Energy Conservation

CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY
Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy: Wgrav = mgy1 - mgy2 y
The work done on a particle by a constant gravitational = Ugrav, 1 - Ugrav, 2 Ugrav,1 = mgy1 1
force can be represented as a change in the gravitational = - ∆Ugrav  (7.2), (7.3) Uel = 2 kx
2

potential energy, Ugrav = mgy. This energy is a shared

property of the particle and the earth. A potential energy Wel = 12 kx12 - 12 kx22 x
x = 0 x
is also associated with the elastic force Fx = - kx exerted
= Uel, 1 - Uel, 2 = - ∆Uel (7.10), (7.11) Ugrav,2 = mgy2
by an ideal spring, where x is the amount of stretch or com-
pression. The work done by this force can be represented O
as a change in the elastic potential energy of the spring,
Uel = 12 kx2.

When total mechanical energy is conserved: The total K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 (7.4), (7.12) y
­potential energy U is the sum of the gravitational and e­ lastic At y = h
potential energies: U = Ugrav + Uel . If no forces other than h E = K + Ugrav
the gravitational and elastic forces do work on a particle,

zero
At y = 0
the sum of kinetic and potential energies is ­conserved. This
O x E = K + Ugrav
sum E = K + U is called the total ­mechanical energy. (See
Examples 7.1, 7.3, 7.4, and 7.7.)

When total mechanical energy is not conserved: When K1 + U1 + Wother = K2 + U2 (7.14) Point 1 f = 0
At point 1 n = 0
forces other than the gravitational and elastic forces do w
R

zero
work on a particle, the work Wother done by these other
forces equals the change in total mechanical e­ nergy (­ kinetic E =K+Ugrav n
f n
energy plus total potential energy). (See Examples 7.2, 7.5, f
w

zero
7.6, 7.8, and 7.9.) At point 2
E =K+Ugrav Point 2
w

Conservative forces, nonconservative forces, and the ∆K + ∆U + ∆Uint = 0 (7.15) v

zero
zero
zero
law of conservation of energy: All forces are either
E =K + Ugrav
­conservative or nonconservative. A conservative force E=K + Ugrav
v = 0
is one for which the work–kinetic energy relationship is As friction slows block,
completely reversible. The work of a conservative force can total mechanical energy is converted
to internal energy of block and ramp.
always be represented by a potential-energy function, but
the work of a nonconservative force cannot. The work done
by nonconservative forces manifests itself as changes in the
internal energy of objects. The sum of kinetic, potential,
and internal energies is always conserved. (See Examples
7.10–7.12.)

Determining force from potential energy: For motion along dU1x2 U

a straight line, a conservative force Fx 1x2 is the negative
Fx 1x2 = -
dx
 (7.16) Unstable equilibria

derivative of its associated potential-energy function U. In 0U 0U 0U

Fx = - Fy = - Fz = -  (7.17)
three dimensions, the components of a conservative force 0x 0y 0z
are negative partial derivatives of U. (See Examples 7.13 S 0U 0U 0U n
and 7.14.) F ∙ ∙a nd ∙ ne ∙ kb x
0x 0y 0z O Stable equilibria
∙ ∙𝛁U 
S
(7.18)
260    CHAPTER 8 Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions

CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY
Momentum of a particle: The momentum pS of a particle is a p ∙ mvS
S S
(8.2) y
gF ∙ 
vector quantity equal to the product of the particle’s mass m and S dp S S
S (8.4) p = mv
velocity v. Newton’s second law says that the net external force on a dt py S
v
particle is equal to the rate of change of the particle’s momentum.

m px
x
O

Impulse and momentum: If a constant net external force g F J ∙ g F1t2 - t12 ∙ g F ∆t
S S S S
(8.5) Fx
S

g F dt
acts on a particle for a time interval ∆t from t1 to t2 , the impulse J t2 Jx = (Fav)x(t2 - t1)

Lt1
S S

the time interval. If g F varies with time, J is the integral of the net
of the net external force is the product of the net external force and J∙ (8.7)
S S

J ∙ p2 ∙ p1
S
external force over the time interval. In any case, the change in a S S
(8.6) (Fav)x
particle’s momentum during a time interval equals the impulse of
the net external force that acted on the particle during that interval.
t
The momentum of a particle equals the impulse that accelerated it O t1 t2
from rest to its present speed. (See Examples 8.1–8.3.)

Conservation of momentum: An internal force is a force exerted

S S S
P ∙ pA ∙ pB ∙ P
by one part of a system on another. An external force is a force
∙ mAvA ∙ mBvB ∙ P 
S S
exerted on any part of a system by something outside the system. (8.14) A B

If g F ∙ 0, then P ∙ constant.
If the net external force on a system is zero, the total momentum S S
S
of the system P (the vector sum of the momenta of the individual
­particles that make up the system) is constant, or conserved. Each S y y S
FB on A FA on B
component of total momentum is separately conserved. (See
x x
Examples 8.4–8.6.) S S S
P = pA + pB = constant

Collisions: In typical collisions, the initial and final total momenta are equal. In an elastic collision ­between S
vA1
S
vB1
two objects, the initial and final total kinetic energies are also equal, and the initial and final relative veloci- A B

ties have the same magnitude. In an inelastic two-object collision, the total kinetic energy is less after the A B
collision than before. If the two objects have the same final velocity, the collision is completely inelastic. A B
S S
(See Examples 8.7–8.12.) vA2 vB2

Center of mass: The position vector of the center of mass of a

S S S
S m1 r1 ∙ m2 r2 ∙ m3 r3 ∙ P Shell explodes
S S rcm ∙
system of particles, rcm , is a weighted average of the positions r1 , m1 + m2 + m3 + g cm

a mi ri
S cm
r2 , c of the individual particles. The total momentum P of a sys-
S
S
cm
tem equals the system’s total mass M multiplied by the velocity of
∙
i
 (8.29)
a mi
S
its center of mass, vcm . The center of mass moves as though all the
mass M were concentrated at that point. If the net external force on i
S
the system is zero, the center-of-mass velocity vcm is constant. If S S
P ∙ m1v1 ∙ m2v2 ∙ m3v3 ∙ P
S S

the net external force is not zero, the center of mass accelerates as
∙ Mvcm
S
(8.32)
g Fext ∙ Macm
though it were a particle of mass M being acted on by the same net S S
external force. (See Examples 8.13 and 8.14.) (8.34)

Rocket propulsion: In rocket propulsion, the mass of a rocket changes as the fuel is used up and ejected from the rocket. +x-direction
Analysis of the motion of the rocket must include the momentum carried away by the spent fuel as well as the momentum of vfuel = v − vex v + dv
the rocket itself. (See Examples 8.15 and 8.16.)

−dm m + dm
 Summary    291

CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
Rotational kinematics: When a rigid body rotates about ∆u du y
vz = lim =  (9.3)
a stationary axis (usually called the z-axis), the body’s ∆t S 0 ∆t dt
position is described by an angular coordinate u. The At t2 At t1
angular velocity vz is the time derivative of u, and the ∆vz dvz ∆u
az = lim =  (9.5)
angular acceleration az is the time derivative of vz or the ∆t S 0 ∆t dt u2
u1
second derivative of u. (See Examples 9.1 and 9.2.) If the x
O
angular acceleration is constant, then u, vz , and az are Constant az only:
­related by simple kinematic equations analogous to those
for straight-line motion with constant linear acceleration. u = u0 + v0z t + 12 az t 2  (9.11)
(See Example 9.3.) u - u0 = 12 1v0z + vz2t  (9.10)
vz = v0z + az t  (9.7)
vz2 = v0z2 + 2az 1u - u02 (9.12)

Relating linear and angular kinematics: The angular speed v = rv  (9.13) y atan = ra
v of a rigid body is the magnitude of the body’s angular ve- dv dv v
v = rv
locity. The rate of change of v is a = dv>dt. For a particle atan = = r = ra (9.14) S
dt dt Linear a
P
in the body a distance r from the rotation axis, the speed v v2 acceleration
S
and the components of the acceleration a are related to v arad = = v2r  (9.15)
of point P
arad = v2r
r r s
and a. (See Examples 9.4 and 9.5.) u
x
O

Moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy: The I = m1 r 12 + m2 r 22 + g Axis of

= a mi r i 
v
­moment of inertia I of a body about a given axis is a 2
(9.16) rotation m2
­measure of its rotational inertia: The greater the value of I, r2
i
the more difficult it is to change the state of the body rota-
K = 12 Iv2 (9.17) m1
tion. The moment of inertia can be expressed as a sum over r1
the particles mi that make up the body, each of which is
at its own perpendicular distance ri from the axis. The r3
rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about a m3
fixed axis depends on the angular speed v and the moment
of inertia I for that rotation axis. (See Examples 9.6–9.8.)

Calculating the moment of inertia: The parallel-axis IP = Icm + Md 2 (9.19)

­theorem relates the moments of inertia of a rigid body d
of mass M about two parallel axes: an axis through cm
the center of mass (moment of inertia Icm) and a Mass M P
Icm
­parallel axis a distance d from the first axis (mo-
ment of i­ nertia IP). (See Example 9.9.) If the body has IP = Icm + Md 2
a ­continuous mass ­distribution, the moment of inertia
can be c­ alculated by ­integration. (See Examples 9.10
and 9.11.)
 Summary    325

CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY
S
Torque: When a force F acts on an object, the torque of t = Fl = rF sin f = Ftan r (10.2) Frad = F cos f
S l = r sin f
that force with respect to a point O has a magnitude given S S
T ∙ r : F (10.3) = lever arm
f f
by the product of the force magnitude F and the lever arm l. S
F
S
More generally, torque is a vector T equal to the vector S
S r
product of r (theS position vector of the point at which the Ftan = F sin f
force acts) and F. (See Example 10.1.) S
O
S S
T=r: F

Rotational dynamics: The rotational analog of Newton’s g tz = Iaz (10.7) y

second law says that the net torque acting on an object F F n
equals the product of the object’s moment of inertia and its R R
angular acceleration. (See Examples 10.2 and 10.3.) x
M
Mg

Combined translation and rotation: If a rigid body is K = 12 Mvcm2 + 12 Icm v2 (10.8)
g Fext ∙ M acm
both moving through space and rotating, its motion can S S
(10.12) R
g tz = Icm az
be regarded as translational motion of the center of mass
plus rotational motion about an axis through the center (10.13) vcm = 0
1 M v = 0
of mass. Thus the kinetic energy is a sum of translational vcm = Rv (10.11)
and rotational kinetic energies. For dynamics, Newton’s (rolling without slipping) h v
second law describes the motion of the center of mass, and
the rotational equivalent of Newton’s second law describes 2
rotation about the center of mass. In the case of rolling vcm
without slipping, there is a special relationship between
the motion of the center of mass and the rotational motion.
(See Examples 10.4–10.7.)

Work done by a torque: A torque that acts on a rigid body u2

Lu1
as it rotates does work on that body. The work can be W = tz du (10.20)
S

expressed as an integral of the torque. The work–­energy Ftan

W = tz1u2 - u12 = tz ∆u (10.21)
theorem says that the total rotational work done on a ds
(constant torque only) du
rigid body is equal to the change in rotational kinetic S R R
­energy. The power, or rate at which the torque does work, Wtot = 12 Iv22 - 12 Iv12 (10.22) Ftan
is the product of the torque and the angular velocity O
P = tz vz (10.23)
(See Example 10.8.)

Angular momentum: The angular momentum of a particle

S S S S S
L ∙ r : p ∙ r : mv (10.24) S
L
with respect to point O is the vector product of the par- (particle)
S
ticle’s position vector r relative to O and its momentum S S
V
S

S S
p ∙ mv. When a symmetrical object rotates about a sta- L ∙ IV (10.28)
tionary axis of symmetry, its angular momentum is the (rigid body rotating
product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity about axis of symmetry)
S
vector V. If the object is not symmetrical or the rotation
1z2 axis is not an axis of symmetry, the component of
angular momentum along the rotation axis is Ivz . (See
Example 10.9.)

gT ∙
Rotational dynamics and angular momentum: The net
S
S dL
external torque on a system is equal to the rate of change  (10.29)
dt
of its angular momentum. If the net external torque on a S
dL
system is zero, the total angular momentum of the system is ∙ 0 (10.31)
dt
constant (conserved). (See Examples 10.10–10.13.)
(zero net external torque)
 Summary    353

CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY
Conditions for equilibrium: For a rigid body to be in gF ∙ 0
S
(11.1)

gT ∙ 0 about any point

equilibrium, two conditions must be satisfied. First, the T
S
vector sum of forces must be zero. Second, the sum of (11.2)
torques about any point must be zero. The torque due to
S S S
the weight of an object can be found by assuming the en- S m1 r1 ∙ m2 r2 ∙ m3 r3 ∙ P w E
tire weight is concentrated at the center of gravity, which rcm ∙  (11.4)
m1 + m2 + m3 + g
S
is at the same point as the center of mass if g has the same y
T
value at all points. (See Examples 11.1–11.4.)
Ty Ex
x
Tx
Ey
w

Stress, strain, and Hooke’s law: Hooke’s law states that in Stress
= Elastic modulus (11.7)
elastic deformations, stress (force per unit area) is propor- Strain
tional to strain (fractional deformation). The proportional-
ity constant is called the elastic modulus.

Tensile and compressive stress: Tensile stress is tensile Tensile stress F#>A F# l0 Initial
force per unit area, F#>A. Tensile strain is fractional Y = = =  (11.10) A state
Tensile strain ∆l>l0 A ∆l
change in length, ∆l>l0 . The elastic modulus for tension is
l0
called Young’s modulus Y. Compressive stress and strain ∆l
are defined in the same way. (See Example 11.5.) F# A F#

Bulk stress: Pressure in a fluid is force per unit area. Bulk F#

p =  (11.11)
stress is pressure change, ∆p, and bulk strain is fractional A Volume
volume change, ∆V>V0 . The elastic modulus for compres- Pressure = p0 V0
∆p
sion is called the bulk modulus, B. Compressibility, k, is the B = Bulk stress = -  (11.13)
reciprocal of bulk modulus: k = 1>B. (See Example 11.6.) Bulk strain ∆V>V0 F# F#

Pressure = p F# F#
Volume
= p0 + ∆ p V
F#
F#

Shear stress: Shear stress is force per unit area, FŒ>A, Shear stress FŒ>A FŒ h A
S = = =  (11.17) Initial
for a force applied tangent to a surface. Shear strain is Shear strain x>h A x state
h
the ­displacement x of one side divided by the transverse
FŒ
dimension h. The elastic modulus for shear is called the x A
shear modulus, S. (See Example 11.7.)
FŒ

The limits of Hooke’s law: The proportional limit is the maximum stress for which stress and strain are
­proportional. Beyond the proportional limit, Hooke’s law is not valid. The elastic limit is the stress beyond
which irreversible deformation occurs. The breaking stress, or ultimate strength, is the stress at which the
material breaks.
 Summary    385

CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY
Density and pressure: Density is mass per unit volume. m
r =  (12.1) Small area d A within fluid at rest
If a mass m of homogeneous material has volume V, its V
density r is the ratio m>V. Specific gravity is the ratio dF#
of the density of a material to the density of water. p =  (12.2) dF#
dA
(See Example 12.1.) dF# dA
Pressure is normal force per unit area. Pascal’s law
states that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmit-
ted undiminished to every portion of the fluid. Absolute Equal normal forces exerted on
pressure is the total pressure in a fluid; gauge pressure is both sides by surrounding fluid
the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric
pressure. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal
(Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N>m2. (See Example 12.2.)

Pressures in a fluid at rest: The pressure difference be- p2 - p1 = - rg1y2 - y12

Fluid, density r
tween points 1 and 2 in a static fluid of uniform density (pressure in a fluid (12.5)
r (an incompressible fluid) is proportional to the differ- of uniform density) p2 = p0
ence between the elevations y1 and y2 . If the pressure at 2
p = p0 + rgh y2 - y1 = h
the surface of an incompressible liquid at rest is p0 , then p1 = p
(12.6) y2
the pressure at a depth h is greater by an amount rgh. (See (pressure in a fluid 1y
Examples 12.3 and 12.4.) of uniform density) 1

Buoyancy: Archimedes’s principle states that when an

object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward
buoyant force on the object equal to the weight of the fluid Fluid element
dF# replaced with
that the object displaces. (See Example 12.5.) B solid object
wobject cg of the same
size and shape

Fluid flow: An ideal fluid is incompressible and has no vis- A1v1 = A2 v2 v2

d p2A2
cosity (no internal friction). A flow line is the path of a fluid (continuity equation, (12.10) c
particle; a streamline is a curve tangent at each point to the incompressible fluid) A2 dV
velocity vector at that point. A flow tube is a tube bounded at dV ds2
its sides by flow lines. In laminar flow, layers of fluid slide = Av (12.11)
dt
smoothly past each other. In turbulent flow, there is great
(volume flow rate) Flow
disorder and a constantly changing flow pattern. v1 b
1 2
Conservation of mass in an incompressible fluid is p + rgy + 2 rv = constant (12.18) a y2
dV
expressed by the continuity equation, which relates the flow (Bernoulli’s equation) p1A1 1
A
speeds v1 and v2 for two cross sections A1 and A2 in a flow ds1
tube. The product Av equals the volume flow rate, dV>dt, y1
the rate at which volume crosses a section of the tube. (See
Example 12.6.)
Bernoulli’s equation states that a quantity involving
the pressure p, flow speed v, and elevation y has the same
value anywhere in a flow tube, assuming steady flow
in an ideal fluid. This equation can be used to ­relate
the properties of the flow at any two points. (See
Examples 12.7–12.10.)
 Summary    419

Additional evidence for the existence of black holes has come from observations of
gravitational radiation. Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which we’ll discuss in
Chapter 37, predicts that space itself is curved by the presence of massive objects like a
planet, star, or black hole. If a massive object accelerates in a certain manner, it produces
ripples in the curvature of space that radiate outward from the object. The disturbances
caused by such gravitational radiation are incredibly feeble, but can be measured with
sensitive detectors if the objects that produce them are very massive and have tremendous
accelerations. This can happen when two massive black holes are in close orbits around
each other. Each black hole has an acceleration as it moves around its curved orbit, so it
emits gravitational radiation that carries away energy. This makes the orbits of the black
holes smaller, so they move faster and emit gravitational radiation at an ever faster rate.
The orbits keep shrinking until the two black holes finally merge. Since 2015 scientists
have detected the gravitational radiation from several such black hole mergers. From the
data, they conclude that the merging black holes have masses from 7 to 36 times the mass
of the sun. (Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne, and Barry Barish were awarded the 2017 Nobel
Prize in Physics for their contributions to these discoveries.)
Other lines of research suggest that even larger black holes, in excess of 109 times the
mass of the sun, lie at the centers of other galaxies. Observational and theoretical studies
of black holes of all sizes continue to be an exciting area of research in both physics and
astronomy.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 13.8 If the sun somehow collapsed to form a
black hole, what effect would this event have on the orbit of the earth? The orbit would (i) shrink;
(ii) expand; (iii) remain the same size.

ANSWER
on the earth doesn’t depend on the sun’s radius, so the earth’s orbit would be unaffected.
not do), the sun would have a much smaller radius but the same mass. The sun’s gravitational force
❙ (iii) If the sun collapsed into a black hole (which, according to our understanding of stars, it can-

CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY
Newton’s law of gravitation: Any two particles with masses Gm1 m2 m1
Fg = (13.1) S
Fg (2 on 1)
m1 and m2 , a distance r apart, attract each other with forces r2
inversely proportional to r 2. These forces form an action– S

reaction pair and obey Newton’s third law. When two or Fg (1 on 2)

r
more objects exert gravitational forces on a particular
object, the total gravitational force on that individual ob- Fg (1 on 2) = Fg (2 on 1) m2
ject is the vector sum of the forces exerted by the other
objects. The gravitational interaction between spherical
mass distributions, such as planets or stars, is the same as
if all the mass of each distribution were concentrated at the
center. (See Examples 13.1–13.3 and 13.10.)

Gravitational force, weight, and gravitational potential GmE m Earth, mass mE

energy: The weight w of an object is the total gravitational w = Fg =  (13.3) w (N)
RE2 RE = 6.37 * 106 m
force exerted on it by all other objects in the universe. Near (weight at earth’s surface) mass m
the surface of the earth (mass mE and radius RE), the weight
is essentially equal to the gravitational force of the earth GmE
g = (13.4) w = Gm Em>r 2
alone. The gravitational potential energy U of two masses RE2
m and mE separated by a distance r is inversely proportional (acceleration due to
to r. The potential energy is never positive; it is zero only gravity at earth’s surface) 0 r 1* 106 m2
when the two objects are infinitely far apart. (See Examples 0 r - RE 1* 106 m2
GmE m
13.4 and 13.5.) U = - (13.9)
r

Continued
420    CHAPTER  13 Gravitation

Orbits: When a satellite moves in a circular orbit, the GmE

S
v
centripetal acceleration is provided by the gravitational at- v = (13.10) r
traction of the earth. Kepler’s three laws describe the more B r S S
(speed in circular orbit) Fg a
general case: an elliptical orbit of a planet around the sun or
S
a satellite around a planet. (See Examples 13.6–13.9.) v
2pr r 2pr 3>2 S
a
S
Fg
T = = 2pr =
v A GmE 1GmE RE
(period in circular orbit)(13.12)
S S
Fg a

S
v

Black holes: If a nonrotating spherical mass distribution 2GM

RS = (13.30)
with total mass M has a radius less than its Schwarzschild c2
radius RS , it is called a black hole. The gravitational inter- (Schwarzschild radius) RS
action prevents anything, including light, from escaping
from within a sphere with radius RS . (See Example 13.11.)
If all of the object is inside its
Schwarzschild radius RS = 2GM>c2,
the object is a black hole.

