land

Review
Evolution of Floods: From Ancient Times to the Present Times
(ca 7600 BC to the Present) and the Future
Andreas N. Angelakis 1,2, * , Andrea G. Capodaglio 3 , Mohammad Valipour 4 , Jens Krasilnikoff 5 ,
Abdelkader T. Ahmed 6,7 , Laila Mandi 8 , Vasileios A. Tzanakakis 9, *, Alper Baba 10 , Rohitashw Kumar 11 ,
Xiaoyun Zheng 1 , Zhang Min 1 , Mooyoung Han 12 , Bashiru Turay 13 , Esra Bilgiç 14 and Nicholas Dercas 15

1 School of History and Culture, Hubei University, Wuhan 430061, China

2 Hellenic Agricultural Organization (HAO)—Demeter, National Foundation for Agricultural Research,
Institute of Iraklion, 71307 Iraklion, Greece
3 Department of Civil Engineering & Architecture, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
4 Department of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Metropolitan State University of Denver,
Denver, CO 80217, USA
5 Department of History and Classical Studies, School of Culture and Society, Aarhus University,
8000 Aarhus, Denmark
6 Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Madinah,
Medina 42351, Saudi Arabia
7 Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81528, Egypt
8 National Center for Studies and Research on Water and Energy, Cadi Ayyad University,
Marrakech P.O. Box 511, Morocco
9 Department of Agriculture, School of Agricultural Science, Hellenic Mediterranean University,
71410 Iraklion, Greece
10 Department of International Water Resources, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir 35430, Türkiye
11 College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, SKUAST—Kashmir, Srinagar 190025, India
12 Institute of Construction and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University,
Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
13 Department of Geography, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
14 Department of Civil Engineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir 35430, Türkiye
Citation: Angelakis, A.N.;
15 Natural Resources Management and Agricultural Engineering Department, Agricultural University of
Capodaglio, A.G.; Valipour, M.;
Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
Krasilnikoff, J.; Ahmed, A.T.; Mandi,
* Correspondence: info@a‑angelakis.gr (A.N.A.); [email protected] (V.A.T.)
L.; Tzanakakis, V.A.; Baba, A.;
Kumar, R.; Zheng, X.; et al. Evolution
of Floods: From Ancient Times to the
Abstract: Floods are one of the most dangerous natural disasters, causing great destruction, damage,
Present Times (ca 7600 BC to the and even fatalities worldwide. Flooding is the phenomenon of a sudden increase or even slow in‑
Present) and the Future. Land 2023, crease in the volume of water in a river or stream bed as the result of several possible factors: heavy
12, 1211. https://doi.org/ or very long precipitation, melting snowpack, strong winds over the water, unusually high tides,
10.3390/land12061211 tsunamis, or the failure of dams, gages, detention basins, or other structures that hold back water.
To gain a better understanding of flooding, it is necessary to examine evidence, search for ancient
Academic Editor: Domenico
Calcaterra
wisdom, and compare flood‑management practices in different regions in a chronological perspec‑
tive. This study reviews flood events caused by rising sea levels and erratic weather from ancient
Received: 11 March 2023
times to the present. In addition, this review contemplates concerns about future flood challenges
Revised: 23 May 2023
and possible countermeasures. Thus, it presents a catalogue of past examples in order to present
Accepted: 29 May 2023
a point of departure for the study of ancient floods and to learn lessons for preparation for future
Published: 11 June 2023
flood incidents including heavy rainfalls, particularly in urbanized areas. The study results show
that ancient societies developed multifaceted technologies to cope with floods and many of them
are still usable now and may even represent solutions and measures to counter the changing and
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. increasingly more erratic weather of the present.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article Keywords: flood management; heavy rainfall; streamflow; urbanized areas; dams; stormwater;
distributed under the terms and paleofloods
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Land 2023, 12, 1211. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12061211 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2023, 12, 1211 2 of 52