Chapter 13 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

spacecraft will orbit around the Martian equator with an orbital period
KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS
of 24.66 h, the same as the rotation period of Mars, so that it will always
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 13.5 (Section 13.3) before attempting be above the same point on the equator. (a) What must be the radius of
these problems. the orbit? (b) What will be the speed of the spacecraft in its orbit?
VP13.5.1 The New Horizons spacecraft (mass 478 kg) was launched
VP13.6.3 A spacecraft of mass 1.00 × 103 kg orbits the sun (mass
from earth in 2006 and flew past Pluto in 2015. What minimum amount 1.99 * 1030 kg) in a circular orbit of radius 1.50 * 1011 m (equal to the
of work has to be done on a spacecraft of this mass to send it from the average distance from the sun to the earth). You wish to move the space-
earth’s surface to infinitely far away from the earth? Neglect air resis- craft into a smaller circular orbit around the sun of radius 1.08 * 1011 m
tance and the gravitational effects of the sun, moon, and other planets. (equal to the average distance from the sun to Venus). In doing this, what
VP13.5.2 A piece of spacecraft debris initially at rest falls to the
will be the changes in (a) the spacecraft’s kinetic energy, (b) the gravi-
earth’s surface from a height above the earth equal to one-half of the tational potential energy of the sun–spacecraft system, and (c) the total
earth’s radius. Find the speed at which the piece of debris hits the sur- mechanical energy of the sun–spacecraft system? Neglect the gravita-
face. Neglect air resistance and the gravitational pull of the moon. tional pulls of the planets on the spacecraft.
VP13.5.3 An astronaut on Mars (mass 6.42 * 1023 kg, radius
VP13.6.4 A satellite of mass 1.50 * 103 kg is at point P, at an al-
3.39 * 106 m) launches a probe straight upward from the surface at titude of 3.50 * 106 m above the earth’s surface, and traveling at
3.00 * 103 m>s. What is the maximum height above the surface that 7.50 * 103 m>s. (a) If you wanted to put the satellite into a circular
the probe reaches? Neglect air resistance and the gravitational pull of orbit at this altitude above the earth’s surface, how much work would
the two small moons of Mars. you have to do on it at point P? (b) If instead you wanted to make the
VP13.5.4 In order to rendezvous with an asteroid passing close to the
satellite escape the earth, how much work would you have to do on it
earth, a spacecraft must be moving at 8.50 * 103 m>s relative to the at point P?
earth at a distance of 2.50 * 108 m from the center of the earth. At
what speed must this spacecraft be launched from the earth’s surface? Be sure to review EXAMPLES 13.7, 13.8, and 13.9 (Section 13.5)
Neglect air resistance and the gravitational pull of the moon. ­before attempting these problems.
VP13.9.1 Some comets are in highly elongated orbits that come very
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 13.6 (Section 13.4) before attempting close to the sun at perihelion. The distance from one such comet to the
these problems. center of the sun is 6.00 * 109 m at perihelion and 3.00 * 1012 m at
VP13.6.1 You wish to place a spacecraft in a circular orbit around the aphelion. For this comet’s orbit, find (a) the semi-major axis, (b) the ec-
earth so that its orbital speed will be 4.00 * 103 m>s. What are this orbit’s centricity, and (c) the period (in years).
(a) radius, (b) altitude above the earth’s surface, and (c) period (in hours)? VP13.9.2 The orbit of a certain asteroid around the sun has period 7.85 y
VP13.6.2 You are designing a spacecraft intended to monitor a human and eccentricity 0.250. Find (a) the semi-major axis and the distances
expedition to Mars (mass 6.42 * 1023 kg, radius 3.39 * 106 m). This from the sun to the asteroid at (b) perihelion and (c) aphelion.
 Summary    453

Resonance and Its Consequences

The peaking of the amplitude at driving frequencies close to the natural frequency of the
system is called resonance. Physics is full of examples of resonance; building up the os- BIO APPLICATION Canine
Resonance Unlike humans, dogs have no
cillations of a child on a swing by pushing with a frequency equal to the swing’s natural sweat glands and so must pant in order to
frequency is one. A vibrating rattle in a car that occurs only at a certain engine speed is cool down. The frequency at which a dog
another example. Inexpensive loudspeakers often have an annoying boom or buzz when pants is very close to the resonant frequency
a musical note coincides with the natural frequency of the speaker cone or housing. In of its respiratory system. This causes the
Chapter 16 we’ll study examples of resonance that involve sound. Resonance also occurs maximum amount of air inflow and outflow
and so minimizes the effort that the dog
in electric circuits, as we’ll see in Chapter 31; a tuned circuit in a radio receiver responds must exert to cool itself.
strongly to waves with frequencies near its natural frequency. This phenomenon lets us
select one radio station and reject other stations.
Resonance in mechanical systems can be destructive. A company of soldiers once de-
stroyed a bridge by marching across it in step; the frequency of their steps was close to a
natural frequency of the bridge, and the resulting oscillation had large enough amplitude
to tear the bridge apart. Ever since, marching soldiers have been ordered to break step
before crossing a bridge. Some years ago, vibrations of the engines of a particular type of
airplane had just the right frequency to resonate with the natural frequencies of its wings.
Large oscillations built up, and occasionally the wings fell off.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.8 When driven at a frequency near its
natural frequency, an oscillator with very little damping has a much greater response than the same
oscillator with more damping. When driven at a frequency that is much higher or lower than the
natural frequency, which oscillator will have the greater response: (i) the one with very little damp-
ing or (ii) the one with more damping?

ANSWER
­driving frequency.
the oscillator with the least damping (smallest value of b) will have the greatest response at any
frequencies as the value of the damping constant b is decreased. Hence for fixed values of k and m,
❙ (i) Figure 14.28 shows that the curve of amplitude versus driving frequency moves upward at all

CHAPTER 14 SUMMARY
Periodic motion: Periodic motion is motion that repeats 1 1 x
f = T =  (14.1)
­itself in a definite cycle. It occurs whenever an object has T f
a stable equilibrium position and a restoring force that
2p x = -A x = 0 x = A
acts when the object is displaced from equilibrium. v = 2pf =  (14.2) x 6 0 x 7 0
T
Period T is the time for one cycle. Frequency f is the ax y y y ax
­number of cycles per unit time. Angular frequency v is 2p n n n
Fx Fx
times the frequency. (See Example 14.1.) x x x
mg mg mg

Simple harmonic motion: If the restoring force Fx in Fx = - kx (14.3) x

periodic motion is directly proportional to the dis­ A
Fx k
placement x, the motion is called simple harmonic ax = = - x (14.4)
m m O t
­motion (SHM). In many cases this condition is satis- T 2T
fied if the displacement from equilibrium is small. k -A
The ­angular frequency, frequency, and period in SHM v =  (14.10)
Am
do not ­depend on the amplitude but on only the mass m
and force constant k. The displacement, velocity, and v 1 k
f = =  (14.11)
­acceleration in SHM are sinusoidal functions of time; 2p 2p A m
the amplitude A and phase angle f of the oscillation are 1 m
determined by the initial displacement and velocity of T = = 2p  (14.12)
f Ak
the object. (See Examples 14.2, 14.3, 14.6, and 14.7.)
x = A cos1vt + f2 (14.13)
454    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Energy in simple harmonic motion: Energy is conserved E = 12 mvx2 + 12 kx2 Energy E = K + U

in SHM. The total energy can be expressed in terms of (14.21)
1 2 U
= 2 kA = constant
the force constant k and amplitude A. (See Examples 14.4 K
and 14.5.)
x
-A O A

Angular simple harmonic motion: In angular SHM, the k Balance wheel Spring
v = and
­frequency and angular frequency are related to the mo- AI
ment of inertia I and the torsion constant k.  (14.24)
1 k
f = tz u
2p A I Spring torque tz opposes
angular displacement u.

Simple pendulum: A simple pendulum consists of a g

v =  (14.32)
point mass m at the end of a massless string of length L. AL
Its motion is approximately simple harmonic for suffi- L
v 1 g
ciently small amplitude; the angular frequency, frequency, f = =  (14.33)
2p 2p A L
and period then depend on only g and L, not on the mass u
or amplitude. (See Example 14.8.) T
2p 1 L
T = = = 2p  (14.34) mg cos u
v f Ag mg sin u
mg

Physical pendulum: A physical pendulum is any mgd O

object suspended from an axis of rotation. The angular v =  (14.38)
B I
frequency and period for small-amplitude oscillations are d sinu
u d
­independent of amplitude but depend on the mass m, dis- I cg
T = 2p  (14.39) mg sinu
tance d from the axis of rotation to the center of gravity, A mgd
mg cos u
and moment of inertia I about the axis. (See Examples 14.9
mg
and 14.10.)

Damped oscillations: When a force Fx = - bvx is added x = Ae-1b>2m2t cos 1v′t + f2 (14.42) x
to a simple harmonic oscillator, the motion is called a A Ae-1b>2m2t
damped oscillation. If b 6 21km (called underdamp- k b2
ing), the system oscillates with a decaying amplitude and v′ = -  (14.43)
B m 4m2
an angular frequency v′ that is lower than it would be O t
T0 2T0 3T0 4T0 5T0
without damping. If b = 21km (called critical damping)
or b 7 21km (called overdamping), when the system is
b = 0.12km
­displaced it returns to equilibrium without oscillating.
-A b = 0.42km

Forced oscillations and resonance: When a sinusoidally Fmax A

A =  (14.46) 5Fmax>k b = 0.22km
varying driving force is added to a damped harmonic 21k - mvd22 2 + b2vd2
4Fmax>k b = 0.42km
­oscillator, the resulting motion is called a forced oscilla-
3Fmax>k b = 0.72km
tion or driven oscillation. The amplitude is a function of
2Fmax>k b = 1.02km
the driving frequency vd and reaches a peak at a driving Fmax>k
­frequency close to the natural frequency of the system. b = 2.02km
vd >v
This behavior is called resonance. 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
 Summary    491

CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY
Waves and their properties: A wave is any disturbance that v = lf  (15.1) Wave
speed
propagates from one region to another. A mechanical wave v
Wavelength l
travels within some material called the medium. The wave
speed v depends on the type of wave and the properties of
the medium.
In a periodic wave, the motion of each point of the Each particle of
Amplitude A rope oscillates
­medium is periodic with frequency f and period T. The in SHM.
wavelength l is the distance over which the wave pattern
­repeats, and the amplitude A is the maximum displacement
of a particle in the medium. The product of l and f equals
the wave speed. A sinusoidal wave is a special ­periodic
wave in which each point moves in simple harmonic
­motion. (See Example 15.1.)

Wave functions and wave dynamics: The wave function y

x
y1x, t2 describes the displacements of individual particles y1x, t2 = A cos c va - tb d  (15.3)
v A
in the medium. Equations (15.3), (15.4), and (15.7) give x
the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave traveling in the x t A
y1x, t2 = A cos 2pca - bd  (15.4)
+ x@direction. If the wave is moving in the -x@direction, l T
Wavelength l
the minus signs in the cosine functions are replaced by y1x, t2 = A cos1kx - vt2  (15.7)
y
plus signs. (See Example 15.2.)
where k = 2p>l and v = 2pf = vk
The wave function obeys a partial differential equation A
called the wave equation, Eq. (15.12). 02y1x, t2 2
1 0 y1x, t2 t
=  (15.12) A
The speed of transverse waves on a string ­depends 0x2 v2 0t 2 Period T
on the tension F and mass per unit length m.
F
(See Example 15.3.) v = (waves on a string) (15.14)
Am

Wave power: Wave motion conveys energy from one region Pav = 12 2mF v2A2 (15.25) Wave power versus time t
to another. For a sinusoidal mechanical wave, the average (average power, sinusoidal wave)
at coordinate x = 0
power Pav is proportional to the square of the wave ampli- P
tude and the square of the frequency. For waves that spread I1 r22 Pmax
= 2 (15.26)
out in three dimensions, the wave intensity I is inversely I2 r1 Pav = 12 Pmax
proportional to the square of the distance from the source. (inverse@square law for intensity)
0 t
(See Examples 15.4 and 15.5.) Period T

Wave superposition: A wave reflects when it reaches y1x, t2 = y11x, t2 + y21x, t2 (15.27)
a boundary of its medium. At any point where two or (principle of superposition)
more waves overlap, the total displacement is the sum
of the displacements of the individual waves (principle
of superposition). O

Standing waves on a string: When a sinusoidal wave y1x, t2 = 1ASW sin kx2 sin vt (15.28) N A N
is ­reflected from a fixed or free end of a stretched string, (standing wave on a string, l
= L
2
the incident and reflected waves combine to form a fixed end at x = 0) N A N A N
­standing sinusoidal wave with nodes and antinodes. v
fn = n = nf1 1n = 1, 2, 3, c2 (15.33)
Adjacent nodes are spaced a distance l>2 apart, as are 2L 2 l
2
= L
­adjacent antinodes. (See Example 15.6.) N A N A N A N
1 F
When both ends of a string with length L are held fixed, f1 =  (15.35)
2L A m 3 l
= L
standing waves can occur only when L is an integer multiple (string fixed at both ends)
2

of l>2. Each frequency with its associated vibration pattern N A N A N A N A N

is called a normal mode. (See Examples 15.7 and 15.8.) 4
l
= L
2
 Summary    531

Figure 16.38 You hear a sonic boom when the shock wave reaches From Fig. 16.38 we have
you at L (not just when the plane breaks the sound barrier). A listener 8000 m
to the right of L has not yet heard the sonic boom but will shortly; a tan a =
listener to the left of L has already heard the sonic boom. vS t
8000 m
t = = 20.5 s
1560 m>s21tan 34.8°2

EVALUATE You hear the boom 20.5 s after the airplane passes overhead,
vS = Mach 1.75 at which time it has traveled 1560 m>s2120.5 s2 = 11.5 km since it
a passed overhead. We have assumed that the speed of sound is the same
at all altitudes, so that a = arcsin v>vS is constant and the shock wave
forms a perfect cone. In fact, the speed of sound decreases with increas-
vS 8000 m ing altitude. How would this affect the value of t?

Shock KEYCONCEPT An object moving through the air faster than the
wave speed of sound continuously produces a cone-shaped shock wave. The
Listener
a angle of the cone depends on the object’s Mach number (the ratio of its
L speed to the speed of sound).
vS t

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 16.9 What would you hear if you were di-
rectly behind (to the left of) the supersonic airplane in Fig. 16.38? (i) A sonic boom; (ii) the sound
of the airplane, Doppler-shifted to higher frequencies; (iii) the sound of the airplane, Doppler-
shifted to lower frequencies; (iv) nothing.

ANSWER
Hence the waves that reach you have an increased wavelength and a lower frequency.
airplane the wave crests are spread apart, just as they are behind the moving source in Fig. 16.28.
❙ (iii) Figure 16.38 shows that there are sound waves inside the cone of the shock wave. Behind the

CHAPTER 16 SUMMARY
Sound waves: Sound consists of longitudinal waves in a pmax = BkA (16.5) Wavelength l
y
medium. A sinusoidal sound wave is characterized by its (sinusoidal sound wave) y 7 0 y 7 0
frequency f and wavelength l (or angular frequency v A
and wave number k) and by its displacement amplitude A. B x
v =  (16.7)
The pressure amplitude pmax is directly proportional to Ar
-A
the displacement amplitude, the wave number, and the (longitudinal wave in a fluid) y 6 0 y 6 0
bulk modulus B of the wave medium. (See Examples 16.1
and 16.2.) gRT
v =  (16.10)
The speed of a sound wave in a fluid depends on the B M
bulk modulus B and density r. If the fluid is an ideal gas, (sound wave in an ideal gas) Rarefaction Compression
p
the speed can be expressed in terms of the temperature T,
molar mass M, and ratio of heat capacities g of the gas. Y pmax
v =  (16.8)
The speed of longitudinal waves in a solid rod depends on Ar
the density and Young’s modulus Y. (See Examples 16.3 (longitudinal wave in a solid rod) x
and 16.4.)

-pmax
532    CHAPTER 16 Sound and Hearing

Intensity and sound intensity level: The intensity I of a pmax2 Point source
1
sound wave is the time average rate at which energy is I = 2 2rB v2A2 =
2rv
transported by the wave, per unit area. For a sinusoidal
wave, the intensity can be expressed in terms of the dis- pmax2 P1
=  (16.12), (16.14) P2
placement amplitude A or the pressure amplitude pmax . 2 2rB
(See Examples 16.5–16.7.) (intensity of a sinusoidal sound wave
The sound intensity level b of a sound wave is a loga- in a fluid)
rithmic measure of its intensity. It is measured relative
to I0 , an arbitrary intensity defined to be 10-12 W>m2. I
b = 110 dB2 log  (16.15)
Sound intensity levels are expressed in decibels (dB). (See I0
Examples 16.8 and 16.9.) (definition of sound intensity level)

Standing sound waves: Standing sound waves can be set up nv A A

fn = 1n = 1, 2, 3, c2 (16.18) N
in a pipe or tube. A closed end is a displacement node and a 2L Open l
N A
pressure antinode; an open end is a displacement antinode (open pipe) pipe 2
N
and a pressure node. For a pipe of length L open at both nv A A
ends, the normal-mode frequencies are integer multiples of fn = 1n = 1, 3, 5, c2 (16.22)
4L v v
the sound speed divided by 2L. For a stopped pipe (one that f1 =
2L
f2 = 2
2L
= 2f1
is open at only one end), the ­normal-mode frequencies are (stopped pipe)
the odd multiples of the sound speed ­divided by 4L. (See N N
Examples 16.10 and 16.11.) Stopped l A
A pipe or other system with normal-mode frequencies pipe 4 N
can be driven to oscillate at any frequency. A maximum A A
response, or resonance, occurs if the driving frequency is
v v
close to one of the normal-mode frequencies of the sys- f1 =
4L
f3 = 3
4L
= 3f1
tem. (See Example 16.12.)

Interference: When two or more waves overlap in the same region of space, the resulting effects are called
interference. The resulting amplitude can be either larger or smaller than the amplitude of each individual Waves
wave, depending on whether the waves are in phase (constructive interference) or out of phase (destructive d2 + l
2 d2 arrive 12
interference). (See Example 16.13.) Waves d1 Q cycle out
arrive in d1 of phase.
phase. P

Beats: Beats are heard when two tones with slightly dif- fbeat = fa - fb (16.24) Displacement
ferent frequencies fa and fb are sounded together. The (beat frequency)
beat frequency fbeat is the difference between fa and fb . t

Beat

Doppler effect: The Doppler effect for sound is the fre- v + vL L to S

v
fL = f  (16.29)
quency shift that occurs when there is motion of a source v + vS S +
v v
of sound, a listener, or both, relative to the medium. The
(Doppler effect, moving source and vL v vS b l
source and listener frequencies fS and fL are related by moving listener)
l
S S
v
a vS
the source and listener velocities vS and vL relative to L

the medium and to the speed of sound v. (See Examples

v v
16.14–16.18.)

Shock waves: A sound source moving with a speed vS v

sin a =   (shock wave) (16.31)
greater than the speed of sound v creates a shock wave. vS vS 7 v
The wave front is a cone with angle a. (See Example a
16.19.)
Shock wave
568    CHAPTER 17 Temperature and Heat

CHAPTER 17 SUMMARY
Temperature and temperature scales: Two objects in thermal equilib- TF = 95 TC + 32° (17.1) If systems A and B are each in
rium must have the same temperature. A conducting material between thermal equilibrium with system C …
two objects permits them to interact and come to thermal equilibrium; TC = 59 1TF - 32°2 (17.2)
Insulator
an insulating material impedes this interaction.
TK = TC + 273.15 (17.3)
The Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales are based on the freez- A B A B
ing 10°C = 32°F2 and boiling 1100°C = 212°F2 temperatures of water. T2 p2
One Celsius degree equals 95 Fahrenheit degrees. (See Example 17.1.) =  (17.4) C C
T1 p1 Conductor
The Kelvin scale has its zero at the extrapolated zero-pressure
temperature for a gas thermometer, - 273.15°C = 0 K. In the gas-­
… then systems A and B are in
thermometer scale, the ratio of two temperatures T1 and T2 is defined to thermal equilibrium with each other.
be equal to the ratio of the two corresponding gas-thermometer pres-
sures p1 and p2 .

Thermal expansion and thermal stress: A temperature change ∆T ∆L = aL 0 ∆T  (17.6) L = L 0 + ∆L

causes a change in any linear dimension L 0 of a solid object. The = L 0 (1 + a ∆T )
change ∆L is approximately proportional to L 0 and ∆T. Similarly, ∆V = bV0 ∆T  (17.8)
T0
a temperature change causes a change ∆V in the volume V0 of any L0 ∆L
solid or liquid; ∆V is approximately proportional to V0 and ∆T. F T0 + ∆T
= - Ya ∆T  (17.12)
The quantities a and b are the coefficients of linear expansion A
and volume expansion, respectively. For solids, b = 3a. (See
Examples 17.2 and 17.3.)
When a material is cooled or heated and held so it cannot contract or
expand, it is under a tensile stress F>A. (See Example 17.4.)

Heat, phase changes, and calorimetry: Heat is energy in transit from Q = mc ∆T  (17.13) Phase changes, temperature is constant:
one object to another as a result of a temperature difference. Equations Q = +mL
(17.13) and (17.18) give the quantity of heat Q required to cause a tem- T (°C)
Q = nC ∆T  (17.18)
perature change ∆T in a quantity of material with mass m and specific 100
Boiling point
heat c (alternatively, with number of moles n and molar heat capac- Q = {mL (17.20)
ity C = Mc, where M is the molar mass and m = nM). When heat is Melting point
0
added to an object, Q is positive; when it is removed, Q is negative. t
(See Examples 17.5 and 17.6.)
Temperature rises, phase does not change:
To change a mass m of a material to a different phase at the same Q = mc ∆T
temperature (such as liquid to vapor), a quantity of heat given by
Eq. (17.20) must be added or subtracted. Here L is the heat of fusion,
vaporization, or sublimation.
In an isolated system whose parts interact by heat exchange, the
algebraic sum of the Q’s for all parts of the system must be zero.
(See Examples 17.7–17.10.)