1. Prolegomena
“By studying the past, we learn about the present and are able to plan for the future”.
Andreas N. Angelakis
Based on the above quote, it should be pointed out that wastewater reuse has a long
history, which starts even before proper treatment was adopted. Since ancient times, many
civilizations (e.g., Chinese, Indian, and Mesopotamian) have settled in areas with high wa‑
ter availability (e.g., coastal, river, and flood‑prone areas) due to favorable geographic con‑
ditions, which facilitate economic growth, such as accessibility (transportation and com‑
merce) and food production (fertile land) [1]. In contrast and applying the opposite logic,
most ancient Greek civilizations avoided the establishment of their major urban centers
close to rivers, lakes, or rich springs in order to protect populations and infrastructure
from floods and water‑related diseases [1].
The UN projects a 70% increase in urban populations, from 4 to 6.3 billion, in the pe‑
riod from 2015 to 2050; furthermore, by 2030, 60% of urban dwellers will live in low‑lying
coastal regions [2]. This fact will force societies to increase efforts to protect citizens and
valuable assets against flood events. Flooding is still the most damaging of all‑natural dis‑
asters: annually, one‑third of the natural disasters and economic losses, and more than
half of all victims are flood‑related [3]. Flood mitigation policies and measures have been
implemented, enabling societies to increase their resilience to flood hazards. With increas‑
ing population densities in sensible areas, often associated with improved living standards
and consequently higher values of property and infrastructure, flood defense is becoming
more important and the consequences of flooding are becoming less acceptable. Trends in
flood frequencies and flooding damage seem to be increasing, primarily due to a growing
vulnerability caused by land‑use changes in flood‑prone areas and/or climate variability.
The average number of disasters such as floods, tornadoes and hurricanes caused by
weather and the environment has increased by around 35% over the past three decades.
Extreme weather and climate‑related events alone accounted for 83 percent of all disasters
over the past ten years, resulting in 410,000 fatalities and 1.7 billion people affected [4].
The Asian continent was particularly affected by floods and flooding between 1985
and 2003. Most countries in Asia, especially in the Monsoon region, can suffer from both
flooding and drought in the same year. In Korea, for example, rainfall variability in any
year is among the highest in the world. Depending on the season, rainwater could be a
disaster or a blessing.
Over 2000 catastrophic disasters occurred on the African continent alone in the past
three decades, with the majority being caused by extreme weather and climatic disasters
such as food insecurity, droughts, floods, and flash floods as well as storms, cyclones,
and landslides (Figure 1). According to assessments, the African continent is the most
vulnerable to the impacts of climate variability‑related natural disasters like floods and
droughts [5].
According to the World Bank [6], floods have caused the greatest economic impact
and loss of life in the Asia‑Pacific region over the last 30 years, and human vulnerability
to floods has increased, and there is some evidence that small‑ to medium‑sized floods are
becoming more common in cities around the world. For example, floods have caused more
damage to people and property in Indonesia over the past 20 years than any other natural
disaster, and poor and vulnerable populations, who typically live in vulnerable areas, lack
access to basic services and fiscal support, and lack the financial resources to recover from
damage, tend to be the hardest hit. A quarter of Indonesia’s population (76 million people)
live in high‑risk flood zones, and the majority of them (42.6 million) are poor. Floods in
Bima, West Nusa Tenggara province, in 2016 forced more than two‑thirds of the city to
evacuate and caused more than USD 65 million in damage; floods in Banjarmasin, South
Kalimantan province, in 2021 affected more than 100,000 people and damaged more than
35,000 homes. The total cost of the project is USD 400 million to reduce flood risk in selected
Indonesian cities by increasing capacity at the national and city levels and investing in
integrated urban flood risk management [7]. In addition, India, lying in this region, is no
Land 2023, 12, 1211 3 of 52

exception to this change and has witnessed an increase in the occurrence of floods in the
recent past. Recent population growth accelerations and changes in land‑use patterns have
increased human vulnerability to floods [8]. Floods cause direct morbidity and mortality as
Land 2023, 12, 1211
well as indirect displacement and pervasive damage to crops, infrastructure, and property
in the country.

Figure 1. Hazards of highest

Figure concern
1. Hazards as highlighted
of highest concerninasthe 53 AfricaninNational
highlighted Determined
the 53 African Contrib‑
National Determined C
utors (NDCs) during
utors the period
(NDCs) 2016–2022
during [5] (x‑axis:
the period number
2016–2022 [5] of catastrophic
(x-axis: numberdisasters).
of catastrophic disasters).

ApproximatelyAccording
40 millionto hathe
of land
World in India
Bank are[6], prone
floodstohave
flooding,
caused with
thenearly
greatest8 mil‑
economic i
lion ha being affected annually. Climate variability, including warming temperatures
and loss of life in the Asia-Pacific region over the last 30 years, and human vulnera and
increased frequency of extreme
to floods rainfall,
has increased, and is there
a contributing factor tothat
is some evidence these floods
small- to [9]. Rising
medium-sized floo
ocean temperatures in the Indian Ocean and changes in moisture
becoming more common in cities around the world. For example, floodssupply may also play have c
a role. Additionally, abrupt variability
more damage and property
to people and increasedinuncertainty
Indonesia in over rainfall patterns
the past 20 yearsandthan any
risk of weather extremes, because of both ecological and human factors, have increased the
natural disaster, and poor and vulnerable populations, who typically live in vuln
risk of flooding. However, it is important to note that while increased atmospheric water
areas, lack access to basic services and fiscal support, and lack the financial resour
vapor may lead to more intense rainfall events, it does not produce rainfall without favor‑
recover from damage, tend to be the hardest hit. A quarter of Indonesia s populati
able thermodynamic and dynamic conditions and rising motion in the atmosphere [10].
million people) live in high-risk flood zones, and the majority of them (42.6 millio
Factors such as geomorphological settings, limits of sewerage flow, and infringement on
poor. Floods in Bima, West Nusa Tenggara province, in 2016 forced more than two-
natural flow paths of rivers also contribute to flooding [11].
of the city to evacuate and caused more than USD 65 million in damage; floods in B
In Africa, rainfall and river flow show high levels of variability over a range of spatial
masin, South Kalimantan province, in 2021 affected more than 100,000 people and
and temporal dimensions [12]. South Sudan, the Congo Republic, Madagascar, the Cen‑
aged more than 35,000 homes. The total cost of the project is USD 400 million to r
tral African Republic, Malawi, Guinea Bissau, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozam‑
flood risk in selected Indonesian cities by increasing capacity at the national and city
bique, Liberia, and Mali are the top ten countries with the highest percentage of poor
and investing in integrated urban flood risk management [7]. In addition, India, ly
and flood‑prone populations [13]. According to estimates, over 71 million people in Sub‑
Saharan Africathis region,
endure is no
both exception
extreme povertyto this
andchange
a highand hasof
threat witnessed
flooding an [4].increase
Neverthe‑ in the occu
less, numerousofdisasters
floods inonthe
therecent past.
African Recent population
continent growth accelerations
remain unreported and changes
rather frequently. It in
use patterns have increased human vulnerability to floods
should be noticed that over the past 50 years, the number of rain‑related natural disasters [8]. Floods cause direct
bidity and
in Africa has increased mortality
about tenfoldas[5].
well as indirect displacement and pervasive damage to cro
Flooding can also bring benefits, suchinasthe
frastructure, and property country.
making soils fertile and providing nutrients:
periodic flooding was Approximately 40 million
essential to the development ha of ofland in India
ancient are prone living
communities to flooding,
in the with ne
million ha being affected annually. Climate variability, including warming temper
and increased frequency of extreme rainfall, is a contributing factor to these flood
Rising ocean temperatures in the Indian Ocean and changes in moisture supply ma
play a role. Additionally, abrupt variability and increased uncertainty in rainfall pa
and risk of weather extremes, because of both ecological and human factors, ha
Land 2023, 12, 1211 4 of 52

Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, and Yellow River valleys, among others. Thus,
to rulers and societies of the past, rainwater management became one of the major concerns,
which materialized in practical terms as good examples of decentralized multi‑purpose
rainwater‑management systems. Several of the principles of past implementations survive
in modern‑day applications.
Recently increased climate variability also plays a major impact on the quantities and
locations of floods. Frequency and intensity of rainfall rates are predicted to increase in
a warmer climate; locations in Asia and the Indian subcontinent, such as Pakistan, suffer
from higher rains and flood frequency.
Flooding events worldwide appear to be more complex than during ancient periods,
which may be due to increased urbanization. In a chronological view, one may argue for
five epochs, each singled out by its distinct characteristics: (a) Prehistoric Era (ca 7600–1100
Before Christ (BC)), (b) Historical Era (ca 750 BC–476 Anno Domini (AD)), (c) Medieval Era
(ca 476–1400 AD), (d) Early Modern and Modern Era (ca 1400–1850 AD), and (e) Contem‑
porary Era (1850 AD–present).
A comprehensive overview of the history of flood events is necessary to improve
our knowledge about their causes, occurrence, and consequences. Emerging developing
trends of flood events should also be considered to prevent or mitigate future flooding con‑
sequences and challenges by improving contrast measures and proper water governance
frameworks. “Study the history, if you would define the future”, Confucius (551–479 BC).
Thus, the academic merit of this review is to present a catalogue of past examples as
a point of departure for the study of ancient floods and to learn lessons that prepare us for
present and future flood incidents including heavy rainfalls of high intensity, particularly
in urbanized areas. This review highlights the technological advancements of ancient soci‑
eties to cope with floods. Many of these technologies are still usable now and may even be
reactivated to counter the changing and increasingly more erratic weather of the present
and the future. In addition, specific measures are proposed especially for urban areas.
More specifically this review paper is organized in seven sections; all include geo‑
graphical and chronological developments and observations on various types of technolo‑
gies and practices employed: Section 1 Prolegomena is an introduction to the theme and
elements of the review. This is followed by Section 2, which elucidates the distinct histo‑
ries of flooding from the Prehistoric Era to the Medieval Era. Section 3 deals with floods in
the Early and Mid‑Modern periods. Section 4 discusses floods in contemporary times in
several areas of the world. Section 5 represents learning from the past including notable
examples of flood protection measures. Section 6 deals with emerging trends and possible
future challenges of flooding events and counter‑measure development. Finally, Section 7,
the epilogue, comprises conclusive remarks and highlights.