Conduction, convection, and radiation: Conduction is the transfer of dQ TH - TC Heat current H

heat within materials without bulk motion of the materials. The heat H = = kA  (17.21)
dt L
current H depends on the area A through which the heat flows, the
length L of the heat-flow path, the temperature difference 1TH - TC2, TH A TC
H = AesT 4 (17.25)
and the thermal conductivity k of the material. (See Examples L
17.11–17.13.) TH - TC
Heat current H = kA
Convection is a complex heat-transfer process that involves mass Hnet = Aes1T 4 - Ts42 (17.26) L
motion from one region to another.
Radiation is energy transfer through electromagnetic radiation. The
radiation heat current H depends on the surface area A, the emissivity e
of the surface (a pure number between 0 and 1), and the Kelvin tempera-
ture T. Here s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. The net radiation heat
current Hnet from an object at temperature T to its surroundings at tem-
perature Ts depends on both T and Ts. (See Examples 17.14 and 17.15.)
602    CHAPTER 18 Thermal Properties of Matter

Figure 18.27 A pVT-surface for an ideal V1 6 V2 6 V3 p T1 6 T2 6 T3 6 T4

V1
gas. At the left, each orange line cor- T1 T2 T3
responds to a certain constant volume; at p T4
the right, each green line corresponds to a V2
certain constant temperature.
V3

O
P
R
E
O S
S V
U
R
E
Constant pressure
(isobars) VO
Constant volume LU E
(isochors) M UR
E AT
Constant temperature ER
MP
(isotherms) TE

Figure 18.27 shows the much simpler pVT-surface for a substance that obeys the ideal-
gas equation of state under all conditions. The projections of the constant-temperature
curves onto the pV-plane correspond to the curves of Fig. 18.6, and the projections of the
constant-volume curves onto the pT-plane show that pressure is directly proportional to
absolute temperature. Figure 18.27 also shows the isobars (curves of constant pressure)
and isochors (curves of constant volume) for an ideal gas.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 18.6 The average atmospheric pressure on

Mars is 6.0 * 102 Pa. Could there be lakes of liquid water on the surface of Mars today? What
about in the past, when the atmospheric pressure is thought to have been substantially greater?

ANSWER
Mars in the past, when the atmosphere was thicker.
Planetary scientists conclude that liquid water could have existed and almost certainly did exist on
Hence liquid water cannot exist on the present-day Martian surface, and there are no rivers or lakes.
pressure on Mars is just less than this value, corresponding to the line labeled ps in Fig. 18.24.
❙ no, yes The triple-point pressure of water from Table 18.3 is 6.10 * 102 Pa. The present-day

CHAPTER 18 SUMMARY
p
Equations of state: The pressure p, volume V, and absolute pV = nRT (18.3)
T4 7 T3 7 T2 7 T1
temperature T of a given quantity of a substance are related
by an equation of state. This relationship applies only for T4
equilibrium states, in which p and T are uniform through- T3
T2
out the system. The ideal-gas equation of state, Eq. (18.3), T1
V
involves the number of moles n and a constant R that is the O
same for all gases. (See Examples 18.1–18.4.)

Molecular properties of matter: The molar mass M of a mtotal = nM (18.2) Chloride
ions
pure substance is the mass per mole. The mass mtotal of a
quantity of substance equals M multiplied by the number of M = NA m (18.8)
moles n. Avogadro’s number NA is the number of molecules
in a mole. The mass m of an individual molecule is M di- Sodium
ions
vided by NA . (See Example 18.5.)
 Guided Practice    603

Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas: In an ideal y

Kt r = 32 nRT (18.14) v1x = - 0 vx 0
gas, the total translational kinetic energy of the gas as a Molecule
1 2 3
whole 1Kt r2 and the average translational kinetic energy 2 m1v 2av = 2 kT (18.16)
v before collision
per molecule 312 m1v22av4 are proportional to the absolute 3kT v1y = vy
temperature T, and the root-mean-square speed of mol- vrms = 21v22av =  (18.19)
A m
ecules is proportional to the square root of T. These ex- Molecule after
pressions involve the Boltzmann constant k = R>NA . (See V collision
l = vtmean =  (18.21) v2x = 0 vx 0
Examples 18.6 and 18.7.) The mean free path l of molecules 4p12 r 2N
v
in an ideal gas depends on the number of molecules per vol- v2y = vy
ume 1N>V2 and the molecular radius r. (See Example 18.8.) x

Heat capacities: The molar heat capacity at constant vol- CV = 32 R (monatomic gas) (18.25) 4R
CV

ume CV is a simple multiple of the gas constant R for certain 7R>2 7R>2
idealized cases: an ideal monatomic gas [Eq. (18.25)]; an CV = 52 R (diatomic gas) (18.26) 3R Vibration
5R>2 5R>2
ideal diatomic gas including rotational energy [Eq. (18.26)]; CV = 3R (monatomic solid) (18.28) 2R Rotation
3R>2 3R>2
and an ideal monatomic solid [Eq. (18.28)]. Many real sys- R
Translation
tems are approximated well by these idealizations. R>2
T (K)
O

10,000
1000
2500
5000
100
250
500
25
50
Molecular speeds: The speeds of molecules in an ideal gas m 3>2 2 -mv2>2kT Fraction of molecules
are distributed according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distri- f 1v2 = 4pa b ve  (18.32) f (v)
with speeds from v1 to v2
2pkT
bution f 1v2. The quantity f 1v2 dv describes what fraction vmp
of the molecules have speeds between v and v + dv. T

v
O v1 v2

p
Phases of matter: Ordinary matter exists in the solid, liquid, and gas phases. A phase diagram SOLID LIQUID
shows conditions under which two phases can coexist in phase equilibrium. All three phases Critical
can coexist at the triple point. The vaporization curve ends at the critical point, above which point

Fusion
the distinction between the liquid and gas phases disappears. tio
n
o riza
Vap
ion VAPOR
t Triple
ima
S u bl point
T
O

Chapter 18 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

(For comparison, the values are 42 mol>m3 and 1.2 kg>m3 at the earth’s
KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS
surface.)
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, and 18.4 VP18.4.4 When the pressure on n moles of helium gas is suddenly
(Section 18.1) before attempting these problems. changed from an initial value of p1 to a final value of p2, the den-
VP18.4.1 When the temperature is 30.0°C, the pressure of the air in- sity of the gas changes from its initial value of r1 to a final value of
side a bicycle tire of fixed volume 1.40 * 10-3 m3 is 5.00 * 105 Pa. r2 = r1(p2 > p1)3/5. (a) If the initial absolute temperature of the gas is
(a) What will be the pressure inside the tire when the temperature drops T1, what is its final absolute temperature T2 in terms of T1, p1, and p2?
to 10.0°C? (b) How many moles of air are inside the tire? (b) If the final pressure is 0.500 times the initial pressure, what are the
VP18.4.2 When a research balloon is released at sea level, where the ratio of the final density to the initial density and the ratio of the final
temperature is 15.0°C and the atmospheric pressure is 1.01 * 105 Pa, the temperature to the initial temperature? (c) Repeat part (b) if the final
helium in it has volume 13.0 m3. (a) When the balloon reaches an altitude pressure is 2.00 times the initial pressure.
of 32.0 km, where the temperature is - 44.5°C and the pressure is 868 Pa,
what is the volume of the helium? (b) If this balloon is spherical, how Be sure to review EXAMPLES 18.6 and 18.7 (Section 18.3) before
many times larger is its radius at 32.0 km than at sea level? a­ ttempting these problems.
VP18.4.3 The dwarf planet Pluto has a very thin atmosphere made up VP18.7.1 At what temperature (in °C) is the rms speed of helium atoms
almost entirely of nitrogen (N2, molar mass 2.8 * 10-2 kg>mol). At Pluto’s (molar mass 4.00 g>mol) the same as the rms speed of nitrogen mol-
surface the temperature is 42 K and the atmospheric pressure is 1.0 Pa. ecules (molar mass 28.0 g>mol) at 20.0°C? (Note that helium remains a
At the surface, (a) how many moles of gas are there per cubic meter of gas at temperatures above -269°C.)
atmosphere, and (b) what is the density of the atmosphere in kg>m3? Continued
632     CHAPTER 19 The First Law of Thermodynamics

CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY
Heat and work in thermodynamic processes: A thermo- V2 p Volume increases

LV1
dynamic system has the potential to exchange energy with W = p dV  (19.2) 1 (V2 7 V1):
p1 work and area
its surroundings by heat transfer or by mechanical work. are positive.
When a system at pressure p changes volume from V1 to W = p1V2 - V12 (19.3) 2
V2 , it does an amount of work W given by the integral of p p2
1constant pressure only2
with respect to volume. If the pressure is constant, the work
= JV p dV 7 0
Work = Area
done is equal to p times the change in volume. A negative V2

value of W means that work is done on the ­system. (See 1

Example 19.1.) V
O V1 V2
In any thermodynamic process, the heat added to the
­system and the work done by the system depend not only
on the initial and final states, but also on the path (the series
of intermediate states through which the system passes).

The first law of thermodynamics: The first law of ∆U = Q - W  (19.4) Surroundings

­thermodynamics states that when heat Q is added to a (environment)
­system while the system does work W, the internal ­energy dU = dQ - dW (19.6) Q = 150 J W = 100 J
U changes by an amount equal to Q - W. This law 1infinitesimal process2
can also be expressed for an infinitesimal process. (See System
Examples 19.2, 19.3, and 19.5.)
The internal energy of any thermodynamic system ∆U = Q - W = +50 J
­depends only on its state. The change in internal energy in
any process depends only on the initial and final states, not
on the path. The internal energy of an isolated system is
constant. (See Example 19.4.)

Important kinds of thermodynamic processes: p

Isobaric
a T3 7 Ta
pa
• Adiabatic process: No heat transfer into or out of a s­ ystem; Q = 0. 3 Isothermal
T4 = Ta
• Isochoric process: Constant volume; W = 0. Isochoric
T2 6 Ta
• Isobaric process: Constant pressure; W = p1V2 - V12. 2
1
4
V
• Isothermal process: Constant temperature. O Va Adiabatic
T1 6 Ta

Thermodynamics of ideal gases: The internal energy of an Cp = CV + R (19.17) p

T1 , U1
ideal gas depends only on its temperature, not on its pres-
Cp T2 , U2
sure or volume. For other substances the internal energy g =  (19.18) p2
CV Q = ∆U
generally depends on both pressure and temperature. Q = ∆U + W
The molar heat capacities CV and Cp of an ideal gas dif- p1
fer by R, the ideal-gas constant. The dimensionless ratio of W
V
heat capacities, Cp>CV , is denoted by g. (See Example 19.6.) O V1 V2

Adiabatic processes in ideal gases: For an adiabatic pro- W = nCV 1T1 - T22  (19.25) p T T + dT
cess for an ideal gas, the quantities TV g-1 and pV g are pa a
constant. The work done by an ideal gas during an adiabatic CV Adiabatic process a S b:
= 1p V - p2 V22
expansion can be expressed in terms of the initial and final R 1 1 Q = 0, ∆U = -W
(19.26)
values of temperature, or in terms of the initial and final val- 1 pb b
ues of pressure and volume. (See Example 19.7.) = 1p V - p2 V22 W
g - 1 1 1 V
O Va Vb
 Summary    669

CHAPTER 20 SUMMARY
Reversible and irreversible processes: A reversible process is one whose direction can be reversed by an Irreversible: 40°C
Ice at Water,
infinitesimal change in the conditions of the process, and in which the system is always in or very close to Metal,
0°C
70°C 40°C
thermal equilibrium. All other thermodynamic processes are irreversible.
Reversible: Ice at 0°C
Water,
Metal, 0°C 0°C
0°C

Heat engines: A heat engine takes heat QH from a source, W QC QC QH Hot reservoir, TH
converts part of it to work W, and discards the remainder e = = 1 + = 1 - ` ` (20.4) Engine
QH QH QH
0 QC 0 at a lower temperature. The thermal efficiency e of W W = QH + QC
a heat engine measures how much of the absorbed heat is 0 QC 0 = 0 QH 0 - 0 QC 0
converted to work. (See Example 20.1.) Cold reservoir, TC

The Otto cycle: A gasoline engine operating on the Otto 1 p

c
e = 1 -  (20.6) QH
cycle has a theoretical maximum thermal efficiency e that r g-1 Otto cycle
depends on the compression ratio r and the ratio of heat ca- b
W d
pacities g of the working substance. 0Q 0
a C
O V
V rV

Refrigerators: A refrigerator takes heat QC from a colder 0 QC 0 0 QC 0 Outside air, TH

K = =  0 QH 0
place, has a work input 0 W 0 , and discards heat 0 QH 0 at a (20.9) Refrigerator
0W0 0 QH 0 - 0 QC 0
warmer place. The effectiveness of the refrigerator is given 0W 0
by its coefficient of performance K.
QC Inside of refrigerator, TC

The second law of thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics describes the directionality of natu- TH
QH - 0 QC 0
ral thermodynamic processes. It can be stated in two equivalent forms. The engine statement is that no cyclic 100%-efficient engine
process can convert heat completely into work. The refrigerator statement is that no cyclic process can trans- Impossible W
fer heat from a colder place to a hotter place with no input of mechanical work.
TC

The Carnot cycle: The Carnot cycle operates between two TC TH - TC p

eCarnot = 1 - =  (20.14) a
heat reservoirs at temperatures TH and TC and uses only TH TH Carnot cycle
reversible processes. Its thermal efficiency depends only on QH
TH and TC . An additional equivalent statement of the second
W b
law is that no engine operating between the same two tem- TH
d
peratures can be more ­efficient than a Carnot engine. (See 0 QC 0 c TC
V
Examples 20.2 O
and 20.3.)
A Carnot engine run backward is a Carnot refrigerator. TC
KCarnot =  (20.15)
Its coefficient of performance depends on only TH and TC . TH - TC
Another form of the second law states that no refrigerator
operating between the same two temperatures can have a
larger coefficient of performance than a Carnot refrigerator.
(See Example 20.4.)
706     CHAPTER 21 Electric Charge and Electric Field

CHAPTER 21 SUMMARY
Electric charge, conductors, and insulators: The fundamental quantity in electrostatics is electric charge.
There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative. Charges of the same sign repel each other; charges of
opposite sign attract. Charge is conserved; the total charge in an isolated system is constant.
All ordinary matter is made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The positive protons and electrically neu-
tral neutrons in the nucleus of an atom are bound together by the nuclear force; the negative electrons surround
the nucleus at distances much greater than the nuclear size. Electric interactions are chiefly responsible for the
structure of atoms, molecules, and solids.
Conductors are materials in which charge moves easily; in insulators, charge does not move easily. Most
metals are good conductors; most nonmetals are insulators.

Coulomb’s law: For charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance 1 0 q1 q2 0

S
F2 on 1
r, the magnitude of the electric force on either charge is pro- F =  (21.2)
4pP0 r 2 r
portional to the product q1 q2 and inversely proportional to q1
r 2. The force on each charge is along the line joining the two S

= 8.988 * 109 N # m2>C2

charges—repulsive if q1 and q2 have the same sign, attractive if 1 F1 on 2
q2
they have opposite signs. In SI units the unit of electric charge 4pP0
is the coulomb, abbreviated C. (See Examples 21.1 and 21.2.) q1 S
r
When two or more charges each exert a force on a charge, F2 on 1
S
the total force on that charge is the vector sum of the forces ex- F1 on 2
q2
erted by the individual charges. (See Examples 21.3 and 21.4.)

S S
Electric field: Electric field E, a vector quantity, is the force SF0 S

per unit charge exerted on a test charge at any point. The elec- E=  (21.3) E
q0
q
tric field produced by a point charge is directed radially away
S 1 q
from a positive charge and radially toward a negative charge. E= nr (21.7)
(See Examples 21.5-21.7.) 4pP0 r 2

S
Superposition of electric fields: The electric field E of any combination of charges is the vector sum of the y dQ
fields caused by the individual charges. To calculate the electric field caused by a continuous distribution of ds r
=2
charge, divide the distribution into small elements, calculate the field caused by each element, and then carry a x2
+
dEx
a a P
2
out the vector sum, usually by integrating. Charge distributions are described by linear charge density l, sur- x
O x dE a
y
face charge density s, and volume charge density r. (See Examples 21.8-21.12.) S
dE
Q

Electric field lines: Field lines provide a graphical

S
representation of electric fields. At any point on a field line, S
E
S
E
the tangent to the line is in the direction of E at thatSpoint. The number of lines per unit area (perpendicular to
their direction) is proportional to the magnitude of E at the point. – +

S
E

Electric dipoles: An electric dipole is a pair of electric charges t = pE sin f (21.15) S

F+ = qE
S

of equal magnitude q but opposite sign, separated by a dis- S

S
p
S
tance d. The electric dipole moment p has magnitude p = qd.
S
T=p: E
S
 (21.16) S
E d +q
S
The direction of p is from negative toward positive charge. S d sin f
U = - p ~ E
S S f
An electric dipole in an electric field SE experiences a torque T
S
(21.18)
S S
S
equal to the vector product of p and E. The magnitude of the F- = −qE -q
S S
torque depends on the angle f between p and E. The potential
energy U for an electric dipole in anSelectric field also depends
S
on the relative orientation of p and E. (See Examples 21.13
and 21.14.)
738    CHAPTER 22 Gauss’s Law

CHAPTER 22 SUMMARY
Electric flux: Electric flux is a measure of the “flow” of
L
electric field through a surface. It is equal to the product of ΦE = E cos f dA
S
an area element and the perpendicular component of E, in-

L L
S S
tegrated over a surface. (See Examples 22.1–22.3.) = E# dA = E ~ dA (22.5) S
A
S
f f
E

A#
A

Gauss’s law: Gauss’s law states that the total electric Outward normal

C
flux through a closed surface, which can Sbe written as ΦE = E cos f dA to surface
S
E# f E
the surface integral of the component of E normal to the

C C
S S
surface, equals a constant times the total charge Qencl en- = E# dA = E ~ dA
dA
closed by the surface. Gauss’s law is logically equivalent to
Coulomb’s law, but its use greatly simplifies problems with Qencl r
=  (22.8), (22.9)
a high degree of symmetry. (See Examples 22.4–22.10.) P0
When excess charge is placed on a solid conductor
S
and R
is at rest, it resides entirely on the surface, and E = 0 ev- q
erywhere in the material of the conductor. (See Examples
22.11 and 22.12.)

Electric field of various symmetric charge distributions: The following table lists electric fields caused by several symmetric charge distribu-
tions. In the table, q, Q, l, and s refer to the magnitudes of the quantities.
Charge Distribution Point in Electric Field Electric-Field Magnitude
1 q
Single point charge q Distance r from q E =
4pP0 r 2
1 q
Charge q on surface of conducting sphere with radius R Outside sphere, r 7 R E =
4pP0 r 2
Inside sphere, r 6 R E = 0
1 l
Infinite wire, charge per unit length l Distance r from wire E =
2pP0 r
1 l
Infinite conducting cylinder with radius R, charge per unit length l Outside cylinder, r 7 R E =
2pP0 r
Inside cylinder, r 6 R E = 0
1 Q
Solid insulating sphere with radius R, charge Q distributed Outside sphere, r 7 R E =
4pP0 r2
­uniformly throughout volume
1 Qr
Inside sphere, r 6 R E =
4pP0 R3
s
Infinite sheet of charge with uniform charge per unit area s Any point E =
2P0
s
Two oppositely charged conducting plates with surface charge Any point between plates E =
P0
­densities + s and - s

s
Charged conductor Just outside the conductor E =
P0
770    CHAPTER 23 Electric Potential

CHAPTER 23 SUMMARY
Electric potential energy: The electric force caused by any WaSb = Ua - Ub (23.2) q1 q0 q1 q2 q3
U = a + + b
collection of charges at rest is a conservative force. The 1 qq0 4 pP0 r1 r2 r3
work W done by the electric force on a charged particle U =  (23.9) q2
4pP0 r
moving in an electric field can be represented by the
(two point charges)
change in a potential-energy function U. r1
The electric potential energy for two point charges q q0 q1 q2 q3
U = a + + + gb r2 q3
and q0 depends on their separation r. The electric potential 4pP0 r1 r2 r3

4pP0 a
energy for a charge q0 in the presence of a collection of q0 qi r3
charges q1 , q2 , q3 depends on the distance from q0 to each =  (23.10) q0
of these other charges. (See Examples 23.1 and 23.2.) i ri
(q0 in presence of other point charges)

Electric potential: Potential, denoted by V, is potential en- 1 q q1 1 q1 q2 q3

V =  (23.14) V = a + + b
ergy per unit charge. The potential difference between two 4pP0 r 4 pP0 r1 r2 r3
points equals the amount of work per charge that would (due to a point charge) q2

4pP0 a
be required to move a positive test charge between those 1 qi
points. The potential V due to a quantity of charge can be V =  (23.15)
i ri r1
calculated by summing (if the charge is a collection of point (due to a collection of point charges) r2 q3
charges) or by integrating (if the charge is a distribution).
dq
4pP0 L r
(See Examples 23.3, 23.4, 23.5, 23.7, 23.11, and 23.12.) 1 r3
V =  (23.16)
The potential difference between two points a and b, P
also called the potential of a with respect to b, is given by (due to a charge distribution)
S
the line integral of E. The potential at a given point can be b

La
S S S
found by first finding E and then carrying out this integral. Va - Vb = E~dl
(See Examples 23.6, 23.8, 23.9, and 23.10.)
(23.17)
b

La
= E cos f dl

Equipotential surfaces: An equipotential surface is a sur- Cross section of

face on which the potential has the same value at every Electric field line equipotential surface
point. At a point where a field line crosses an equipotential
surface, the two are perpendicular. When all charges are at
rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential
– +
surface and all points in the interior of a conductor are at
the same potential. When a cavity within a conductor con-
tains no charge, the entire cavity is an equipotential region
and there is no surface charge anywhere on the surface of
the cavity.