2. Floods: From Prehistoric to Medieval Era (ca 7600 BC–1400 AD)

2.1. Prehistoric Times
2.1.1. Iranian and Other Prehistoric Civilizations (ca 6800–1100 BC)
The Black Sea became a giant freshwater lake during the latest Quaternary glacia‑
tion. The surface of this lake drew down to levels more than 100 m below its outlet.
When the Mediterranean rose to the Bosporus sill at 6800 before present (BP), saltwater
poured through this spillway to refill the lake and submerge, catastrophically, more than
100,000 km2 of its exposed continental shelf [14]. Ryan and Pitman [15], in their book Noah’s
Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries About the Event that Changed History, use dating of shells
from Cardium edule, Mytilus galloprovincialis, and Monodacna caspia, which prove the dis‑
semination of Mediterranean species about 7600 years ago. Analogous littoral species are
traced along the periphery of the entire Black Sea shelf. The deepening of river valleys
is one of the most reliable criteria for estimating the dimensions of the regression cycles.
According to seismic‑acoustic profiling data, the depth of the erosion cutoff of the valleys
of the Don, Inguri, Pshada, Suko, Rioni, and Kamchia rivers along the shelf periphery ex‑
ceeds 100 m. Probably, the depth of the Late Pleistocene cutoff was 120 m. Different fauna
 Cardium edule, Mytilus galloprovincialis, and Monodacna caspia, which prove the dissemina-
tion of Mediterranean species about 7600 years ago. Analogous littoral species are traced
along the periphery of the entire Black Sea shelf. The deepening of river valleys is one of
the most reliable criteria for estimating the dimensions of the regression cycles. According
Land 2023, 12, 1211
to seismic-acoustic profiling data, the depth of the erosion cutoff of the valleys of the Don,
5 of 52
Inguri, Pshada, Suko, Rioni, and Kamchia rivers along the shelf periphery exceeds 100 m.
Probably, the depth of the Late Pleistocene cutoff was 120 m. Different fauna species in
thespecies
BlackinSea
thebefore andbefore
Black Sea after and
the after
floodthe
areflood
shown in Figure
are shown 2. What
in Figure is referred
2. What to as the
is referred
Ryan–Pittman
to as the Ryan–Pittman Hypothesis states that the bathymetry of the Black Sea indicates aa sub-
Hypothesis states that the bathymetry of the Black Sea indicates
merged shoreline,
submerged caused
shoreline, by by
caused a catastrophic
a catastrophicinflow
inflowofof saline Mediterranean
saline Mediterranean water
water since ca
since
5600 BC. BC.
ca 5600

Figure 2. Black
Figure SeaSea
2. Black map showing
map various
showing variousstudy
studyareas
areasand
andsubmerged
submerged shoreline (NationalGeo‑
shoreline (National Geophys-
icsphysics
Data Center, National
Data Center, Geographic
National Maps.
Geographic Inset
Maps. artart
Inset credit:
credit:Candace
CandaceMajor,
Major, Gilles Lericolais, Irka
Gilles Lericolais,
Hajdas,
Irka Hajdas, Nenad Jakesevic, Richard Schlect. 3D Model: Peter W. Sloss) (https://sites.google.com) (as-
Nenad Jakesevic, Richard Schlect. 3D Model: Peter W. Sloss) (https://sites.google.com)
sessed on 6 on
(accessed April 2023).
6 April 2023).

InInNorth
NorthAmerica,
America, aa 5000-year regionalpaleo
5000‑year regional paleo flood
flood chronology,
chronology, based based on deposits
on deposits
from
from 1919rivers
riversininArizona
Arizona and
and Utah,
Utah,reveals
revealsthat thethe
that largest floods
largest in the
floods in region clustered
the region clustered
into distinct time intervals coinciding with periods of cool, moist climate and
into distinct time intervals coinciding with periods of cool, moist climate and frequent frequent El El
Nino events [16]. These floods were most numerous from 4800 to 3600 years before the
Nino events [16]. These floods were most numerous from 4800 to 3600 years before the
present, around 1000 years BP, and after 500 years BP, but decreased markedly from 3600
present, around 1000 years BP, and after 500 years BP, but decreased markedly from 3600
to 2200, and from 800 to 600 years BP. Similar modern flood epochs are associated with
a specific set of anomalous atmospheric circulation conditions that were probably more
prevalent in the past.
One of the most important pieces of archeological evidence of floods dates back to
the fourth millennium BC. According to high‑resolution paleoclimatic research in Lake
Neor (Ardabil, Iran), there was a very dry period with increasing dust concentrations from
about 4200 to 3000 BC. During this period, paleoclimatic evidence at the Soreq Cave, west of
Jerusalem, testifies to at least two spells of severe drought, which occurred in 3600–3700 BC
and 3150–3250 BC. Evidence of floods in the middle and late fourth millennium BC was
identified via environmental sedimentology and archaeological excavation studies in the
sites of Mafin Abad Islamshahr, Meymanat Abad Robat Karim, and Qara Tepe of Qomroud
in North Central Iran, as well as in the sites of Shuruppak, Kish and Ur in Iraq [17].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 6 of 52

2.1.2. Early Ancient Egyptians (ca 4000–1850 BC)

The Nile River is 6550 km long and is reckoned to be the longest river in the world. The
Nile draws its water from sources originating in several central and east African countries
and traverses through one of the world’s most severe deserts in Egypt into the Mediter‑
ranean Sea. Ever since paleolithic times, most of Egypt’s population settled and lived close
to the Nile banks and within its delta. Ancient Egyptians’ life was highly affected by the
Nile’s seasonal fluctuations, especially its summer floods, predictable enough since they
regularly came from June to September due to rains in Ethiopia. Thus, it was easy for
the Egyptians, who possessed advanced knowledge of the stars by which they could ac‑
curately measure the passing of time, to schedule their crop’s succession through the year.
An unexpected drought year with insufficient flooding would lead to food shortages and
even famines [18].
Hence, the Nile flooding marked the most important ecological cycle in Egypt since
ancient times. In Egyptian mythology, flooding became the allegoric expression of the
sorrow of the Goddess Isis “making tears” for the killing of Osiris by his brother Set. The
recurring event was celebrated annually at a festival called Wafaa El Nil from the middle
of August to the onset of September. The Coptic Church also celebrated the flooding of
the Nile and celebrated this event by throwing a martyr’s relic into the river. The Coptic
Church named this event The Martyr’s Finger. This event stopped when the rule of Egypt
was transferred to the Islamic State [19].
Egyptians adopted early technologies to control Nile floods: the earliest evidence of
these interventions dates to the end of the Predynastic Period, i.e., 4000 to 3100 BC, in
the Delta region, in the form of man‑built canals. Later, in the period 3000 to 2686 BC,
gates were constructed to slow flooding and draining. From about 2667 to 2648 BC, irri‑
gation systems served almost two thirds of the farmland in the Nile Delta. In the period
between 2648 and 2160 BC, increasing acidification in the region lead to the introduction
of more advanced engineering, such as the creation of artificial embankments and the en‑
largement and merging of natural overflow channels [20–22]. Sadd‑Elkafara, built from
2950 to 2750 BC, is the oldest and greatest known dam, and its ruins are still to be seen in
the Wadi el Garawi, 30 km from Cairo [23].
Ancient Egyptians diverted the Nile River into canals created on both banks. Dams
separated the canals on the riverbanks as they were opened to fill them with floodwater.
During the height of the flooding, usually at the end of September, most of the Nile Val‑
ley was immersed in water, with the exception of residential areas that were purposefully
built on higher ground [24]. Notwithstanding all the engineering developed by the old
kingdom, flooding became absent for a long spell of about 30 years and triggered the fall
of the kingdom itself. A new kingdom between 1550 to 1292 BC emerged, and more wa‑
ter technologies were adopted to control flood and drought periods. This included the
shadoof, i.e., a pole with a bucket and counterpoise used for raising water, which allowed
farmers to harvest multiple crops in the same year [20,22].
Flooding introduced the need for the development of the science of land survey: the
5th century BC Greek historian Herodotus recorded that the legendary King Sesostris
at some point for taxation divided the lands of Egypt into plots. Annual floods of the
Nile destroyed these plots; thus, surveyors were assigned to redraw the boundaries after
each flood [25].