Finding electric field from electric potential: If the poten- 0V 0V 0V

Ex = - Ey = - Ez = -  (23.19)
tial V is known as a function of the
S
coordinates x, y, and z, 0x 0y 0z
the components of electric field E at any point are given by
S 0V 0V 0V
partial derivatives of V. (See Examples 23.13 and 23.14.) E = − a nd + ne + kn b  (23.20)
0x 0y 0z
(vector form)
802    CHAPTER 24 Capacitance and Dielectrics

EXAMPLE 24.12 A spherical capacitor with dielectric

Use Gauss’s law to find the capacitance of the spherical capacitor of potential difference Vab between the shells is reduced by the same fac-
Example 24.3 (Section 24.1) if the volume between the shells is filled tor, and so the capacitance C = Q>Vab is increased by a factor of K,
with an insulating oil with dielectric constant K. just as for a parallel-plate capacitor when a dielectric is inserted. Using
the result of Example 24.3, we find that the capacitance with the di-
IDENTIFY and SET UP The spherical symmetry of the problem is not
electric is
changed by the presence of the dielectric, so as in Example 24.3, we
use a concentric spherical Gaussian surface of radius r between the 4pKP0 rarb 4pPrarb
C = =
shells. Since a dielectric is present, we use Gauss’s law in the form of rb - ra rb - ra
Eq. (24.23).
EVALUATE If the dielectric fills the volume between the two conduc-
EXECUTE From Eq. (24.23),
tors, the capacitance is just K times the value with no dielectric. The re-
Q sult is more complicated if the dielectric only partially fills this volume.
C C C
S S
KE ~ dA = KE dA = KE dA = 1KE214pr 22 =
P0 KEYCONCEPT Gauss’s law can be written in a modified way if a
Q Q dielectric is present. If the volume of space being studied is filled with a
E = = dielectric that has dielectric constant K , then the flux of the product of
4pKP0r 2 4pPr 2
K and the electric field through a closed surface is proportional to the
where P = KP0 . Compared to the case in which there is vacuum be- amount of free charge enclosed by the surface.   
tween the shells, the electric field is reduced by a factor of 1>K. The

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 24.6 A single point charge q is embedded in

a very large block of dielectric of dielectric constant K. At a point inside the dielectric a distance r
from the point charge, what is the magnitude of the electric field? (i) q>4pP0 r 2; (ii) Kq>4pP0 r 2;
(iii) q>4pKP0 r 2; (iv) none of these.

ANSWER
by a factor of 1>K.
E = q>4pKP0 r 2. As in Example 24.12, filling the space with a dielectric reduces the electric field
uum but with E replaced by KE. Hence KE at the point of interest is equal to q>4pP0 r 2, and so
S
❙ (iii) Equation (24.23) showsSthat this situation is the same as an isolated point charge in vac-

CHAPTER 24 SUMMARY
Capacitors and capacitance: A capacitor is any pair of Q
C =  (24.1) Wire Plate a, area A
conductors separated by an insulating material. When the Vab
capacitor is charged, there are charges of equal magnitude
Q A +Q
Q and opposite sign on the two conductors, and the poten- C = = P0  (24.2)
tial Vab of the positively charged conductor with respect to Vab d -Q d
the negatively charged conductor is proportional to Q. The Potential Wire
capacitance C is defined as the ratio of Q to Vab . The SI unit Plate b, area A
difference = Vab
of capacitance is the farad (F): 1 F = 1 C>V.
A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two parallel conduct-
ing plates, each with area A, separated by a distance d. If they
are separated by vacuum, the capacitance depends on only A
and d. For other geometries, the capacitance can be found by
using the definition C = Q>Vab . (See Examples 24.1–24.4.)

Capacitors in series and parallel: When capacitors with 1 1 1 1 a

= + + + g (24.5)
capacitances C1 , C2 , C3 , c are connected in series, the Ceq C1 C2 C3 +Q ++ ++
C1 Vac = V1
-Q
reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance Ceq equals the (capacitors in series) Vab = V c
sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. +Q ++ ++
C2 Vcb = V2
-Q
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + g (24.7)
b
capacitance Ceq equals the sum of the individual capacitances. (capacitors in parallel)
(See Examples 24.5 and 24.6.) a

++ ++ + +
Vab = V C1 Q1 C2 Q2

b
 Guided Practice    803

Energy in a capacitor: The energy U required to charge a Q2 +Q + + + + + +

capacitor C to a potential difference V and a charge Q is U = = 12 CV 2 = 12 QV  (24.9)
2C E
S

equal to the energy stored in the capacitor. This energy can V

1 2
be thought of as residing in the electric field between the u = 2 P0 E  (24.11)
conductors; the energy density u (energy per unit volume) -Q – – – – – –
is proportional to the square of the electric-field magnitude.
(See Examples 24.7–24.9.)

Dielectrics: When the space between the conductors is filled A A Dielectric between plates
C = KC0 = KP0 = P  (24.19)
with a dielectric material, the capacitance increases by a fac- d d s -s
- si si
tor K, the dielectric constant of the material. The quantity (parallel@plate capacitor + –
P = KP0 is the permittivity of the dielectric. For a fixed filled with dielectric) +– +–
+ –
amount of charge on the capacitor plates, induced charges on
+– +–
the surface of the dielectric decrease the electric field and po- u = 12 KP0 E 2 = 12 PE 2 (24.20) + –
tential difference between the plates by the same factor K. The +– +–
surface charge results from polarization, a microscopic rear- Qencl@free + –

C
S S
rangement of charge in the dielectric. (See Example 24.10.) KE ~ dA =  (24.23) +–
- si
+–
P0 s
si
-s
Under sufficiently strong electric fields, dielectrics be-
come conductors, a situation called dielectric breakdown.
The maximum field that a material can withstand without
breakdown is called its dielectric strength.
In a dielectric, the expression for the energy density is
the same as in vacuum but with P0 replaced by P = KP0.
(See Example 24.11.)
Gauss’s law in a dielectric has almostS
the same form as S
in vacuum, with two key differences: E is replaced by KE
and Qencl is replaced by Qencl@free , which includes only the
free charge (not bound charge) enclosed by the Gaussian
surface. (See Example 24.12.)

Chapter 24 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS Be sure to review EXAMPLES 24.5 and 24.6 (Section 24.2) and EXAMPLES
24.7, 24.8, and 24.9 (Section 24.3) before attempting these problems.
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 24.2, 24.3, and 24.4 (Section 24.1)
VP24.9.1 You have three capacitors that you wish to arrange in a circuit:
­before attempting these problems.
C1 = 1.00 mF, C2 = 2.50 mF, and C3 = 5.00 mF. Find their equivalent
VP24.4.1 The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are
capacitance if (a) they are connected in series; (b) they are connected in
3.70 mm apart and 2.75 m2 in area. When you apply a certain poten-
parallel; (c) C1 and C2 are connected in parallel, and that combination is
tial difference across the capacitor, the surface charge density on the
connected to C3 in series; (d) C1 and C2 are connected in series, and that
positive plate is 1.40 * 10-5 C>m2. Calculate (a) the capacitance of the
combination is connected to C3 in parallel.
capacitor and (b) the potential difference.
VP24.9.2 You have two capacitors that you wish to use in an energy-
VP24.4.2 One model of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum is adver-
storage device: C1 = 1.50 mF and C2 = 6.00 mF. (a) How much energy is
tised as having a capacitance of 8.30 nF. When you disassemble one
stored in each capacitor if each has charge 4.50 * 10-4 C? Which has
such capacitor, you find that its plates are 4.50 m2 in area. (a) What is
greater stored energy? (b) How much energy is stored in each capacitor
the spacing between this capacitor’s plates? (b) When the potential dif-
if each has potential difference 125 V? Which has greater stored energy?
ference between the plates is 3.00 kV, what are the charge on the capaci-
VP24.9.3 You connect two capacitors, C1 = 1.50 mF and C2 = 4.00 mF.
tor and the magnitude of the electric field between the plates?
(a) How much energy is stored in the combination if the potential dif-
VP24.4.3 A spherical capacitor has vacuum between its conducting
ference across the combination is 145 V and the capacitors are con-
shells and a capacitance of 125 pF. The outer shell has inner radius 9.00 cm.
nected in series? In parallel? In which case is the stored energy greater?
(a) What is the outer radius of the inner shell? If the potential of the
(b) How much energy is stored in the combination if the charge on the
inner shell is 355 V higher than the potential of the outer shell, what are
combination is 4.00 * 10-4 C and the capacitors are connected in
(b) the capacitor charge and (c) the surface charge densities on the inner
­series? In parallel? In which case is the stored energy greater?
and outer shells?
VP24.9.4 The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 1.40 mm
VP24.4.4 A cylindrical capacitor has a capacitance per length of
apart and 2.45 m2 in area. The charge on the capacitor is 1.25 * 10-5 C.
69.0 pF>m. (a) What is the ratio of the inner radius of the outer cylinder
Calculate (a) the surface charge density on the positive plate, (b) the electric
to the outer radius of the inner cylinder? (b) If the outer conductor car-
field magnitude between the plates, (c) the electric energy density between
ries charge –8.62 nC per meter of length, what is the potential difference
the plates, and (d) the total energy stored in the field between the plates.
between the two conductors? Which conductor is at higher potential?
 Summary    835

CHAPTER 25 SUMMARY
Current and current density: Current is the amount of dQ I
I = = n 0 q 0 vd A(25.2)
charge flowing through a specified area, per unit time. dt S
vd
S
vd
The SI unit of current is the ampere 11 A = 1 C>s2. S S
The ­current I through an area A depends on the u u vd vd S
E
J ∙ nqvd(25.4)
­concentration n and charge q of the charge carriers, as well S
vd
S
vd
u
as on the magnitude of their drift velocity vd . The current
density is current per unit cross-sectional area. Current is
usually described in terms of a flow of positive charge, even
when the charges are actually negative or of both signs.
(See Example 25.1.)

Resistivity: The resistivity r of a material is the ratio of E r

r = (25.5)
the magnitudes of electric field and current density. Good J
conductors have small resistivity; good insulators have
large resistivity. Ohm’s law, obeyed approximately by many r0 Slope = r0a
r1T2 = r0 31 + a1T - T0 24(25.6)
­materials, states that r is a constant independent of the
value of E. Resistivity usually increases with temperature; T
O T0
for small temperature changes this variation is represented
Metal: r increases with
approximately by Eq. (25.6), where a is the temperature increasing T.
coefficient of resistivity.

Resistors: The potential difference V across a sample of V = IR(25.11) Lower

potential
material that obeys Ohm’s law is proportional to the c­ urrent
I through the sample. The ratio V>I = R is the ­resistance rL Higher
of the sample. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm R = (25.10) potential
L
A S I
11 Ω = 1 V>A2. The resistance of a cylindrical conductor E J
S

is related to its resistivity r, length L, and cross-sectional I V

A
area A. (See Examples 25.2 and 25.3.)

Circuits and emf: A complete circuit has a continuous Vab = E - Ir(25.15) Vab = Va′b′
current-carrying path. A complete circuit carrying a steady (source with internal resistance) V
current must contain a source of electromotive force (emf) a b
+
E. The SI unit of electromotive force is the volt (V). Every
real source of emf has some internal resistance r, so its I r = 2 Ω, E = 12 V A I
terminal potential difference Vab depends on current. (See
Examples 25.4–25.7.) a′ R = 4Ω b′

Energy and power in circuits: A circuit element puts energy P = Vab I (25.17) Va Vb
into a circuit if the current direction is from lower to higher (general circuit element) Circuit
potential in the device, and it takes energy out of the circuit I element I
if the current is opposite. The power P equals the product of Vab2 a b
P = Vab I = I 2R = (25.18)
the potential difference Va - Vb = Vab and the current I. A R
resistor always takes electrical energy out of a circuit. (See (power delivered to a resistor)
Examples 25.8–25.10.)

Conduction in metals: In a metal, current is due to the m

r = (25.24) S
­motion of electrons. They move freely through the metallic ne2t E
crystal but collide with positive ions. In a crude classical Net displacement
model of this motion, the resistivity of the material can
be related to the electron mass, charge, speed of random
­motion, density, and mean free time between collisions.
(See Example 25.11.)
 Summary    867

CHAPTER 26 SUMMARY
Resistors in series and parallel: When several resistors Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + g (26.1) Resistors in series
R1 , R2 , R3 , c are connected in series, the equivalent re- (resistors in series) a R1 x R2 y R3 b
sistance Req is the sum of the individual resistances. The 1 1 1 1
same current flows through all the resistors in a series con- = + + + g (26.2) I I
Req R1 R2 R3 R1
nection. When several resistors are connected in parallel, Resistors
the reciprocal of equivalent resistance Req is the sum of the (resistors in parallel) in parallel
a R2 b
reciprocals of the individual resistances. All resistors in a
parallel connection have the same potential difference be- I R3 I
tween their terminals. (See Examples 26.1 and 26.2.)

Kirchhoff’s rules: Kirchhoff’s junction rule is based on con- aI = 0 (junction rule) (26.5) Junction

aV = 0
servation of charge. It states that the algebraic sum of the At any junction: I1 I2
(loop rule)  (26.6) ΣI = 0
currents into any junction must be zero. Kirchhoff’s loop I1 + I2
rule is based on conservation of energy and the conserva- Loop 1
tive nature of electrostatic fields. It states that the algebraic

+
sum of potential differences around any loop must be zero. Loop 2 Loop 3 R
E E
Careful use of consistent sign rules is essential in applying
Kirchhoff’s rules. (See Examples 26.3–26.7.) Around any loop: ΣV = 0

Electrical measuring instruments: In a d’Arsonval galva- Ammeter Voltmeter

nometer, the deflection is proportional to the current in the ||
|||
|||||||||||||
||
| ||
|||
||| ||||||||||
||
|

||
|

||

||
||
coil. For a larger current range, a shunt resistor is added, so
Rc Rc
some of the current bypasses the meter coil. Such an instru- Rs
ment is called an ammeter. If the coil and any additional +
a Rsh b
– + –

I I a b
series resistance included obey Ohm’s law, the meter can
Va Circuit Vb
also be calibrated to read potential difference or voltage. element
I I
The instrument is then called a voltmeter. A good ammeter
has very low resistance; a good voltmeter has very high re-
sistance. (See Examples 26.8–26.11.)

R-C circuits: When a capacitor is charged by a battery in Capacitor charging: + E

series with a resistor, the current and capacitor charge
are not constant. The charge approaches its final value q = CE 1 1 - e-t>RC 2
(26.12) i
asymptotically and the current approaches zero asymptoti- = Qf 1 1 - e-t>RC 2  i
+q -q
cally. The charge and current in the circuit are given by R C
Eqs. (26.12) and (26.13). After a time t = RC, the charge dq E
has approached within 1>e of its final value. This time is i = = e-t>RC = I0 e-t>RC (26.13) i, q
dt R q versus t
called the time constant or relaxation time of the circuit.
When the capacitor discharges, the charge and current are i versus t
given as functions of time by Eqs. (26.16) and (26.17). The t
O
time constant is the same for charging and discharging. Capacitor discharging:
(See Examples 26.12 and 26.13.)
q = Q0 e-t>RC (26.16)

dq Q0 -t>RC
i = = - e = I0 e-t>RC (26.17)
dt RC

Household wiring: In household wiring systems, the various

electrical devices are connected in parallel across the power
line, which consists of a pair of conductors, one “hot” and
the other “neutral.” An additional “ground” wire is included
for safety. The maximum permissible current in a circuit
is determined by the size of the wires and the maximum
temperature they can tolerate. Protection against excessive
current and the resulting fire hazard is provided by fuses or
circuit breakers. (See Example 26.14.)
906     CHAPTER 27 Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces

CHAPTER 27 SUMMARY
Magnetic forces: Magnetic interactions are ­fundamentally S
F ∙ qv : B
S S
(27.2)
S
F
interactions between moving charged particles. These S
S

interactions Sare described by the vector magnetic field, B B

q
­denoted by B. A particle with Scharge q moving with S v#
fS
S
­velocity v in a magnetic field BSexperiences a force F that v
S
is perpendicular to both v and B. The SI unit of magnetic
field is the tesla 11 T = 1 N>A # m2. (See Example 27.1.)

Magnetic field lines and flux: A magnetic field can be rep-

L L
S

resented graphically by magnetic field lines. At each point ΦB = B cos f dA = B# dA B# f B

S S
a magnetic field line is tangent to the direction of B at that dA

L
point. Where field lines are close together, the field magni- =
S
B ~ dA
S
(27.6) BŒ
dA
tude is large, and vice versa. Magnetic flux ΦB through an
area is defined in an analogous way to electric flux; its SI
unit is the weber 11 Wb = 1 T # m22. The net magnetic flux
C
S S
B ~ dA = 0 (closed surface) (27.8)
through any closed surface is zero (Gauss’s law for magne-
tism), so magnetic field lines always close on themselves. (See
Example 27.2.)

Motion in a magnetic field: The magnetic force is always mv

R =  (27.11)
S
v
S
perpendicular to v; a particle moving under the ­action of 0q0B
a magnetic field alone moves with constant speed. In a F
S

R
uniform field, a particle with initial velocity perpendicular S

to the field moves in a circle with radius R that depends F S

S v
F
on the magnetic field strength B and the particle mass m, S
speed v, and charge q. (See Examples 27.3 and 27.4.) B S
v
Crossed electric and magnetic fields can be used as a
velocity selector. The electric and magnetic forces exactly
cancel when v = E>B. (See Examples 27.5 and 27.6.)

Magnetic force on a conductor: A straight segment of a S

F ∙ Il : B
S S
(27.19) S
F
conductor
S
carrying current
S
I in a uniform magnetic field S
S S S
B experiences aS force F that is perpendicular to both B dF ∙ I dl : B (27.20) B#
and the vector l , which points in the direction of the cur-
rent and has magnitude equal to the length of the s­ egment. f
S
B
S
BŒ
A similar relationship gives the force dF on an infini- S
S
l I
tesimal current-carrying segment dl . (See Examples 27.7
and 27.8.)

Magnetic torque: A current loop

S
with area A and current I t = IBA sin f (27.23)
B
S
S
in a uniform magnetic field B experiences no net magnetic S
F
S S
force, but does experience a magnetic torque of magnitude t. T ∙ M : B (27.26) S
S I B
The vector torque
S
T can be expressed in terms of the magnetic S
y x
S S
moment M ∙ IA of the loop, as can the potential
S
energy U U = ∙M ~ B = - mB cos f (27.27)
S
of a magnetic moment in a magnetic field B. The magnetic S B
M I
moment of a loop depends only on the current and the area;
S
it is independent of the shape of the loop. (See Examples 27.9 −F
and 27.10.)

Electric motors: In a dc motor a magnetic field exerts a v Rotor

torque on a current in the rotor. Motion of the rotor through S
the magnetic field causes an induced emf called a back emf. N BI S
I
For a series motor, in which the rotor coil is in series with S
T
coils that produce the magnetic field, the terminal voltage is Brush
S
M
the sum of the back emf and the potential drop Ir across the Commutator
internal resistance. (See Example 27.11.) I I
+
 Guided Practice    907

The Hall effect: The Hall effect is a potential difference -Jx By z

perpendicular to the direction of current in a conduc- nq =  (27.30)
Ez y
tor, when the conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The b
Jx By
Hall potential is determined by the requirement that the Fz
associated electric field must just balance the magnetic vd Jx
q Ee
force on a moving charge. Hall-effect measurements can x
be used to determine the sign of charge carriers and their By a
concentration n. (See Example 27.12.)

Chapter 27 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP27.6.3 A

S
velocity selector uses an S electric field
E ∙ 12.80 * 104 N>C2 nd and a magnetic field B ∙ 10.0350 T2kn .
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 27.1 (Section 27.2) before attempting
(a) What particle speed will yield zero deflection? (b) In what direction
these problems.
should a charged particle travel through these fields to have zero deflec-
VP27.1.1 An electron (charge - 1.60 * 10-19 C) moves at 2.20 * 105 m>s
tion? (c) A positively charged particle travels through these fields with
through a uniform 1.55 T magnetic field that points in the +y-direction. The
the speed you found in part (a) and the direction you found in part (b),
velocity of the electron lies in the xy-plane and is directed at 40.0° to the +x-
but the magnetic-field magnitude is now greater than 0.0350 T. In what
axis and 50.0° to the +y-axis. Find (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of
direction will the particle initially be deflected?
the magnetic force on the electron.
VP27.6.4 You send a beam of oxygen ions through a mass ­spectrometer
VP27.1.2 A charged particle moving in the presence of a 0.750 T mag-
like the one shown in Fig. 27.24. The nuclei emerge from the ­velocity
netic field experiences a magnetic force of magnitude 2.50 * 10-10 N.
selector at 2.00 * 104 m>s and encounter a magnetic field of magni-
The particle is moving at 1.95 * 105 m>s at an angle of 36.0° to the
tude B′ = 0.0500 T. All the ions have charge + 1.60 * 10-19 C, but
direction of the magnetic field. Find the magnitude of the charge on the
some are the isotope 16O (mass 2.66 * 10-26 kg) and some are the iso-
particle.
tope 18O (mass 2.99 * 10-26 kg). Find the radius of the ­semicircular
VP27.1.3 A particle (charge + 3.20 *S 10-19 C) with velocity vx =
path followed by (a) the 16O ions and (b) the 18O ions.
3.75 * 105 m>s is in the presence of a B field with only a z-component.
The magnetic force on the particle is 2.10 * 10S- 15 N in the -y-direction.
Find (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of B. Be sure to review EXAMPLE 27.7 (Section 27.6) before attempting
VP27.1.4 Highly ionized iron atoms are found in the sun’s outer atmo- these problems.
sphere, or corona. One such ion has lost 13 electrons and so has charge VP27.7.1 A straight wire 0.150 m in length carries a current of 3.50 A
+13e = + 2.08 * 10-18 C. This ion experiences a magnetic force of in the +x-direction. The wire is in a uniform 0.0136 T magnetic field in
2.30 * 10-15 N when it moves at 7.30 * 103 m>s in the xz-plane, the xy-plane that points in a direction 20.0° from the -x-axis and 70.0°
36.9° from the +x-axis and 53.1° from the +z-axis. The magnetic field from the +y-axis. Find (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of the
is in the +z-direction. Find (a) the magnitude of the magnetic field and magnetic force on the wire.
(b) the direction of the force on the ion. VP27.7.2 A vertical straight wire 25.0 cm in length carries a current.
You do not know either the magnitude of the current or whether the
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 27.3 and 27.4 (Section 27.4) and current is moving upward or downward. If there is a uniform horizontal
EXAMPLES 27.5 and 27.6 (Section 27.5) before attempting these magnetic field of 0.0350 T that points due north, the wire experiences a
problems. horizontal magnetic force to the west of 0.0140 N. Find (a) the magni-
VP27.6.1 A typical magnetic field in sunspots (highly magnetized tude and (b) the direction of the current.
regions on the surface of the sun) is 0.300 T. For a proton (charge VP27.7.3 A straight wire carries a current of 1.20 A. The length vector
m2 nd ∙ 1 -0.120 m2en, and the wire is in a uni-
S
+ 1.60 * 10-19 C, mass 1.67 * 10-27 kg) moving at 1.25 * 104 m>s of the wire is l ∙ 10.200S
in a direction perpendicular to such a field, find (a) the radius of its cir- form magnetic field B ∙ 10.0175 T2kn . Find (a) the x-component,
cular orbit, (b) its angular speed in its orbit, and (c) the frequency of its (b) the y-component, (c) the z-component, and (d) the magnitude of the
orbital motion. magnetic force on the wire.
VP27.6.2 In the situation of the previous problem, suppose the 0.300 T VP27.7.4 A straight wire 0.280 m in length carries a current of 3.40 A.
magnetic field is in the +y-direction and the proton’s motion is not perpendic- What are the two angles between the direction of the current and the
ular to the field: Initially its velocity has components vx = 1.00 * 104 m>s, direction of a uniform 0.0400 T magnetic field for which the magnetic
vy = 7.50 * 103 m>s, vz = 0. Find (a) the radius of the proton’s helical force on the wire has magnitude 0.0250 N?
path, (b) how far the proton moves along the helix axis per revolution, and
(c) the magnitude of the magnetic force on the proton.
942    CHAPTER 28 Sources of Magnetic Field

CHAPTER 28 SUMMARY
S S
Magnetic field of a moving charge: The magnetic field B S m0 qv : nr P S
S B=  (28.2) S
S r
B
created by a charge q moving with velocity v depends on 4p r 2 S B
the distance r fromSthe source point (theS location of q) to the B
nr S f B = 0
v
field point (where B is measured). The B field is perpen- B = 0 q
S
dicular to v and to nr, the unit vector directed from the source S
B
point to the field point. The principleS
of superposition of S S
B B
magnetic fields states that the total B field produced by sev-
eral moving charges is the vector sum of the fields produced
by the individual charges. (See Example 28.1.)

Magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor:

S
The law of S m0 I dl : nr
S
P S

Biot and Savart gives the magnetic field dB created by anS dB =  (28.6) S
r
dB
4p r2
S
S dB
element dl of a conductorScarrying current I. The field dB dB
S

nr f
is perpendicular to both dl andSnr, the unit vector from the dB = 0
S
I Axis of dl
element to the field point. The B field created by
S
a finite dB = 0 dl
S

current-carrying conductor is the integral of dB over the S

dB
length of the conductor. (See Example 28.2.) S S
dB dB

Magnetic field of a long, straight, current-carrying m0 I S

S
B =  (28.9) B
conductor: The magnetic field B at a distance r from a long, 2pr B
S
S
I
B
straight conductor carrying a current I has a magnitude that
I
is inversely proportional to r. The magnetic field lines are S
S
B
S
circles coaxial with the wire, with directions given by the B B
right-hand rule. (See Examples 28.3 and 28.4.)

Magnetic force between current-carrying conductors: Two F m0 II′ S

B I′
long, parallel, current-carrying conductors attract if the cur- =  (28.11) B
S
L
L 2pr S S
I′ S
B F B
rents are in the same direction and repel if the currents are S
F I
in opposite directions. The magnetic force per unit length r
I
between the conductors depends on their currents I and I′
and separation r. The definition of the ampere is based on B
S
S
B S

this relationship. (See Example 28.5.) S

B B

Magnetic field of a current loop: The law of Biot and m0 Ia2 y

Savart allows us to calculate the magnetic field produced Bx = (28.15)
dl
S

21x2 + a22 3>2 nr

along the axis of a circular conducting loop of radius a
carrying current I. The field depends on the distance x along (circular loop) a u S
r dBy
the axis from the center of the loop to the field point. If there m0 NI I S
dB
Bx = (28.17) z O x
are N loops, the field is multiplied by N. At the 2a I u
center of the loop, x = 0. (See Example 28.6.) I P x
(center of N circular loops) dBx

A B ~ dl = m0 Iencl 
Ampere’s
S
law: Ampere’s law states that the line integral S S
(28.20)
of B around any closed path equals m0 times the net cur- I S

r du B
rent through the area enclosed by the path. The positive r f
du S
sense of current is determined by a right-hand rule. (See dl
Examples 28.7-28.10.)
 Guided Practice    943

Magnetic fields due to current distributions: The table lists magnetic fields caused by several current distributions.
In each case the conductor is carrying current I.
Current Distribution Point in Magnetic Field Magnetic-Field Magnitude

Long, straight conductor Distance r from conductor m0 I

B =
2pr
m0 Ia2
Circular loop of radius a On axis of loop B =
(for N loops, multiply these expressions 21x2 + a22 3>2
At center of loop m0 I
for magnetic-field amplitude by N) B =
2a
m0 I r
Long cylindrical conductor of radius R Inside conductor, r 6 R B =
2p R2
m0 I
Outside conductor, r 7 R B =
2pr
Long, closely wound solenoid with n turns Inside solenoid, near center B = m0 nI
per unit length, near its midpoint Outside solenoid B ≈ 0

Tightly wound toroidal solenoid (toroid) with N turns Within the space enclosed by the windings, m0 NI
B =
distance r from symmetry axis 2pr
Outside the space enclosed by the windings B ≈ 0

Magnetic materials: WhenS magnetic materials are present, the magnetization of the material causes an M
additional contribution to B. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, m0 is replaced in magnetic-field
expressions by m = Km m0 , where m is the permeability of the material and Km is its relative permeability. The
B0
magnetic susceptibility xm is defined as xm = Km - 1. Magnetic susceptibilities for paramagnetic materials
are small positive quantities; those for diamagnetic materials are small negative quantities. For ferromagnetic
materials, Km is much larger than unity and is not constant. Some ferromagnetic materials are permanent
magnets, retaining their magnetization even after the external magnetic field is removed. (See Examples 28.11
and 28.12.)

Chapter 28 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP28.2.4 A segment of wire centered at the origin (x = y = z = 0)
is 8.00 mm in length and carries a current of 4.00 A in the +z-direction.
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 28.1 (Section 28.1) and EXAMPLE 28.2
Find the magnetic force that this segment exerts on an electron (charge
(Section 28.2) before attempting these problems.
-1.60 * 10-19 C) at the point x = 1.25 m, y = 0, z = 0 that is mov-
VP28.2.1 A proton with charge +1.60 * 10-19 C is at the origin
ing at 3.00 * 105 m>s in the -x-direction.
(x = y = z = 0) and is moving
S
at 2.00 * 105 m>s in the +x-direction.
Find the magnetic field B that this proton produces at (a) x = 0, y = Be sure to review EXAMPLES 28.3 and 28.4 (Section 28.3) and
1.00 mm, z = 0; (b) x = 0, y = 0, z = 2.00 mm; (c) x = 1.00 mm, EXAMPLE 28.5 (Section 28.4) before attempting these problems.
y = 0, z = 0; (d) x = 1.00 mm, y = 1.00 mm, z = 0. VP28.5.1 How much current must a long, straight wire carry in order
VP28.2.2 A proton (charge +1.60 * 10-19 C) and an electron (charge for the magnetic field that it produces 1.40 cm from the central axis of
- 1.60 * 10-19 C) are both moving in the xy-plane with the same the wire to have magnitude 3.20 * 10-5 T?
speed, 4.20 * 105 m>s. The proton is moving in the +y-direction along VP28.5.2 Two long, straight, conducting wires are both perpendicular to
the line x = 0, and the electron is moving in the -y-direction along the the xy-plane. Wire 1 passes through the point x = 0, y = 1.00 cm, z = 0
line x = + 2.00 mm. At the instant when the proton and electron are at and carries current 1.00 A in the +z-direction. Wire 2 passes through
their closest approach, what are the magnitude and direction of the mag- the point x = 0, y = -1.00 cm, z = 0 and carries current 4.00 A also
netic force that (a) the proton exerts on the electron and (b) the electron in the +z-direction. Find the net magnetic field due to both wires at
exerts on the proton? (a) x = 0, y = 0, z = 0; (b) x = 0, y = 2.00 cm, z = 0; (c) x = 0,
y = -2.00 cm, z = 0.
VP28.2.3 A segment of wire centered at the origin (x = y = z = 0)
VP28.5.3 A long, straight, conducting wire carries a current of 2.00 A. A
is 2.00 mm in length and carries a current of 6.00 A in the +y-direction.
second, identical wire is parallel to the first and separated from it by 3.00 cm.
You measure the magnetic field due to this segment at the point
The magnetic field at a point halfway between the two wires has magnitude
x = 3.00 m, y = 4.00 m, z = 0. Find (a) the unit vector from the wire
4.00 * 10-5 T. What is the current in the second wire if its direction is
segment to this point and (b) the magnetic field at this point.
(a) the same as in the first wire? (b) Opposite to that in the first wire?
 Summary    977

CHAPTER 29 SUMMARY
Faraday’s law: Faraday’s law states that the induced emf in dΦB
a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change E = - (29.3)
dt S
of magnetic flux through the loop. This relationship is valid 0 The magnet’s
N motion causes a
whether the flux change is caused by a changing magnetic changing magnetic
field, motion of the loop, or both. (See Examples 29.1–29.6.) field through the
coil, inducing a
current in the coil.

S
Lenz’s law: Lenz’s law states that an induced current or emf always tends to oppose or cancel out Change in B
S
the change that caused it. Lenz’s law can be derived from Faraday’s law and is often easier to use. B
(See Examples 29.7 and 29.8.) (increasing)
E I
S
Binduced

Motional emf: If a conductor moves in a magnetic field, a E = vBL(29.6) S S

B v
motional emf is induced. (See Examples 29.9 and 29.10.) (conductor
S
with length
S
L moves in
S
uniform B field, L and v both per- F = qvB F = qE
S + + –
pendicular to B and to each other) a q b
L

C
S S
E =
S
1v : B2 ~ dl (29.7)

(all or
S
part of a closed loop moves
in a B field)

Induced electric fields: When an emf is induced by a dΦB

C
S S G S

changing magnetic flux through aS stationary conductor, E ~ dl = - (29.10) E

dt
there is an induced electric field E of nonelectrostatic origin. S
B increasing
This field is nonconservative and cannot be associated with S
E S

a potential. (See Example 29.11.) E

Displacement current and Maxwell’s equations: A time- dΦE

varying electric field generates displacement current iD , iD = P (29.14)
dt
which acts as a source of magnetic field in exactly the
(displacement current)
same way as conduction current. The relationships between
electric and magnetic fields and their sources can be stated
Qencl
C
compactly in four equations, called Maxwell’s equations. S S S
E ~ dA = (29.18)
Together they form a complete basis for the relationship of E P0
S S
and B fields to their sources. (Gauss’s law for E fields)

C
S S
B ~ dA = 0(29.19)
S
(Gauss’s law for B fields)

dΦB
C
S S
E ~ dl = - (29.20)
dt
(Faraday’s law)

dΦE
C
S S
B ~ dl = m0 aiC + P0 b (29.21)
dt encl
(Ampere’s law including
displacement current)
 Circuit    1009
Summary    
30.6 The L-R-C Series

CHAPTER 30 SUMMARY
Mutual inductance: When a changing current i1 in one circuit di1 Coil 1
causes a changing magnetic flux in a second circuit, an emf E2 is E2 = - M and N1 turns Coil 2
dt N2 turns
induced in the second circuit. Likewise, a changing current i2 in (30.4)
di2 i1
the second circuit induces an emf E1 in the first circuit. If the cir- E1 = - M 
dt
cuits are coils of wire with N1 and N2 turns, the mutual inductance ΦB2
M can be expressed in terms of the average flux ΦB2 through each N2 ΦB2 N1 ΦB1 S
B
turn of coil 2 caused by the current i1 in coil 1, or in terms of the M = = (30.5) i1
i1 i2
average flux ΦB1 through each turn of coil 1 caused by the current
i2 in coil 2. The SI unit of mutual inductance is the henry, abbrevi-
ated H. (See Examples 30.1 and 30.2.)

Self-inductance: A changing current i in any circuit causes a self- di

E = -L
S
(30.7) B
induced emf E. The inductance (or self-inductance) L depends on dt
the geometry of the circuit and the material surrounding it. The
inductance of a coil of N turns is related to the average flux ΦB NΦB
L = (30.6)
through each turn caused by the current i in the coil. An inductor i

+
i
is a circuit device, usually including a coil of wire, intended to
have a substantial inductance. (See Examples 30.3 and 30.4.)

Magnetic-field energy: An inductor with inductance L carrying U = 12 LI 2(30.9) B

current I has energy U associated with the inductor’s magnetic
I I
field. The magnetic energy density u (energy per unit volume) is B2
u = (in vacuum)(30.10)
proportional to the square of the magnetic-field magnitude. (See 2m0
Example 30.5.) Stored energy Energy density
B2 (in a material U = 12 LI 2 u = B2>2m0
u = with magnetic (30.11)
2m permeability m)

R-L circuits: In a circuit containing a resistor R, an inductor L, and L i

t = (30.16)
a source of emf, the growth and decay of current are exponential. R I = E
R
The time constant t is the time required for the current to ap- t
proach within a fraction 1>e of its final value. (See Examples 30.6 L
1 t = t =
I a1 - b R
and 30.7.) e
t

L-C circuits: A circuit that contains inductance L and capacitance 1 +Qm -Qm
C undergoes electrical oscillations with an angular frequency v v = (30.22) Em
A LC
that depends on L and C. This is analogous to a mechanical
Im Bm Im
­harmonic oscillator, with inductance L analogous to mass m, the
reciprocal of capacitance 1>C to force constant k, charge q to
­displacement x, and current i to velocity vx . (See Examples 30.8
and 30.9.)

L-R-C series circuits: A circuit that contains inductance, resis- 1 R2 q

tance, and capacitance undergoes damped oscillations for suffi- v′ = - 2 (30.29) Underdamped
B LC 4L Q
ciently small resistance. The frequency v′ of damped oscillations circuit (small R)
depends on the values of L, R, and C. As R increases, the damping
t
increases; if R is greater than a certain value, the behavior be- O
comes overdamped and no longer oscillates. (See Example 30.10.)
1040
1040    CHAPTER
    CHAPTER 31
31 Alternating
Alternating Current
Current

CHAPTER 31 SUMMARY
Phasors and alternating current: An alternator or ac source 2 v
Irav = I = 0.637I  (31.3)
produces an emf that varies sinusoidally with time. A sinu- p I
soidal voltage or current can be represented by a phasor, a I
vector that rotates counterclockwise with constant angular Irms =  (31.4)
12
velocity v equal to the angular frequency of the sinusoidal vt
quantity. Its projection on the horizontal axis at any instant V
Vrms =  (31.5) O i = I cos vt
represents the instantaneous value of the quantity. 12
For a sinusoidal current, the rectified average and rms
(root-mean-square) currents are proportional to the current
amplitude I. Similarly, the rms value of a sinusoidal voltage is
proportional to the voltage amplitude V. (See Example 31.1.)

Voltage, current, and phase angle: In general, the instan- i = I cos vt (31.2) I
taneous voltage v = V cos1vt + f2 between two points in
an ac circuit is not in phase with the instantaneous current
V f
passing through those points. The quantity f is called the V cos f
phase angle of the voltage relative to the current. vt
O

Resistance and reactance: The voltage across a resistor R VR = IR (31.7)

is in phase with the current. The voltage across an inductor R
VL = IXL  (31.13) a b a L b
L leads the current by 90° 1f = + 90°2, while the voltage
across a capacitor C lags the current by 90° 1f = -90°2. i i
VC = IXC (31.19)
The voltage amplitude across each type of device is propor- i a
C
b i
tional to the current amplitude I. An inductor has inductive q -q
reactance XL = vL, and a capacitor has capacitive reac-
tance XC = 1>vC. (See Examples 31.2 and 31.3.)

Impedance and the L-R-C series circuit: In a general ac V = IZ (31.22) VL = IXL V = IZ

circuit, the voltage and current amplitudes are related by the 2 2
Z = 2R + 3vL - 11>vC24 (31.23) I
circuit impedance Z. In an L-R-C series circuit, the values
vL - 1>vC f
of L, R, C, and the angular frequency v determine the im- VL - VC vt
tan f =  (31.24) VR = IR
pedance and the phase angle f of the voltage relative to the R O
current. (See Examples 31.4 and 31.5.) VC = IXC

Power in ac circuits: The average power input Pav to an ac Pav = 12 VI cos f (31.31) v, i, p
Pav = 12 VI cos f
circuit depends on the voltage and current amplitudes (or,
equivalently, their rms values) and the phase angle f of the = Vrms Irms cos f p

voltage relative to the current. The quantity cos f is called

t
the power factor. (See Examples 31.6 and 31.7.) v
i

Resonance in ac circuits: In an L-R-C series circuit, the 1 I (A)

v0 =  (31.32) 200 Ω
current becomes maximum and the impedance becomes 2LC 0.5
minimum at an angular frequency called the resonance an- 0.4
gular frequency. This phenomenon is called resonance. At 0.3 500 Ω
0.2
resonance the voltage and current are in phase, and the im- 2000 Ω
0.1
pedance Z is equal to the resistance R. (See Example 31.8.) v (rad>s)
O 1000 2000

Transformers: A transformer is used to transform the voltage V2 N2 I1

=  (31.35)
and current levels in an ac circuit. In an ideal transformer with V1 N1
no energy losses, if the primary winding has N1 turns and the V1
secondary winding has N2 turns, the amplitudes (or rms val- V1 I1 = V2 I2 (31.36) N2
ues) of the two voltages are related by Eq. (31.35). The ampli- N1 V2
ΦB R
tudes (or rms values) of the p­ rimary and secondary voltages Primary
and currents are related by Eq. (31.36). (See Example 31.9.) Secondary
 Summary    1069

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 32.5 In the standing wave described in

Example 32.7, is there any point in the cavity where the energy density is zero at all times? If so,
where? If not, why not?
ANSWER
is always nonzero.

energy density B2>2m0 is always zero. However, there are no locations

where both E and B are always zero. Hence the energy density at any point in the standing wave
S S
walls) and the magnetic
is always zero. There are also places where B = 0 at all times (on the plane midway between the
S
❙ no There are places where E = 0 at all times (at the walls) and the electric energy density 21 P0 E 2
S

CHAPTER 32 SUMMARY
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic waves: Maxwell’s E = cB(32.4) y
equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves that B = P0 m0 cE(32.8) S Planar wave front
propagate in vacuum at the speed of light, c. The electromag- E S
S
B E
netic spectrum covers frequencies from at least 1 to 1024 Hz 1 S
c = (32.9) B S
E
and a correspondingly broad range of wavelengths. Visible 2P0 m0 S S
light, with wavelengths from 380 to 750Snm, isS a very small B E=0
c S
part of this spectrum. In a plane wave, E and B are uniform
S
E O B=0
S
over any plane perpendicular to the propagation direction. B
S
E S
Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law give relationships between z
S
B E x
S S S
the magnitudes of E and B; requiring that both relationships B
are satisfied gives an expression for c in terms
S
of PS0 and m0 .
Electromagnetic waves are transverse; the E and B fields
are perpendicular to the direction of propagation and to S
each
S
other. The direction of propagation is the direction of E : B.

Sinusoidal electromagnetic waves: Equations (32.17) and S y

E1x, t2 = ne Emax cos1kx - vt2
(32.18) describe a sinusoidal plane electromagnetic wave (32.17) S c
S E
traveling in vacuum in the + x@direction. If the wave is prop- B1x, t2 = kn Bmax cos1kx - vt2 S
B
S O S
E
agating in the - x@direction, replace kx - vt by kx + vt. Emax = cBmax(32.18) B
z
(See Example 32.1.)
x
S
E S
B

Electromagnetic waves in matter: When an electromagnetic 1 1 1

v = =
wave travels through a dielectric, the wave speed v is less 2Pm 2KKm 2P0 m0
than the speed of light in vacuum c. (See Example 32.2.) c (32.21)
= 
2KKm

1 S S y
Energy and momentum in electromagnetic waves: The en- S
S= E : B(32.28) c dt
ergy flow rate (power per unit area) in an electromagnetic
S
m0
S
wave in vacuum is given by the Poynting vector S. The Emax Bmax Emax2 S
E
magnitude of the time-averaged value of the Poynting vec- I = Sav = = B
2m0 2m0 c OO
S
S
tor is called the intensity I of the wave. Electromagnetic A
1 P0 z S
waves also carry momentum. When an electromagnetic = 2 Emax2 S E x
wave strikes a surface, it exerts a radiation pressure prad . If A m0 B
the surface is perpendicular to the wave propagation direc- = 12 P0 cEmax2(32.29) Stationary Wave front at
tion and is totally absorbing, prad = I>c; if the surface is a plane
1 dp S EB time dt later
perfect reflector, prad = 2I>c. (See Examples 32.3–32.5.) = = (32.31)
A dt c m0 c
(flow rate of electromagnetic momentum)

Standing electromagnetic waves: If a perfect reflecting y Perfect conductor

surface is placed at x = 0, the incident and reflected waves S
S B
form a standing wave. Nodal planes S
for E occur at kx = 0,
p, 2p, c, and nodal planes for B at kx = p>2, 3p>2,S S
z
5p>2, c. At each point, the sinusoidal variations of E and B
S
E x
with time are 90° out of phase. (See Examples 32.6 and 32.7.)
 Summary    1101

Figure 33.36 How mirages are formed.

Higher up, the wave fronts travel
approximately straight.
vt

Hot vt
surface The hot air near ground has a smaller n than cooler air
higher up, so light travels fastest near the ground. Thus,
the secondary wavelets nearest the ground have the
largest radii vt, and the wave fronts tilt as they travel.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 33.7 Sound travels faster in warm air than in
cold air. Imagine a weather front that runs north-south, with warm air to the west of the front and
cold air to the east. A sound wave traveling in a northeast direction in the warm air encounters this
front. How will the direction of this sound wave change when it passes into the cold air? (i) The
wave direction will deflect toward the north; (ii) the wave direction will deflect toward the east;
(iii) the wave direction will be unchanged.