2.1.3. Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations (ca 3200–1100 BC)

Predominantly, the third and second millennia civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
the Indus Valley, and China developed in river plains with accessible water resources for
agricultural development. Somewhat contrary to this strategy, the earliest Greek societies
saw the protection of urban areas from floods as a critical part of societal development.
Hence, most of the settlements of this period were situated on hilltops and ridges, and thus
securely distanced from rivers, lakes, or rich springs that might cause devastating flood
events (e.g., Minyan culture at Gla, near Lake Kopais in central Greece) [1,26]. In general,
 2.1.3. Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations (ca 3200–1100 BC)
Predominantly, the third and second millennia civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
the Indus Valley, and China developed in river plains with accessible water resources for
agricultural development. Somewhat contrary to this strategy, the earliest Greek societies
saw the protection of urban areas from floods as a critical part of societal development.
Land 2023, 12, 1211 7 of 52
Hence, most of the settlements of this period were situated on hilltops and ridges, and
thus securely distanced from rivers, lakes, or rich springs that might cause devastating
flood events (e.g., Minyan culture at Gla, near Lake Kopais in central Greece) [1,26]. In
most ancient
general, mostGreeks
ancient including societies of
Greeks including later periods
societies of laterchose
periodsto establish themselves
chose to establish in
them-
predominantly drier areas, but
selves in predominantly often
drier close
areas, butto natural watertosources
often close naturalsuch as springs
water sourcesinsuch
karst‑as
dominated
springs inregions. What is more,
karst-dominated we What
regions. can assume
is more,that
wethecan comforts
assumeof a dry
that theclimate
comforts with
of a
respect to health and good protection from floods, invading enemies,
dry climate with respect to health and good protection from floods, invading enemies, and water‑related
diseases determineddiseases
and water-related the choice of locationthe
determined [26,27].
choice of location [26,27].
Minoan,
Minoan, Mycenaean, Indian, and othercivilizations
Mycenaean, Indian, and other civilizationsfeltfeltananurgent
urgentneedneedtotoorganize
organize
strategies
strategiestotocounter
counterflooding
floodingand andtotofacilitate
facilitatedrainage,
drainage,collection,
collection,storage,
storage,and anduse
useofofwa‑
wa-
ter,
ter,and
and some Minoanurban
some Minoan urbandrainage
drainage and and sewerage
sewerage systemssystems are instill
are still in operation
operation (Figure
3a); the3a);
(Figure the
first first example
example of fieldofirrigation
field irrigation originates
originates from this from this period
period [28]. Modern‑
[28]. Modern-age visi-
age visitors, including the Italian writer A. Mosso [29], who
tors, including the Italian writer A. Mosso [29], who visited the place of Minoanvisited the place of Minoan
Phaistos
Phaistos
located located in the southern
in the southern part of island
part of central centralCrete,
islandatCrete, at the beginning
the beginning of the
of the last last
century,
century, noted these systems. During heavy rain, he observed that
noted these systems. During heavy rain, he observed that the pipes functioned perfectly the pipes functioned
perfectly and he recorded
and he recorded the incidentthe incident
saying: “I saying:
doubt if“Ithere
doubtareif other
there cases
are other cases of a stormwa‑
of a stormwater drainage
tersystem
drainage system that works 4000 years after its construction” [30]. Moreover,
that works 4000 years after its construction” [30]. Moreover, the American Gray (1940) the American
Gray
said:(1940)
“You said: “Youus
can enable cantoenable
doubt us to doubt
whether thewhether
modernthe modernand
sewerage sewerage
drainageandsystems
drainage systems
will operate
will operate at even a thousand
at even a thousand years” [31]. years” [31].

(a) (b)
Figure3.3.Drainage
Figure Drainagesystems
systemsininMinoan
Minoanpalaces:
palaces:(a)
(a)Part
Partofofthe
thecentral
centraldrainage
drainagesystem
systemininPhaistos
Phaistos
(photos A. N. Angelakis) and (b) part of the original wall of the “Minoan viaduct” with the stepped
(photos A. N. Angelakis) and (b) part of the original wall of the “Minoan viaduct” with the stepped
openings at Caravanserai in Knossos palace [32] (photos of Andreas N. Angelakis).
openings at Caravanserai in Knossos palace [32] (photos of Andreas N. Angelakis).