ANSWER
toward the east.
the right, so Fig. 33.35 shows that the rays (which indicate the direction of propagation) deflect
materials representing the weather front. North is toward the top of the figure and east is toward
b representing the cold air in which the waves travel more slowly, and the interface between the
ation is exactly like that shown in Fig. 33.35, with material a representing the warm air, material
❙ (ii) Huygens’s principle applies to waves of all kinds, including sound waves. Hence this situ-

CHAPTER 33 SUMMARY
Light and its properties: Light is an electromagnetic wave. When c
n =  (33.1)
emitted or absorbed, it also shows particle properties. It is emit- v
ted by accelerated electric charges. l0 Rays
A wave front is a surface of constant phase; wave fronts move l =  (33.5)
with a speed equal to the propagation speed of the wave. A ray n
is a line along the direction of propagation, perpendicular to the
wave fronts.
Source
When light is transmitted from one material to another, the
Wave fronts
frequency of the light is unchanged, but the wavelength and wave
speed can change. The index of refraction n of a material is the
ratio of the speed of light in vacuum c to the speed v in the ma-
terial. If l0 is the wavelength in vacuum, the same wave has a
shorter wavelength l in a medium with index of refraction n.
(See Example 33.2.)

Reflection and refraction: At a smooth interface between two op- ur = ua (33.2)
Incident
tical materials, the incident, reflected, and refracted rays and the (law of reflection)
normal to the interface all lie in a single plane called the plane ua Normal
na sin ua = nb sin ub (33.4) ub
of incidence. The law of reflection states that the angles of inci- ur
Refracted
(law of refraction)
dence and reflection are equal. The law of refraction relates the na 6 nb
Reflected
angles of incidence and refraction to the indexes of refraction of Material a Material b
the materials. (See Examples 33.1 and 33.3.)

Total internal reflection: When a ray travels in a material of nb

sin ucrit =  (33.6)
index of refraction na toward a material of index nb 6 na , total na nb
internal reflection occurs at the interface when the angle of inci- na
dence equals or exceeds a critical angle ucrit . (See Example 33.4.) ucrit 7 ucrit
1102     CHAPTER 33 The Nature and Propagation of Light

Polarization of light: The direction of polarization of aSlinearly I = Imax cos2 f (33.7) E cos f E cos f
Incident
polarized electromagnetic wave is the direction of the E field. A (Malus’s law) natural E
S

polarizing filter passes waves that are linearly polarized along light f f
its polarizing axis and blocks waves polarized perpendicularly
Photocell
to that axis. When polarized light of intensity Imax is incident on
a polarizing filter used as an analyzer, the intensity I of the light
Analyzer
transmitted through the analyzer depends on the angle f between Polarizer
the polarization direction of the incident light and the polarizing
axis of the analyzer. (See Example 33.5.)

Polarization by reflection: When unpolarized light strikes an nb Normal

tan up =  (33.8)
interface between two materials, Brewster’s law states that the na up up
na
reflected light is completely polarized perpendicular to the plane (Brewster’s law)
nb
of incidence (parallel to the interface) if the angle of incidence
ub
equals the polarizing angle up . (See Example 33.6.)

Huygens’s principle: Huygens’s principle states that if the position of a wave front at one instant is known, r = vt
then the position of the front at a later time can be constructed by imagining the front as a source of sec-
ondary wavelets. Huygens’s principle can be used to derive the laws of reflection and refraction.
B
A A′ B′

Chapter 33 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP33.5.3 A beam of polarized light of intensity 60.0 W>m2 propagates
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 33.1 and 33.2 (Section 33.2) before at- in the +x-direction. The light is polarized in the +y-direction. The beam
tempting these problems. strikes an ideal polarizer whose plane is parallel to the yz-plane and has
VP33.2.1 A block of glass with index of refraction 1.80 has a smooth sur- its polarizing axis at 25.0° clockwise from the y-direction. Then the
face. Light in air strikes this surface at an angle of incidence of 70.0° mea- beam that emerges from this polarizer strikes a second ideal polarizer
sured from the normal to the surface of the glass. Find the angles measured whose plane is also parallel to the yz-plane but has its polarizing axis at
relative to this normal of (a) the reflected ray and (b) the refracted ray. 50.0° clockwise from the y-direction. Find the intensity of the light that
VP33.2.2 A ray of light in water 1n = 1.332 strikes a submerged glass emerges (a) from the first polarizer, (b) from the second polarizer, and
block at an angle of incidence of 55.0°. The angle of refraction for the (b) from the second polarizer if the first polarizer is removed.
light that enters the glass is 37.0°. Find (a) the index of refraction of the VP33.5.4 You simultaneously shine two light beams, each of intensity
glass and (b) the speed of light in the glass. I0, on an ideal polarizer. One beam is unpolarized, and the other beam is
VP33.2.3 The light from a red laser pointer has wavelength 635 nm in polarized at an angle of exactly 30° to the polarizing axis of the polar-
air and 508 nm in a transparent liquid. You point the laser in air so that izer. Find the intensity of the light that emerges from the polarizer.
the beam strikes the surface of the liquid at an angle of 35.0° from the Be sure to review EXAMPLE 33.6 (Section 33.5) before attempting
normal. Find (a) the index of refraction of the liquid, (b) the angle of these problems.
refraction, (c) the frequency of the light in air, and (d) the frequency of VP33.6.1 Unpolarized sunlight in air shines on a block of a transparent
the light in the liquid. solid with index of refraction 1.73. (a) For what angle of incidence is
VP33.2.4 A glass of ethanol 1n = 1.362 has an ice cube 1n = 1.3092 the reflected light completely polarized? (b) For this angle of incidence,
floating in it. A light beam in the ethanol goes into the ice cube at an angle is the light refracted into the solid completely polarized, partially polar-
of refraction of 85.0°. Find (a) the angle of incidence in the ethanol and ized, or unpolarized?
(b) the ratio of the wavelength of the light in ice to its wavelength in ethanol. VP33.6.2 You shine a beam of unpolarized light in air on a block of
glass. You find that if the angle of incidence is 57.0°, the reflected light
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 33.5 (Section 33.5) before attempting is completely polarized. Find (a) the index of refraction of the glass and
these problems. (b) the angle of refraction.
VP33.5.1 A polarized laser beam of intensity 255 W>m2 shines on an VP33.6.3 You shine a beam of polarized light in air on a piece of dense
ideal polarizer. The angle between the polarization direction of the laser flint glass 1n = 1.662. (a) If the polarization direction is perpendicular
beam and the polarizing axis of the polarizer is 15.0°. What is the inten- to the plane of incidence, is there an angle of incidence for which no
sity of the light that emerges from the polarizer? light is reflected from the glass? If so, what is this angle? (b) Repeat
VP33.5.2 You shine unpolarized light with intensity 54.0 W>m2 on an part (a) if the polarization direction is in the plane of incidence.
ideal polarizer, and then the light that emerges from this polarizer falls VP33.6.4 A glass container holds water 1n = 1.332. If unpolarized
on a second ideal polarizer. The light that emerges from the second po- light propagating in the glass strikes the glass–water interface, the light
larizer has intensity 19.0 W>m2. Find (a) the intensity of the light that reflected back into the glass will be completely polarized if the angle
emerges from the first polarizer and (b) the angle between the polariz- of refraction is 53.5°. Find (a) the polarizing angle in this situation and
ing axes of the two polarizers. (b) the index of refraction of the glass.
1148    CHAPTER 34 Geometric Optics

CHAPTER 34 SUMMARY
Reflection or refraction at a plane surface: When rays diverge from an object point P and are
­reflected or refracted, the directions of the outgoing rays are the same as though they had diverged
from a point P′ called the image point. If they actually converge at P′ and diverge again beyond it, P P′
P′ is a real image of P; if they only appear to have diverged from P′, it is a virtual image. Images
can be either erect or inverted.
Plane mirror

Lateral magnification: The lateral magnification m in y′ Q

m = (34.2) y′
any reflecting or refracting situation is defined as the y P′ u
y
ratio of image height y′ to object height y. When m is V
P C u
positive, the image is erect; when m is negative, the Q′
image is inverted. s′
R
s

Focal point and focal length: The focal point of a mirror is the point where parallel rays converge R (positive)
after reflection from a concave mirror, or the point from which they appear to diverge after reflec-
tion from a convex mirror. Rays diverging from the focal point of a concave mirror are parallel
after reflection; rays converging toward the focal point of a convex mirror are parallel after reflec- C F
tion. The distance from the focal point to the vertex is called the focal length, denoted as f. The
focal points of a lens are defined similarly.
s = q
R
s′ = = f
2

Relating object and image distances: The formulas for object distance s and image distance s′ for Q 1
plane and spherical mirrors and single refracting surfaces are summarized in the table. The equa- 4
tion for a plane surface can be obtained from the corresponding equation for a spherical surface 3 2 C P′ F
V
by ­setting R = q . (See Examples 34.1–34.7.) P 2
4 Q′ 3
1

Spherical
Plane Mirror Spherical Mirror Plane Refracting Surface Refracting Surface
1 1 1 1 2 1 na nb na nb nb - na
Object and image distances + = 0 + = = + = 0 + =
s s′ s s′ R f s s′ s s′ R
Lateral magnification s′ s′ na s′ na s′
m = - = 1 m = - m = - = 1 m = -
s s nb s nb s
Object–image relationships derived in this chapter are valid for only rays close to and nearly parallel to the optic axis; these are called paraxial
rays. Nonparaxial rays do not converge precisely to an image point. This effect is called spherical aberration.

Thin lenses: The object–image relationship, given 1 1 1 Q 1

+ = (34.16)
by Eq. (34.16), is the same for a thin lens as for a s s′ f F2 P′
3 2
spherical mirror. Equation (34.19), the lensmaker’s
1 1 1 P F1 3
equation, relates the focal length of a lens to its index = 1n - 12a - b (34.19)
of refraction and the radii of curvature of its surfaces. f R1 R2 Q′ 1 2
(See Examples 34.8–34.11.)

Sign rules: The following sign rules are used with all plane and spheri- • s ′ 7 0 when the image is on the outgoing side of the surface (a real
cal reflecting and refracting surfaces: image); s′ 6 0 otherwise.
• s 7 0 when the object is on the incoming side of the surface (a real • R 7 0 when the center of curvature is on the outgoing side of the
object); s 6 0 otherwise. surface; R 6 0 otherwise.
• m 7 0 when the image is erect; m 6 0 when inverted.
 Guided Practice    1149

Cameras: A camera forms a real, inverted image of the Focal length

object being photographed on a light-sensitive surface. f@number =
Aperture diameter
The amount of light striking this surface is controlled (34.20)
f Object
by the shutter speed and the aperture. The intensity of = 
this light is inversely proportional to the square of the D
f@number of the lens. (See Example 34.12.)
Inverted, real
image

The eye: In the eye, refraction at the surface of the cornea forms a real image on the retina. Rays from
Adjustment for various object distances is made by squeezing the lens, thereby making it bulge distant object Normal eye
and decreasing its focal length. A nearsighted eye is too long for its lens; a farsighted eye is too
short. The power of a corrective lens, in diopters, is the reciprocal of the focal length in meters.
(See Examples 34.13 and 34.14.)

The simple magnifier: The simple magnifier creates a u′ 25 cm

M = = (34.22)
virtual image whose angular size u′ is larger than the u f Parallel
angular size u of the object itself at a distance of 25 cm, u′
the nominal closest distance for comfortable viewing. y
F1 u′
The angular magnification M of a simple magnifier is
the ratio of the angular size of the virtual image to that s = f
s′ = -q
of the object at this distance.

Microscopes and telescopes: In a compound microscope, the objective lens forms a first image
in the barrel of the instrument, and the eyepiece forms a final virtual image, often at infinity, Eyepiece
of the first image. The telescope operates on the same principle, but the object is far away. In a Objective I′
reflecting telescope, the objective lens is replaced by a concave mirror, which eliminates chro- I F1
matic aberrations. F2′ F2 F1′ O
f2 f2 f1 f1
s1′ s1

Chapter 34 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS Be sure to review EXAMPLE 34.8 (Section 34.4) before attempting
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 34.1, 34.3, and 34.4 (Section 34.2) these problems.
before attempting these problems. VP34.8.1 Both sides of a double convex thin lens have radii of cur-
VP34.4.1 You place a light bulb 15.0 cm in front of a concave spheri- vature of the same magnitude. The lens is made of glass with index of
cal mirror. The mirror forms an image of the bulb on a wall 4.50 m in refraction 1.65, and the focal length of the lens is + 30.0 cm. Find the
front of the mirror. Find (a) the mirror’s focal length, (b) the mirror’s radius of curvature of (a) the front surface and (b) the back surface.
radius of curvature, and (c) the lateral magnification of the image. VP34.8.2 The side of a thin lens that faces the object is convex and
VP34.4.2 A concave spherical mirror has radius of curvature 37.0 cm. has radius of curvature 15.0 cm. The other side is concave and has
Find the image distance and lateral magnification for each of the fol- radius of curvature 25.0 cm. The lens is made of glass with index of
lowing object distances. In each case state whether the image is real or refraction 1.55. (a) Is this lens thicker at its center or at its edges?
virtual, whether it is erect or inverted, and whether it is larger or smaller (b) What is the focal length of the lens? (c) Is the lens converging or
than the object. (a) 11.0 cm; (b) 31.0 cm; (c) 55.0 cm. diverging?
VP34.4.3 A spherical mirror has radius of curvature -44.0 cm. When VP34.8.3 The side of a thin lens that faces the object is convex and has
you look at your eye in the mirror, your eye’s reflection appears to be radius of curvature 25.0 cm. The other side is concave and has radius
18.0 cm behind the mirror’s surface. (a) Is the mirror concave or con- of curvature 15.0 cm. The lens is made of glass with index of refraction
vex? (b) How far is your eye from the mirror? (c) What is the lateral 1.55. (a) Is this lens thicker at its center or at its edges? (b) What is the
magnification of the image of your eye? Is the image real or virtual? focal length of the lens? (c) Is the lens converging or diverging?
Erect or inverted? Larger or smaller than your eye? VP34.8.4 You are designing a lens to be made of glass with index of
VP34.4.4 A convex spherical mirror has radius of curvature -37.0 cm. refraction 1.70. The first surface (the surface toward the object) is to be
Find the image distance and lateral magnification for each of the fol- convex with radius of curvature 28.0 cm, and the focal length of the lens
lowing object distances. In each case state whether the image is real or is to be 14.0 cm. (a) What must be the radius of curvature of the second
virtual, whether it is erect or inverted, and whether it is larger or smaller surface (the surface away from the object)? (b) Will the second surface
than the object. (a) 11.0 cm; (b) 31.0 cm; (c) 55.0 cm. be concave or convex?
 Summary    1177

CHAPTER 35 SUMMARY
Interference and coherent sources: Monochromatic light y
is light with a single frequency. Coherence is a definite, un-
changing phase relationship between two waves. The over- b
S1
lap of waves from two coherent sources of monochromatic
a x
light forms an interference pattern. The principle of super- S2
position states that the total wave disturbance at any point is
c
the sum of the disturbances from the separate waves.

Two-source interference of light: When two sources are in d sin u = ml 1m = 0, {1, {2, c2
S2 d sin u
phase, constructive interference occurs where the difference (constructive interference) (35.4) r2
in path length from the two sources is zero or an integer d u
number of wavelengths; destructive interference occurs d sin u = 1 m + 12 2 l S1
where the path difference is a half-integer number of wave- 1m = 0, {1, {2, c2 (35.5) r1 To screen
lengths. If two sources separated by a distance d are both (destructive interference)
very far from a point P, and the line from the sources to P
makes an angle u with the line perpendicular to the line of ml
the sources, then the condition for constructive interference ym = R 1m = 0, {1, {2, c2
d (35.6)
at P is Eq. (35.4). The condition for destructive interference (bright fringes)
is Eq. (35.5). When u is very small, the position ym of the
mth bright fringe on a screen located a distance R from the
sources is given by Eq. (35.6). (See Examples 35.1 and 35.2.)

Intensity in interference patterns: When two sinusoidal f Phasors rotate

waves with equal amplitude E and phase difference f are EP = 2E ` cos ` (35.7) counterclockwise.
2 EP
superimposed, the resultant amplitude EP and intensity I
are given by Eqs. (35.7) and (35.10), respectively. If the two f
I = I0 cos2  (35.10) E
sources emit in phase, the phase difference f at a point P 2 p-f
f
(located a distance r1 from source 1 and a distance r2 from 2p E
source 2) is directly proportional to the path difference f = 1r - r12 = k1r2 - r12 (35.11) vt
l 2 O E2 = E cos vt
r2 - r1 . (See Example 35.3.) E1 = E cos (vt + f)

Interference in thin films: When light is reflected from 2t = ml 1m = 0, 1, 2, c2

P
both sides of a thin film of thickness t and no phase shift (constructive reflection from (35.17a)
occurs at either surface, constructive interference between thin film, no relative phase shift) c
a
the reflected waves occurs when 2t is equal to an integer
2t = 1 m + 12 2 l 1m = 0, 1, 2, c2
f
number of wavelengths. If a half-cycle phase shift occurs Air b
(destructive reflection from (35.17b) Film e Index n t
at one surface, this is the condition for destructive inter- d
thin film, no relative phase shift)
ference. A half-cycle phase shift occurs during reflection
whenever the index of refraction in the second material 2t = 1 m + 12 2 l 1m = 0, 1, 2, c2
is greater than that in the first. (See Examples 35.4–35.7.) (constructive reflection from (35.18a)
thin film, half-cycle phase shift)
2t = ml 1m = 0, 1, 2, c2
(destructive reflection from (35.18b)
thin film, half-cycle phase shift)

Michelson interferometer: The Michelson interferometer M2 Movable

uses a monochromatic light source and can be used for mirror
high-­precision measurements of wavelengths. Its original L2
Monochromatic M1
purpose was to detect motion of the earth relative to a 2
light
hypothetical ether, the supposed medium for electromagnetic 1 Fixed
A
mirror
waves. The ether has never been ­detected, and the concept C P D
Beam Compensator
has been abandoned; the speed of light is the same relative splitter plate
L1
to all observers. This is part of the foundation of the
Eye
special theory of relativity.
1208    CHAPTER 36 Diffraction

CHAPTER 36 SUMMARY
Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction: Diffraction occurs when Fresnel (near-field) Fraunhofer (far-
light passes through an aperture or around an edge. When the diffraction field) diffraction
source and the observer are so far away from the obstructing sur-
face that the outgoing rays can be considered parallel, it is called
Fraunhofer diffraction. When the source or the observer is rela-
tively close to the obstructing surface, it is Fresnel diffraction. P

Single-slit diffraction: Monochromatic light sent through a nar- ml u

sin u = I = 0.0083I0 m = 3
row slit of width a produces a diffraction pattern on a distant a (36.2) I = 0.0165I0
screen. Equation (36.2) gives the condition for destructive in- m = 2
1m = {1, {2, {3, c2 I = 0.0472I0 m = 1
terference (a dark fringe) at a point P in the pattern at angle u. O
Equation (36.7) gives the intensity in the pattern as a function sin3pa1sin u2>l4 2 m = -1
I = I0 u
of u. (See Examples 36.1–36.3.) I = I0 b r  (36.7) m = -2
pa1sin u2>l
m = -3

Diffraction gratings: A diffraction grating consists of a large d sin u = ml (36.13) I

256I0
number of thin parallel slits, spaced a distance d apart. The con- 1m = 0, {1, {2, {3, c2
dition for maximum intensity in the interference pattern is the N = 16
same as for the two-source pattern, but the maxima for the grat-
ing are very sharp and narrow. (See Example 36.4.) u
m = -1 m = 0 m = 1

X-ray diffraction: A crystal serves as a three-dimensional dif- 2d sin u = ml (36.16)

fraction grating for x rays with wavelengths of the same order 1m = 1, 2, 3, c2
of magnitude as the spacing between atoms in the crystal. For
a set of crystal planes spaced a distance d apart, constructive d
interference occurs when the angles of incidence and scattering u u
(measured from the crystal planes) are equal and when the Bragg
condition [Eq. (36.16)] is satisfied. (See Example 36.5.) d sin u d sin u

Circular apertures and resolving power: The diffraction pat- l

sin u1 = 1.22  (36.17)
tern from a circular aperture of diameter D consists of a central D
bright spot, called the Airy disk, and a series of concentric dark
and bright rings. Equation (36.17) gives the angular radius u1 Airy disk
of the first dark ring, equal to the angular size of the Airy disk.
Diffraction sets the ultimate limit on resolution (image sharp-
ness) of optical instruments. According to Rayleigh’s criterion,
two point objects are just barely resolved when their angular
separation u is given by Eq. (36.17). (See Example 36.6.)

Chapter 36 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP36.3.2 You shine a laser on a narrow slit 0.221 mm in width. In
the diffraction pattern that appears on a screen 5.00 m from the slit, the
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 36.1 (Section 36.2) and EXAMPLES 36.2
third minimum is 45.7 mm from the middle of the central bright fringe.
and 36.3 (Section 36.3) before attempting these problems.
Find (a) the wavelength of the laser light and (b) the angle of a line from
VP36.3.1 You pass laser light of wavelength 645 nm through a slit
the center of the slit to the second dark fringe on the screen.
0.250 mm in width and observe the diffraction pattern on a screen a
VP36.3.3 At a certain point in a single-slit diffraction pattern there is a
large distance away. On the screen, the centers of the second minima
phase difference of 35.0 radians between wavelets arriving at the point
on either side of the central bright fringe are 28.0 mm apart. (a) How
from the two edges of the slit. The slit is 0.250 mm wide, and the light
far away is the screen? (b) What would the distance be between these
used has wavelength 545 nm. (a) What is the angle of a line from the cen-
minima if the wavelength were 525 nm?
ter of the slit to this point in the diffraction pattern? (b) If the intensity at
the center of the diffraction pattern is I0, what is the intensity at this point?
1244    CHAPTER 37 Relativity

Figure 37.24 A two-dimensional representation of

curved space. We imagine the space (a plane) as being
distorted as shown by a massive object (the sun). Light Actual Path of light
from a distant star (solid line) follows the distorted position from star
surface on its way to the earth. The dashed line shows of star
Earth
the direction from which the light appears to be com- Sun
ing. The effect is greatly exaggerated; for the sun, the
maximum deviation is only 0.00048°.

Figure 37.25 A GPS receiver uses radio

signals from the orbiting GPS satellites Apparent
to determine its position. To account for position
the effects of relativity, the receiver must
be tuned to a slightly higher frequency
(10.23 MHz) than the frequency emitted
by the satellites (10.22999999543 MHz).

The general theory of relativity may seem to be an exotic bit of knowledge with little
practical application. In fact, this theory plays an essential role in the Global Positioning
System (GPS), which makes it possible to determine your position on the earth’s surface
to within a few meters using a handheld receiver (Fig. 37.25). The heart of the GPS
system is a collection of more than two dozen satellites in very precise orbits. Each satel-
lite emits carefully timed radio signals, and a GPS receiver simultaneously detects the
signals from several satellites. The receiver then calculates the time delay between when
each signal was emitted and when it was received, and uses this information to calculate
the receiver’s position.
To ensure the proper timing of the signals, it’s necessary to include corrections due to
the special theory of relativity (because the satellites are moving relative to the receiver
on earth) as well as the general theory (because the satellites are higher in the earth’s
gravitational field than the receiver). The corrections due to relativity are small—less
than one part in 109—but are crucial to the superb precision of the GPS system.

CHAPTER 37 SUMMARY
Invariance of physical laws, simultaneity: All of the fundamental laws of physics have the same form in all S′ Light (L)
inertial frames of reference. The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames and is indepen- vL>S′ = vL>S = c
vS ′>S = 1000 m>s
dent of the motion of the source. Simultaneity is not an absolute concept; events that are simultaneous in
one frame are not necessarily simultaneous in a second frame moving relative to the first. S

Time dilation: If two events occur at the same space point ∆t0
in a particular frame of reference, the time interval ∆t0 ∆t = = g ∆t0 (37.6) , (37.8) S S′
21 - u2>c2 l l d
between the events as measured in that frame is called a u
proper time interval. If this frame moves with constant 1 O′ O′
velocity u relative to a second frame, the time interval ∆t g =  (37.7) u ∆t
between the events as observed in the second frame is 21 - u2>c2 O
longer than ∆t0 . (See Examples 37.1–37.3.)

Length contraction: If two points are at rest in a particular u2 l0

l = l0 1 - =  (37.16) S d S′
frame of reference, the distance l0 between the points as
B c2 g
measured in that frame is called a proper length. If this l u
frame moves with constant velocity u relative to a second u ∆t1

frame and the distances are measured parallel to the motion,

the distance l between the points as measured in the second O
frame is shorter than l0 . (See Examples 37.4 and 37.5.)
 Guided Practice    1245

The Lorentz transformations: The Lorentz coordinate x - ut y y′

x′ = = g1x - ut2
transformations relate the coordinates and time of an 21 - u2>c2 S x′ S′
event in an inertial frame S to the coordinates and time x
y′ = y z′ = z  (37.21) P
of the same event as observed in a second inertial frame
2
S′ moving at velocity u relative to the first. For one- t - ux>c 2 y y′
t′ = = g1t - ux>c 2
dimensional motion, a particle’s velocities vx in S and vx= 21 - u2>c2 O x O′ x′
in S′ are related by the Lorentz velocity transformation. ut
(See Examples 37.6 and 37.7.) vx - u
vx= =  (37.22)
1 - uvx >c2
vx= + u
vx =  (37.23)
1 + uvx= >c2

The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves: The c + u

Doppler effect is the frequency shift in light from a f = f (37.25)
Ac - u 0
source due to the relative motion of source and observer. u Stationary observer
Moving source emits detects light of
For a source moving toward the observer with speed u, light of frequency f0. frequency f 7 f0.
Eq. (37.25) gives the received frequency f in terms of
the ­emitted frequency f0 . (See Example 37.8.)

Relativistic momentum and energy: For a particle of S mv

S
S K Relativistic
S
rest mass m moving with velocity v, the relativistic p= = gmv (37.27) , (37.31) kinetic
2>c2
S 21 - v energy
­momentum p is given by Eq. (37.27) or (37.31) and the
­relativistic kinetic energy K is given by Eq. (37.36). mc2
K = - mc2 = 1g - 12mc2
The total energy E is the sum of the kinetic energy 21 - v2>c2
and the rest energy mc2. The total energy can also be  (37.36) DOESN’T
­expressed in terms of the ­magnitude of momentum p 2
HAPPEN
mc 1 2
and rest mass m. (See Examples 37.9–37.11.) E = K + mc2 = 2
mc Newtonian
2>c2 (37.38)
21 - v kinetic energy
= gmc2 v
O c
E 2 = 1mc22 2 + 1pc2 2 (37.39)

Chapter 37 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP37.5.4 A spacecraft flies past the earth in the direction toward the moon,
a distance of 3.84 * 105 km. As measured by your clock on the earth, it
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 37.1, 37.2, and 37.3 (Section 37.3)
takes 6.00 s for the clock on the spacecraft to tick off 2.00 s. You measure
and EXAMPLES 37.4 and 37.5 (Section 37.4) before attempting these
the length of the spacecraft in the direction of its motion to be 24.0 m. As
problems.
measured by an astronaut at rest on the spacecraft, what are (a) the distance
VP37.5.1 A positive K meson (K + ) is an unstable subatomic particle
from the earth to the moon and (b) the length of the spacecraft?
that decays into other particles. At rest, its mean lifetime is 1.23 * 10-8 s.
(a) What do you measure the mean lifetime of a K + to be if it is moving Be sure to review EXAMPLES 37.6 and 37.7 (Section 37.5) before
at 0.800c relative to you? (b) As measured from the reference frame of a­ ttempting these problems.
this K + , what is the mean lifetime of a second K + that is at rest relative VP37.7.1 Gamora flies her spacecraft in the + x-direction past the
to you? planet Xandar at 0.750c while her sister Nebula is at rest on the sur-
VP37.5.2 Alia flies in her spacecraft at 0.600c relative to the planet face of the planet. As Gamora passes Nebula, both sisters set their
Arrakis. As she passes Paul, at rest on Arrakis, they both start timers. clocks to zero. Each chooses the zero of the x-axis to be at her position.
(a) According to Alia’s timer, 20.0 s elapses from when Paul starts his timer (a) Nebula sets off fireworks next to her 2.50 s after Gamora passes
to when he stops his timer. What does Paul’s timer read when he stops it? her. What are the coordinates of this event as measured by Gamora?
(b) Alia stops her timer when it reads 24.0 s. As measured by Paul, how (b) Gamora detects an explosion in space that occurs 4.00 * 108 m in
much time elapses from when Alia starts her timer to when she stops it? front of her 2.50 s after she passes Nebula. What are the coordinates of
VP37.5.3 At one point in its orbit the earth is 1.50 * 1011 m from the this event as measured by Nebula?
sun. A spacecraft flies along a line from the earth to the sun at 0.950c. VP37.7.2 Two events occur at different x-coordinates but at the same
(a) As measured by you on the earth, how much time does it take the time as measured by Kamala. Doreen, who is moving at 0.800c rela-
spacecraft to travel the distance from the earth to the sun? (b) As mea- tive to Kamala in the +x-direction, measures that one event takes place
sured by an astronaut on the spacecraft, what is the distance from the earth 0.600 s before the other. What is the distance between the two events as
to the sun, and how much time does it take her to travel that distance? measured by (a) Kamala and (b) Doreen?
1272     CHAPTER 38 Photons: Light Waves Behaving as Particles

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 38.4 Through which of the following angles
is a photon of wavelength l most likely to be deflected after passing through a slit of width a?
Assume that l is much less than a. (i) u = l>a; (ii) u = 3l>2a; (iii) u = 2l>a; (iv) u = 3l>a;
(v) not enough information given to decide.

ANSWER
photon will be deflected through this angle.
u = 3l>2a (located between two zeros in the diffraction pattern), so there is some probability that a
impossible for a photon to be deflected through any of these angles. The intensity is not zero at
u = ml>a = {l>a, {2l>a, {3l>a, c. These values include answers (i), (iii), and (iv), so it is
m = {1, {2, {3, c. Since l is much less than a, we can write these angles as
the diffraction pattern has zero intensity. These angles are given by a sin u = ml with
❙ (ii) There is zero probability that a photon will be deflected by one of the angles where

CHAPTER 38 SUMMARY
Photons: Electromagnetic radiation behaves as both waves hc
E = hf =  (38.2)
and particles. The energy in an electromagnetic wave is l
­carried in units called photons. The energy E of one photon
is proportional to the wave frequency f and inversely pro- E hf h
portional to the wavelength l, and is proportional to a uni- p = = =  (38.5)
c c l
versal quantity h called Planck’s constant. The momentum
of a photon has magnitude E>c. (See Example 38.1.)

The photoelectric effect: In the photoelectric effect, a eV0 = hf - f (38.4) Monochromatic light
surface can eject an electron by absorbing a photon whose –
S
energy hf is greater than or equal to the work function f Cathode
E v
Anode
of the material. The stopping potential V0 is the voltage re- v i
quired to stop a current of ejected electrons from reaching –

an anode. (See Examples 38.2 and 38.3.) G

-e i

+
E

Photon production, photon scattering, and pair production: hc Scattered photon:

X rays can be produced when electrons accelerated to high eVAC = hfmax = (38.6) wavelength l′,
lmin
kinetic energy across a potential increase VAC strike a target. Incident photon: momentum p′
S

The photon model explains why the maximum frequency (bremsstrahlung) wavelength l,
S
momentum p
and minimum wavelength produced are given by Eq. (38.6). f
(See Example 38.4.) In Compton scattering a photon trans- h S
Pe
fers some of its energy and momentum to an electron with l′ - l = 11 - cos f2 (38.7)
mc Recoiling electron:
which it collides. For free electrons (mass m), the wave- momentum Pe
S

lengths of incident and scattered photons are related to the (Compton scattering)
photon scattering angle f by Eq. (38.7). (See Example 38.5.)
In pair production a photon of sufficient energy can dis­
appear and be replaced by an electron–positron pair. In the in­
verse process, an electron and a positron can annihilate and
be replaced by a pair of photons. (See Example 38.6.)

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is impossible to ∆x ∆px Ú U>2 (38.17) ∆px

determine both a photon’s position and its momentum at (Heisenberg uncertainty
the same time to arbitrarily high precision. The precision principle for position and Allowed:
of such measurements for the x-components is limited by momentum) ∆x ∆px Ú U>2
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Eq. (38.17); there are
corresponding relationships for the y- and z-components. ∆x ∆px = U>2
∆t ∆E Ú U>2 (38.24)
The uncertainty ∆E in the energy of a state that is occu­ Impossible:
pied for a time ∆t is given by Eq. (38.24). In these expres- (Heisenberg uncertainty ∆x ∆px 6 U>2
principle for energy and time) ∆x
sions, U = h>2p. (See Example 38.7.) O
 Summary    1311

CHAPTER 39 SUMMARY
De Broglie waves and electron diffraction: Electrons and h h Incident electron
l = =  (39.1)
other particles have wave properties. A particle’s wave- p mv waves in phase Scattered electron
length depends on its momentum in the same way as for waves in phase
photons. A nonrelativistic electron accelerated from rest E = hf  (39.2) l
through a potential difference Vba has a wavelength given h h Atom on
by Eq. (39.3). Electron microscopes use the very small l = =  (39.3) 50°
p 22meVba crystal
wavelengths of fast-moving electrons to make images with surface
resolution thousands of times finer than is possible with d
visible light. (See Examples 39.1–39.3.)

The nuclear atom: The Rutherford scattering experiments show that most of an atom’s mass and all of its Nucleus
positive charge are concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus at the center of the atom. (See Example 39.4.) a

Atomic line spectra and energy levels: The energies of hc Ei

hf = = Ei - Ef  (39.5) i
atoms are quantized: They can have only certain definite l
values, called energy levels. When an atom makes a transi-
hf = Ei - Ef
tion from an energy level Ei to a lower level Ef , it emits
a photon of energy Ei - Ef. The same photon can be ab- f Ef
sorbed by an atom in the lower energy level, which excites
the atom to the upper level. (See Example 39.5.)

The Bohr model: In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, h

L n = mvnrn = n (39.6)
the permitted values of angular momentum are integral 2p
multiples of h>2p. The integer multiplier n is called the 1n = 1, 2, 3, c2 Electron
Proton m, -e
principal quantum number for the level. The orbital radii n2h2 F
M, +e
are proportional to n2. The energy levels of the hydrogen rn = P0 = n2a0(39.8) , (39.11)
atom are given by Eq. (39.15), where R is the Rydberg con- pme2 rn vn
stant. (See Example 39.6.) 1 e 2
vn =  (39.9)
P0 2nh
hcR 13.60 eV
En = - 2
= - (39.15)
n n2
1n = 1, 2, 3, c2

The laser: The laser operates on the principle of stimulated emission, by which many photons with identical A* Eex
wavelength and phase are emitted. Laser operation requires a nonequilibrium condition called a population Stimulated
A* emission
inversion, in which more atoms are in a higher-energy state than are in a lower-energy state. Eg
A*

Blackbody radiation: The total radiated intensity (average I = sT 4 I(l) (1011 W>m3)
power radiated per area) from a blackbody surface is pro- 2000 K
(Stefan- Boltzmann law) (39.19) 4
portional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature T.
The quantity s = 5.67 * 10-8 W>m2 # K4 is called the lmT = 2.90 * 10 -3
m#K 3
1750 K
Stefan–Boltzmann constant. The wavelength lm at which a (Wien displacement law) (39.21) 2
blackbody radiates most strongly is inversely proportional 1250 K
1
to T. The Planck radiation law gives the spectral emittance 2phc2
I1l2 =
I1l2 (intensity per wavelength interval in blackbody radia- l51ehc>lkT - 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
tion). (See Examples 39.7 and 39.8.) (Planck radiation law) (39.24) l (mm)

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle for particles: The same uncertainty considerations that apply ∆px Allowed:
to ­photons also apply to particles such as electrons. The uncertainty ∆E in the energy of a state that is ∆x ∆px Ú U>2
­occupied for a time ∆t is given by Eq. (39.30), ∆t ∆E Ú U>2. (See Examples 39.9 and 39.10.) ∆x ∆px = U>2

Impossible:
∆x ∆px 6 U>2
∆x
O
1350     CHAPTER 40 Quantum Mechanics I: Wave Functions

   CAUTION    Quantum measurement mis- Note that not every measurement of a quantum-mechanical system causes a change in
conceptions If we measure the particle the wave function. If we perform an experiment that measures only the energy of a par-
to have px = Ukn , does that mean it had ticle given by the wave function in Eq. (40.53), the wave function does not change. That’s
px = Ukn before the measurement? No; the because the wave function already corresponds to a state of definite energy En = Uvn , so
particle acquired that value as a result of there is a 100% probability that we’ll measure that value of energy.
the measurement. If we measure the parti- You may ask, Does the wave function really collapse? Many physicists would answer
cle to have px = Ukn instead of px = - Ukn , yes, but some theorists have devised alternative models of what happens in a quantum-
does that mean there was some bias in the
mechanical measurement. One model, called the many-worlds interpretation, asserts that
way we did the measurement? Again, no;
there is a universal wave function that describes all particles in the universe. Whenever
the result of any given experiment is ran-
dom. All quantum mechanics can do is a measurement of any sort takes place, whether of human origin (like our experiment) or
predict the probability that this experiment natural origin (for example, a photon of sunlight scattering from an electron in an atom in
will give us a certain result. ❙ the atmosphere), this universal wave function does not collapse. Instead, every measure-
ment causes the universe to branch into alternative timelines. So, when we carry out the
experiment depicted in Fig. 40.30, the universe splits into one timeline in which the pho-
ton goes into detector A and a second timeline in which the photon goes into detector B.
These two timelines then no longer communicate.
As weird as these aspects of quantum mechanics are, others are far weirder. We’ll in-
vestigate these in Chapter 41 after we have learned more about the nature of the electron.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 40.6 A particle in a box is described by

a wave function that is a combination of the n = 1 and n = 2 stationary states: Ψ1x, t2 =
Cc11x2e-iE1t>U + Dc21x2e-iE2t>U, where c11x2 and c21x2 are given by Eq. (40.35), E1 and E2
are given by Eq. (40.31), and C and D are nonzero constants. If you carry out an experiment to
measure the energy of this particle, the result is guaranteed to be (i) E1; (ii) E2; (iii) 1E1 + E22>2;
(iv) intermediate between E1 and E2, with a value that depends on the values of C and D;
(v) none of these.

E2 is the more likely result if 0 C 0 6 0 D 0 .

 C  =  D  , then E1 and E2 are of equal probability. E1 is the more likely result if 0 C 0 7 0 D 0 , and
ANSWER
levels, so the measured value will be either E1 or E2. Neither of these results is guaranteed. If
❙ (v) The value of the energy of a particle in a box must be equal to one of the allowed energy

CHAPTER 40 SUMMARY
Wave functions: The wave function for a particle contains 2
U2 0 Ψ1x, t2 Re Ψ(x) = A cos kx
all of the information about that particle. If the particle - + U1x2Ψ1x, t2 A
2m 0x2 (40.20)
moves in one dimension in the presence of a potential- 0Ψ1x, t2 O x
energy function U1x2, the wave function Ψ1x, t2 obeys = iU p>k 2p>k 3p>k
the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation. (For a free 0t -A
(general 1@D Schrödinger equation)
particle on which no forces act, U1x2 = 0.) The quantity
Im Ψ(x) = A sin kx
0 Ψ1x, t2 0 2, called the probability distribution function, de- A
termines the relative probability of finding a particle near Ψ1x, t2 = c1x2e-iEt>U (40.21)
O x
a given position at a given time. If the particle is in a state (time@dependent wave function p>k 2p>k 3p>k
of definite energy, called a stationary state, Ψ1x, t2 is a for a state of definite energy) -A
product of a function c1x2 that depends on only spatial co-
ordinates and a function e-iEt>U that depends on only time. 2
U2 d c1x2
For a stationary state, the probability distribution function - + U1x2c1x2 = Ec1x2 (40.23)
2m dx2
is independent of time.
A spatial stationary-state wave function c1x2 for a (time@independent 1@D Schrödinger
particle that moves in one dimension in the presence equation)
of a ­potential-energy function U1x2 satisfies the time-­
independent Schrödinger equation. More complex wave
functions can be constructed by superposing stationary-
state wave functions. These can represent particles that
are localized in a certain region, thus representing both
­particle and wave aspects. (See Examples 40.1 and 40.2.)
 Guided Practice    1351

Particle in a box: The energy levels for a particle of mass pn2 n2h2 n2p2U2 c(x)
m in a box (an infinitely deep square potential well) with En = = = n = 3
2m 8mL2 2mL2 (40.31)
width L are given by Eq. (40.31). The corresponding nor- n = 2
malized stationary-state wave functions of the particle are 1n = 1, 2, 3, c2
n = 1 x
given by Eq. (40.35). (See Examples 40.3 and 40.4.)
0 L
2 npx
cn1x2 = sin
AL L (40.35)
1n = 1, 2, 3, c2

Wave functions and normalization: To be a solution of ∞

L-∞
0 c(x) 0 2
the Schrödinger equation, the wave function c1x2 and its 0 c1x2 0 2 dx = 1 (40.33)
derivative dc1x2>dx must be continuous everywhere except n = 3
(normalization condition)
where the potential-energy function U1x2 has an infinite n = 2
discontinuity. Wave functions are usually normalized so n = 1 x
that the total probability of finding the particle somewhere 0 L
is unity.

Finite potential well: In a potential well with finite depth U0 , the energy levels are lower than those U(x)
Continuum
for an infinitely deep well with the same width, and the number of energy levels corresponding to U0 = 6E1-IDW
bound states is finite. The levels are obtained by matching wave functions at the well walls to sat- n = 3 E3 = 5.09E1-IDW
isfy the continuity of c1x2 and dc1x2>dx. (See Examples 40.5 and 40.6.) = 0.848U0

n = 2 E2 = 2.43E1-IDW
E1-IDW = 0.405U0
n = 1 E1 = 0.625E1-IDW
x = 0.104U0
0 L

Potential barriers and tunneling: There is a certain probability that a particle will penetrate a U(x)
potential-energy barrier even though its initial energy is less than the barrier height. This process U0
c(x)
is called tunneling. (See Example 40.7.)
x
0 L

Quantum harmonic oscillator: The energy levels for the k′ U(x)

harmonic oscillator (for which U1x2 = 12 k′x2) are given by En = 1n + 1
2 2U
= 1n + 1
2 2 Uv
Am (40.46) E5 = 11
2 Uv
Eq. (40.46). The spacing between any two adjacent levels 1n = 0, 1, 2, 3, c2 E4 = 92 Uv
is Uv, where v = 2k′>m is the oscillation angular fre- E3 = 72 Uv
quency of the corresponding Newtonian harmonic oscilla- E2 = 52 Uv
tor. (See Example 40.8.) E1 = 32 Uv
∆E = Uv E0 = 12 Uv
x
O

Measurement in quantum mechanics: If the wave function of a particle does not correspond to
a definite value of a certain physical property (such as momentum or energy), the wave function
changes when we measure that property. This phenomenon is called wave-function collapse.