The “Minoan viaduct” is one of the most impressive structures at the Caravanserai in
the ancient entrance of the archaeological site of Knossos, the capital of Minoan civilization,
located very closed to the present capital of the island of Crete, and is the bulkiest technical
construction of Minoan Crete discovered so far (Figure 3b). According to the archeologist
Evans (1921–1935), about half of its height has survived [33]. It consisted of four columns
(width 3.2–4.60 m) of carved limestone alternating with stepped openings, probably for
the free passage of stormwater flowing from the steep hillside. The stepped openings are
from three to four tiers [28]. According to Evans, it was arched and was made with an
echoic system to be as protected as possible [33].
Anti‑flood hydraulic structures were developed during the Mycenaean period (ca
1600–1100 BC) to control stream flow, including polders, dams and artificial reservoirs for
flood water retention and storage [34]. In Tiryns, a Mycenaean archaeological site in Argo‑
lis in the Peloponnese, which lies 20 km south of Mycenae, the capital of Mycenaean civi‑
lization, a representative example was constituted (Figure 4a). It was constructed around
 probably for the free passage of stormwater flowing from the steep hillside. The stepped
openings are from three to four tiers [28]. According to Evans, it was arched and was made
with an echoic system to be as protected as possible [33].
Anti-flood hydraulic structures were developed during the Mycenaean period (ca
1600–1100 BC) to control stream flow, including polders, dams and artificial reservoirs for
Land 2023, 12, 1211 8 of 52
flood water retention and storage [34]. In Tiryns, a Mycenaean archaeological site in Ar-
golis in the Peloponnese, which lies 20 km south of Mycenae, the capital of Mycenaean
civilization, a representative example was constituted (Figure 4a). It was constructed
1200
aroundBC1200
by the
BCinhabitants of the town,
by the inhabitants of thewho
town,had experienced
who damaging
had experienced floods from
damaging floods a
stream
from a passing throughthrough
stream passing the city the
[24].city
The[24].
damThewasdam
designed to transfer
was designed to flow intoflow
transfer an artifi‑
into
cial channel,channel,
an artificial diverting the periodic
diverting floods tofloods
the periodic the lower part
to the of Tiryns,
lower part ofand for agricultural
Tiryns, and for ag-
irrigation [28].
ricultural irrigation [28].

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Mycenaean anti-flood dams: (a) General view of Tiryns dam (photo A. N. Angelakis) and
Figure 4. Mycenaean anti‑flood dams: (a) General view of Tiryns dam (photo A. N. Angelakis) and
(b) Cyclopean anti-flooding wall in Kopais (photo [35]).
(b) Cyclopean anti‑flooding wall in Kopais (photo [35]).

Finally, in
Finally, in the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean period,
period, around
around 1300
1300 BC,
BC, the
the Minyans
Minyans constructed
constructed anan anti-
anti‑
flood wall
flood wall in
in the
the Kladeos
Kladeos river,
river, aa tributary
tributary ofof the
the Alphios (Alpheus) river
Alphios (Alpheus) river [36]
[36] to
to control
control
the water
the water flow
flow and
and reduce
reduce its its destructive
destructive impact
impact onon the
the Olympia
Olympia valley
valley (northwestern
(northwestern
Peloponnese), and the site of Zeus sanctuary at Olympia and nearby
Peloponnese), and the site of Zeus’ sanctuary at Olympia and nearby Elis. Remains Elis. Remains at the
at
sanctuary originate from the Mycenean period and the Iron Age (1100–800
the sanctuary originate from the Mycenean period and the Iron Age (1100–800 BC), and BC), and the
famed
the temple
famed of Zeus
temple fromfrom
of Zeus the Classical period.
the Classical A Cyclopean
period. masonry
A Cyclopean item ofitem
masonry the Myce-
of the
naean dykesdykes
Mycenaean in Kopais, located
in Kopais, in the
located in centre of Boeotia,
the centre Greece,
of Boeotia, as preserved
Greece, as preservedtoday
todayis
shown
is shown inin
Figure
Figure4b.4b.The
Theanti-flooding
anti‑floodingstructures
structuresofofthe
thesite
sitein
in combination
combination with
with aa land
land
reclamation system included a drainage system with earthen dykes and diversion canals, canals,
which represents an impressive example of the engineering knowledge and skills in the
Mycenaean period [27,28].