Chapter 40 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS VP40.4.2 A proton (mass 1.67 * 10-27 kg) is confined to a one-
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 40.3 and 40.4 (Section 40.2) before dimensional box of width 5.00 * 10-15 m. Find the energy difference
attempting these problems. between (a) the n = 2 and n = 1 energy levels and (b) the n = 3 and
VP40.4.1 The lowest energy level for an electron confined to a one-
n = 2 energy levels.
VP40.4.3 A photon is emitted when an electron in a one-dimensional
dimensional box is 2.00 * 10-19 J. Find (a) the width of the box and
(b) the energies of the n = 2 and n = 3 energy levels. box transitions from the n = 2 energy level to the n = 1 energy level.
 Summary    1399

CHAPTER 41 SUMMARY
Three-dimensional problems: The time-independent 2
U2 0 c1x, y, z2 02c1x, y, z2 02c1x, y, z2
Schrödinger equation for three-dimensional problems is - a 2
+ 2
+ b + U1x, y, z2c1x, y, z2
2m 0x 0y 0z2
given by Eq. (41.5).
= Ec1x, y, z2 (41.5)
(three@dimensional time@independent Schrödinger equation)

z
Particle in a three-dimensional box: The wave function for 1nX 2 + nY 2 + nZ 22p2U2 z = L
a particle in a cubical box is the product of a function of EnX,nY,nZ = (41.16)
2
2mL
x only, a function of y only, and a function of z only. Each
stationary state is described by three quantum numbers 1nX = 1, 2, 3, c;
1nX, nY, nZ2. Most of the energy levels given by Eq. (41.16) nY = 1, 2, 3, c;
exhibit degeneracy: More than one quantum state has the nZ = 1, 2, 3, c2
same energy. (See Example 41.1.) x = L
(energy levels, particle in a three@ x O y = L
dimensional cubical box) y

The hydrogen atom: The Schrödinger equation for the z

1 mr e4 13.60 eV
S
0 L 0 = 16U
hydrogen atom gives the same energy levels as the Bohr En = - 2 2 2
= - 2
(41.21) Lz = 2U
14pP02 2n U n
model. If the nucleus has charge Ze, there is an additional
(energy levels of hydrogen) Lz = U
factor of Z 2 in the numerator of Eq. (41.21). The possible
magnitudes L of orbital angular momentum are given by Lz = 0
Eq. (41.22), and the possible values of the z@component of L = 2l1l + 12 U
 (41.22)
orbital angular momentum are given by Eq. (41.23). (See 1l = 0, 1, 2, c, n - 12 Lz = -U
Examples 41.2 and 41.3.)
L z = ml U Lz = -2U
The probability that an atomic electron is between r and  (41.23) l = 2
r + dr from the nucleus is P1r2 dr, given by Eq. (41.25). 1ml = 0, { 1, { 2, c, {l2
Atomic distances are often measured in units of a, the
smallest distance between the electron and the nucleus in P1r2 dr = 0 c 0 2 dV = 0 c 0 2 4pr 2 dr (41.25)
the Bohr model. (See Example 41.4.)
P0h2 4pP0 U2
a = =
pmr e2 mr e2
-11
= 5.29 * 10 m (41.26)

The Zeeman effect: The interaction energy of an electron eU E ∆E

U = - m z B = ml B = ml mBB
(massSm) with magnetic quantum number ml in a magnetic 2m +2mBB
field B along the + z@direction is given by Eq. (41.35),  (41.35)
1ml = 0, {1, {2, c, {l2 +mBB
where mB = eU>2m is called the Bohr magneton. (See
Ed 0
Example 41.5.)
-mBB
B = 0
-2mBB
B increasing

Electron spin: An electron has an intrinsic spin ­angular S = 212 1 12 + 1 2 U = 234 U (41.37) E
Spin up
­momentum of magnitude S, given by Eq. (41.37). Es +
The ­possible values of the z@component of the spin Sz = ms U 1 ms = { 12 2 (41.36) Es
(5.795 * 10-5 eV> T)B
­angular momentum are Sz = ms U, where ms = { 12 . Es -
(5.795 * 10-5 eV> T)B
(See Examples 41.6 and 41.7.) 13.60 eV a 2
n 3
B = 0
Spin down
An orbiting electron experiences an interaction between En, j = - c1 + a - bd
n2 n2 j + 1
2
4 B increasing
its spin and the effective magnetic field produced by the
 (41.41)
relative motions of electron and nucleus. This spin-orbit
coupling, along with relativistic effects, splits the energy
levels according to their total angular momentum quantum
number j. (See Example 41.8.)

Continued
1400     CHAPTER 41 Quantum Mechanics II: Atomic Structure

Many-electron atoms: In a hydrogen atom, the quantum n Ú 1 0 … l … n - 1

 (41.44)
numbers n, l, ml, and ms of the electron have certain allowed 0 ml 0 … l ms = { 12
values given by Eq. (41.44). In a many-electron atom, the
allowed quantum numbers for each electron are the same Z eff2 +3e
En = - 2 113.6 eV2 (41.45)
as in hydrogen, but the energy levels depend on both n n -2e
and l because of screening, the partial cancellation of the
Nucleus -e
field of the nucleus by the inner electrons. If the effective
1s subshell
(screened) charge attracting an electron is Zeff e, the ener-
2s subshell
gies of the ­levels are given approximately by Eq. (41.45).
(See Examples 41.9 and 41.10.)

X-ray spectra: Moseley’s law states that the frequency of f = 12.48 * 1015 Hz21Z - 12 2 (41.47) 1f (10-8 Hz1>2)
a Ka x ray from a target with atomic number Z is given 24 Cu Zr Y
Cr Co
by Eq. (41.47). Characteristic x-ray spectra result from 16 Cl Ti Zn
­transitions to a hole in an inner energy level of an atom. 8 Al Fe Ni
K
(See Example 41.11.) Si V
Z
0 8 16 24 32 40

Quantum entanglement: The wave function of two identical particles can be such that neither particle is itself in
1
a definite state. For example, the wave function could be a combination of one term with particle 1 in state A S S
c1r1, r22 =
1 2
-
1 2
12
and particle 2 in state B and one term with particle 1 in state B and particle 2 in state A. The two particles are
said to be entangled, since measuring the state of one particle automatically determines the results of subse-
quent measurements of the other particle.

Chapter 41 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS Be sure to review EXAMPLES 41.2, 41.3, and 41.4 (Section 41.3)
­ efore attempting these problems.
b
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 41.1 (Section 41.2) before attempting
VP41.4.1 Consider the n = 6 states of the hydrogen atom. (a) How many
these problems.
distinct 1l, ml2 states are there? (b) In terms of U, what is the maximum
VP41.1.1 A particle in the three-dimensional box shown in Fig. 41.1 is
magnitude of the orbital angular momentum L? (c) In terms of U, what is
in the state nX = 2, nY = 1, nZ = 3. Find (a) the planes (other than the
the maximum value of the z-component of orbital angular momentum?
walls of the box) on which the probability distribution function is zero
VP41.4.2 (a) List all the possible combinations of values of l and ml
and (b) the probability that the particle will be found somewhere in the
for the n = 3 states of the hydrogen atom. (b) For which of these states
region 0 … x … L>3.
is the angle between the orbital angular momentum vector and the nega-
VP41.1.2 Half of the volume of the three-dimensional box shown in
tive z-axis a minimum, and what is that angle?
Fig. 41.1 is in the region L>4 … x … 3L>4. Find the probability that a
VP41.4.3 A photon is emitted when a hydrogen atom transitions from
particle in the box will be found in this region if the state of the particle
one energy level to a lower energy level. Find the energy of this photon, in
is (a) nX = 1, nY = 1, nZ = 1; (b) nX = 2, nY = 1, nZ = 2; (c) nX = 3,
eV, for each transition: (a) n = 3, l = 2, ml = -2 to n = 2, l = 1, ml = - 1;
nY = 2, nZ = 3; (d) nX = 4, nY = 1, nZ = 1.
1 (b) n = 4, l = 2, ml = 1 to n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0; (c) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 1
VP41.1.3 The region 0 … x … L>4, 0 … y … L>4 makes up 16 =
to n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0.
0.0625 of the volume of the three-dimensional box shown in
VP41.4.4 The wave function for an electron in a 1s state in a ­hydrogen
Fig. 41.1. Find the probability that a particle in the box will be found
atom is c1s1r2 = 1>2pa3 e-r>a, where r is the distance from the
in this region if the state of the particle is (a) nX = 1, nY = 1, nZ = 1;
­nucleus. Find the probability that the electron will be found in the region
(b) nX = 2, nY = 1, nZ = 2; (c) nX = 3, nY = 2, nZ = 3; (d) nX = 4,
(a) 0 … r … 2a; (b) a … r … 3a; (c) r Ú 4a.
nY = 1, nZ = 1.
VP41.1.4 Consider the cubical region given by L>4 … x … 3L>4, Be sure to review EXAMPLES 41.6, 41.7, and 41.8 (Section 41.5)
L>4 … y … 3L>4, L>4 … z … 3L>4 at the center of the three-­ ­before attempting these problems.
dimensional box shown in Fig. 41.1. (a) What fraction of the total VP41.8.1 An isolated electron is placed in a magnetic field
S
volume of the box is inside this cubical region? (b) If a particle in B = 13.14 T2kn . (a) Find the difference in energy between the Sz = + 12 U
the box is in the state nX = 1, nY = 1, nZ = 1, find the probability and S z = - 12 U states of the electron. (b) Which state has the higher
that it will be found somewhere in this cubical region at the center of energy?
the box.
 Summary    1433

42.8 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is the complete disappearance of all electrical resistance at low temper-
atures. We described this property at the end of Section 25.2 and the magnetic properties
of type-I and type-II superconductors in Section 29.8. In this section we’ll relate supercon-
ductivity to the structure and energy-band model of a solid.
Although superconductivity was discovered in 1911, it was not well understood on
a theoretical basis until 1957. That year, the American physicists John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer published the theory of superconductivity, now called the
BCS theory, that earned them the Nobel Prize in physics in 1972. (It was Bardeen’s sec-
ond; he shared his first for his work on the development of the transistor.) The key to
the BCS theory is an interaction between pairs of conduction electrons, called Cooper
pairs, caused by an interaction with the positive ions of the crystal. Here’s a rough picture
of what happens. A free electron exerts attractive forces on nearby positive ions, pulling
them slightly closer together. The resulting slight concentration of positive charge then
exerts an attractive force on another free electron with momentum opposite to the first. At
ordinary temperatures this electron-pair interaction is very small in comparison to ener-
gies of thermal motion, but at very low temperatures it is significant.
Bound together this way, the pairs of electrons cannot individually gain or lose very
small amounts of energy, as they would ordinarily be able to do in a partly filled con-
duction band. Their pairing gives an energy gap in the allowed electron quantum levels,
and at low temperatures there is not enough collision energy to jump this gap. Therefore
the electrons can move freely through the crystal without any energy exchange through
­collisions—that is, with zero resistance.
Since 1987 physicists have discovered a number of compounds that remain supercon-
ducting at temperatures above 77 K (the boiling point of liquid nitrogen). The original pair-
ing mechanism of the BCS theory cannot explain the properties of these high-­temperature
superconductors. Instead, it appears that electrons in these materials form pairs due to
magnetic interactions between their spins.

CHAPTER 42 SUMMARY
Molecular bonds and molecular spectra: The principal U2
types of molecular bonds are ionic, covalent, van der El = l1l + 12 1l = 0, 1, 2, c2 (42.3)
2I
Waals, and hydrogen bonds. In a diatomic molecule the
rotational energy levels are given by Eq. (42.3), where I I = mr r02 (42.6)
m1 k′ m2
is the moment of inertia of the molecule, mr is its reduced m1 m2 *
mr =  (42.4) cm
mass, and r0 is the distance between the two atoms. The m1 + m2 r0
vibrational energy levels are given by Eq. (42.7), where k′
k′
is the effective force constant of the interatomic force. (See En = 1n + 122 Uv = 1n + 122 U (42.7)
A mr
Examples 42.1–42.3.)
1n = 0, 1, 2, c2 

Solids and energy bands: Interatomic bonds in solids are of E

the same types as in molecules plus one ­additional type, the
metallic bond. Associating the basis with each lattice point
gives the crystal structure. (See Example 42.4.)
When atoms are bound together in condensed matter,
their outer energy levels spread out into bands. At absolute r
zero, insulators and conductors have a completely filled O r0
­valence band separated by an energy gap from an empty
conduction band. Conductors, including metals, have
­partially filled conduction bands. (See Example 42.5.)

Continued
1434    CHAPTER 42 Molecules and Condensed Matter

Free-electron model of metals: In the free-electron model 12m2 3>2V f(E)

of the behavior of conductors, the electrons are treated g1E2 = E 1>2 (42.15) 1 kT = 1
40 EF

as completely free particles within the conductor. In this 2p2U3 1

kT = 10 EF
model the density of states is given by Eq. (42.15). The 1
1
2
f 1E2 =  (42.16) kT = 14 EF
probability that an energy state of energy E is occupied is
e1E - EF2>k T + 1
given by the Fermi–Dirac distribution, Eq. (42.16), which is E
0 EF
a consequence of the exclusion principle. In Eq. (42.16), EF
is the Fermi energy. (See Examples 42.6–42.8.)

Semiconductors: A semiconductor has an energy gap of E

about 1 eV between its valence and ­conduction bands. Its Conduction Conduction
electron band
electrical properties may be drastically changed by the ad- – –

dition of small concentrations of donor impurities, giving Eg Band

Hole gap
an n-type semiconductor, or acceptor impurities, giving a – + – + –
Valence
p-type semiconductor. (See Example 42.9.) – – – – – band
S
Electric field E

Semiconductor devices: Many semiconductor devices, I = IS 1eeV>kT - 12 (42.22) p n p-n diode
Forward
­including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits, use
bias
one or more p-n junctions. The current–voltage relationship I V A
for an ideal p-n junction diode is given by Eq. (42.22). Variable
+
emf

Chapter 42 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS Be sure to review EXAMPLES 42.6 and 42.7 (Section 42.5) before
­attempting these problems.
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 42.2 and 42.3 (Section 42.2) before at-
VP42.7.1 For free electrons in a solid with Fermi energy EF and
tempting these problems.
­temperature T, find the energy for which the probability that a state at
VP42.3.1 The two nuclei in the nitric oxide (NO) molecule are
that energy is occupied is (a) 0.33 and (b) 0.90.
0.1154 nm apart. The mass of the most common nitrogen atom is
VP42.7.2 The Boltzmann constant is k = 8.617 * 10-5 eV>K. For a
2.326 * 10-26 kg, and the mass of the most common oxygen atom
metallic solid at room temperature (293 K), what is the probability that
is 2.656 * 10-26 kg. Find (a) the reduced mass of the NO molecule,
an electron state is occupied if its energy is (a) 0.0250 eV below the
(b) the moment of inertia of the NO molecule, and (c) the energies, in
Fermi level, (b) 0.0400 eV above the Fermi level, and (c) 0.100 eV
meV, of the lowest three rotational energy levels of NO.
above the Fermi level?
VP42.3.2 The l = 2 rotational level of the hydrogen chloride (HCl)
VP42.7.3 Silver contains 5.8 * 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. At
molecule has energy 7.90 meV. The mass of the most common hydro-
absolute zero, what are (a) the Fermi energy (in J and eV) of silver,
gen atom is 1.674 * 10-27 kg, and the mass of the most common chlo-
(b) the speed of an electron with this energy, and (c) the density of states
rine atom is 5.807 * 10-26 kg. Find (a) the moment of inertia of the
(in states>J and states>eV) at the Fermi energy for a block of silver of
HCl molecule, (b) the reduced mass of the HCl molecule, and (c) the
volume 1.0 cm3?
distance between the H and Cl nuclei.
VP42.7.4 If kT is small compared to the Fermi energy at absolute zero,
VP42.3.3 The mass of the most common silicon atom is
the Fermi energy at temperature T is essentially the same as at absolute
4.646 * 10-26 kg, and the mass of the most common oxygen atom is
zero. Use the results of the previous problem to find the electron en-
2.656 * 10-26 kg. When a molecule of silicon monoxide (SiO) makes
ergy, in eV, for which the probability that an electron state is occupied
a transition between the l = 1 and l = 0 rotational levels, it emits a
is (a) 0.92 and (b) 1.0 * 10-4 for silver at room temperature (293 K).
photon of wavelength 6.882 mm. Find (a) the moment of inertia of the
SiO molecule, (b) the reduced mass of the SiO molecule, and (c) the Be sure to review EXAMPLE 42.9 (Section 42.6) before attempting
distance between the Si and O nuclei. these problems.
VP42.3.4 A CO molecule is initially in the n = 2 vibrational level. If VP42.9.1 For a certain semiconductor, the Fermi energy is in the mid-
this molecule loses both vibrational and rotational energy and emits a dle of its band gap. If the temperature of the semiconductor is 285 K,
photon, what are the photon wavelength and frequency if the initial an- find the probability that a state at the bottom of the conduction band is
gular momentum quantum number is (a) l = 3 and (b) l = 2? occupied if the band gap is (a) 0.500 eV and (b) 1.50 eV.
 Summary    1475

CHAPTER 43 SUMMARY
Nuclear properties: A nucleus is composed of A ­nucleons R = R0 A1>3 (43.1)
(Z protons and N neutrons). All nuclei have about the same
density. The radius of a nucleus with mass number A is 1R0 = 1.2 * 10-15 m2
given approximately by Eq. (43.1). A single nuclear species
of a given Z and N is called a nuclide. Isotopes are nuclides
of the same element (same Z) that have different numbers
of neutrons. Nuclear masses are measured in atomic mass
units. Nucleons have angular momentum and a magnetic
moment. (See Examples 43.1 and 43.2.)

Nuclear binding and structure: The mass of a nucleus is al- EB = 1ZMH + Nmn - AZ M2c2(43.10) EB >A (MeV>nucleon)
ways less than the mass of the protons and neutrons within
62Ni
it. The mass difference multiplied by c2 gives the binding 12C
6
28 238U
92
energy EB. The binding energy for a given nuclide is deter- 4He
2
mined by the nuclear force, which is short range and favors
pairs of particles, and by the electrical repulsion between 2
1H
protons. A nucleus is unstable if A or Z is too large or if the A
O
ratio N>Z is wrong. Two widely used models of the nucleus
are the liquid-drop model and the shell model; the latter
is analogous to the central-field ­approximation for atomic
structure. (See Examples 43.3 and 43.4.)

Radioactive decay: Unstable nuclides usually emit an alpha N1t2 = N0 e-lt (43.17) 88p
226Ra
particle (a 42He nucleus) or a beta particle (an electron) in the 88 138n
1 T1>2 T1>2
process of changing to another nuclide, sometimes followed Tmean = = = (43.19)
by a gamma-ray photon. The rate of decay of an unstable l ln 2 0.693 222Rn
86 a (2p, 2n)
nucleus is described by the decay constant l, the half-life 86p
T1>2 , or the lifetime Tmean. If the number of nuclei at time 136n 4He
2
t = 0 is N0 and no more are ­produced, the number at time t
is given by Eq. (43.17). (See Examples 43.5–43.9.)

Biological effects of radiation: The biological effect

Embolism
of any radiation depends on the product of the energy
absorbed per unit mass and the relative biological
effectiveness (RBE), which is different for different
radiations. (See Example 43.10.)

Nuclear reactions: In a nuclear reaction, two nuclei or 2H

pn p 4 p
3 He
particles collide to produce two new nuclei or particles. p He p
p p npp n pn
Reactions can be exoergic or endoergic. Several con- pn n n pp
p b+ p
servation laws, including charge, energy, momentum, ne g

angular momentum, and nucleon number, are obeyed.

Energy is released by the fission of a heavy nucleus
into two lighter, always unstable, nuclei. Energy is also
released by the fusion of two light nuclei into a heavier
nucleus. (See Examples 43.11–43.13.)
 Summary    1519

CHAPTER 44 SUMMARY
Fundamental particles: Each particle has an antiparticle; some particles g e-
are their own antiparticles. Particles can be created and destroyed,
some of them (including electrons and positrons) only in pairs or in e+
conjunction with other particles and antiparticles. S
g B e-
Particles serve as mediators for the fundamental interactions. The
photon is the mediator of the electromagnetic interaction. Yukawa e+
proposed the existence of mesons to mediate the nuclear interaction.
Mediating particles that can exist only because of the uncertainty prin-
ciple for energy are called virtual particles.

Particle accelerators and detectors: Cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and High- S

linear accelerators are used to accelerate charged particles to high ener- frequency B
alternating
gies for experiments with particle interactions. Only part of the beam
voltage
energy is available to cause reactions with targets at rest. This problem
is avoided in colliding-beam experiments. (See Examples 44.1–44.3.)

Particles and interactions: Four fundamental interactions are found

in nature: the strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational interac-
tions. Particles can be described in terms of their interactions and of
quantities that are conserved in all or some of the interactions.
Fermions have half-integer spins; bosons have integer spins. Leptons,
which are fermions, have no strong interactions. Strongly interacting par-
ticles are called hadrons. They include mesons, which are always bosons,
and baryons, which are always fermions. There are conservation laws for
three different lepton numbers and for baryon number. Additional quan-
tum numbers, including strangeness and charm, are conserved in some
interactions. (See Examples 44.4–44.6.)

Quarks: Hadrons are composed of quarks. There are thought to be six Proton Positive
types of quarks. The interaction between quarks is mediated by glu- (p) u u pion
u d (p+)
+ 23 e + 23 e
ons. Quarks and gluons have an additional attribute called color. (See d - 13 e
2
3 e 1
3 e
Example 44.7.)

Symmetry and the unification of interactions: Symmetry considerations Age of the universe
play a central role in all fundamental-particle theories. The electromag- 10 - 42 s 10 - 35 s 10 - 10 s 10 - 3 s 3 min 500,000 y 14 * 109 y

netic and weak interactions become unified at high energies into the Age increasing
electroweak interaction. In grand unified theories the strong interaction
is also unified with these interactions, but at much higher energies. Strong force
netic force
Electromag
Electroweak force
Weak force
Gravitation

Energy decreasing

1019 GeV 1014 GeV 100 GeV 100 MeV 1 MeV 1 eV 1 meV

The expanding universe and its composition: The Hubble law shows v (103 km>s)
20
that galaxies are receding from each other and that the universe is
15
expanding. Observations show that the rate of expansion is accelerat- 10
ing due to the presence of dark energy, which makes up 69.0% of the 5 Slope = H0
energy in the universe. Only 4.9% of the energy in the universe is in r
0 100 200 300 (megaparsecs)
the form of conventional matter; the remaining 26.1% is dark matter,
whose nature is poorly understood. (See Examples 44.8 and 44.9.)

The history of the universe: In the standard model of the universe, a Big
Bang gave rise to the first fundamental particles. They eventually formed
into the lightest atoms as the universe expanded and cooled. The cosmic
background radiation is a relic of the time when these atoms formed. The
heavier elements were manufactured much later by fusion reactions inside
stars. (See Examples 44.10–44.12.)