2.1.4. Indus Valley Civilizations (ca 3200–1300 BC)

During the
the Early
EarlyIndian
IndianCivilization,
Civilization,thetheRig
RigVeda,
Veda,one
oneof of
thethe
oldest andand
oldest most impor‑
most im-
tant
portant religious texts of India, describes the country as the land of the Seven Rivers. This
religious texts of India, describes the country as the land of the Seven Rivers.
shows that, from the earliest historical and religious documentation about India, water
played
played aa significant
significant role
role in
inshaping
shapingits
itsidentity
identity[37].
[37].This
This reverberates
reverberates inin
thethe very
very namename
of
of
TheThe Indus
Indus Valley
Valley Civilization,
Civilization, oneofofthe
one theoldest
oldestcivilizations
civilizationsofofthe
theIndian
Indian subcontinent.
subcontinent.
Throughout history, seafaring and navigation were crucial to India’s economic develop‑
ment, with evidence suggesting that the people of the Indus Valley engaged in trade with
ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians [38].
The Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilization, which existed from around 3000–1500 BC,
was one of the earliest and most advanced civilizations in the world. Known for its large
spatial extent and high level of development in science and society, the civilization was
particularly renowned for its obsession with water. According to Jansen [39], the citizens
of the Harappan civilization prayed to the rivers every day and accorded them divine sta‑
tus. The urban centers of the civilization were developed with state‑of‑the‑art civil and
architectural designs, including sophisticated drainage and wastewater‑management sys‑
tems. Agriculture was the main economic activity of the society, and an extensive network
of reservoirs, wells, and canals, along with low‑cost water harvesting techniques, were de‑
veloped throughout the region [40]. Moreover, modern studies suggest that the cities of
Mohenjo‑Daro and Dholavira had the most effective examples of the civilization’s water‑
 were developed throughout the region [40]. Moreover, modern studies suggest that the
cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira had the most effective examples of the civilization s
water-management and drainage systems. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is considered
to be the “earliest public water tank of the ancient world”.
The Indus Valley Civilization was located in the Indus River valley, which experi-
Land 2023, 12, 1211 enced major floods in the past, as it does now. Studies of sediment layers at the site 9ofofthe 52
ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro have revealed evidence of large floods [41]. The Indus peo-
ple established a sophisticated system of canals and drainage channels to control the
floods, and they
management and built
drainagetheirsystems.
cities onTheraised platforms
Great Bath of to protect against
Mohenjo‑Daro floodwaters.
is considered toAd-
be
ditionally,
the “earliestthey
publicunderstood
water tankthe of seasonal
the ancient patterns
world”. of the floods and were able to plan ac-
cordingly.
The Indus However,
Valleysometimes
Civilization thewas
floods could
located inbe
the devastating
Indus River andvalley,
cause which
damage to the
experi‑
cities major
enced and people.
floodsArchaeological
in the past, as itevidence
does now. suggests
Studies that
of the Indus people
sediment layers at were
the well
site ofaware
the
ancient city of Mohenjo‑Daro
of the seasonal have revealed
rainfall and flooding of the evidence
Indus River of large
[42]. floods
The main[41].streets
The Indus people
of Mohenjo-
established a sophisticated
Daro and Harappa system
with widths of canals
varying fromand 3.50drainage
to 10.00channels
m, and up to to
control
1.5 kmthe floods,
long (Fig-
and
ure they builtlaid
5), were theirfrom
citieseast
on raised
to west platforms
and north to protect
to south, against floodwaters.
intersecting at right Additionally,
angles, and
they understood
served the seasonal
as flood protection [43].patterns
Lanes wereof the floods
joined withandthewere able
streets andtoeach
planlane
accordingly.
was used
However,
by the publicsometimes
and was theprovided
floods could withbestreet
devastating
lamps. and Life cause
in thedamage to theand
Indus cities cities and
general
people. Archaeological
urban status appears toevidence
have beensuggests
similar to thatthattheofIndus people were well aware of the
the Minoans.
seasonal rainfall and
In addition, flooding
societies of the
have Indus River
constructed dams [42].inThe main streets
Mehrgarh of Mohenjo‑Daro
and Mesopotamia ever
and Harappa with widths varying from 3.50 to 10.00 m, and up
since the Neolithic times. Thereafter, throughout the Bronze Age (ca 3200–1100 BC), dams to 1.5 km long (Figure 5),
were
were built in southeastern Greece and the Indus Valley (e.g., the Mohenjo-Daro is an as
laid from east to west and north to south, intersecting at right angles, and served ar-
flood protection
chaeological [43].
site Lanes
in the were joined
province with Pakistan,
of Sindh, the streetsbuiltand each
aroundlane2500
was BC),
usedto bymake
the pub‑
the
lic andmore
cities was provided
adaptive with street
to flood lamps.and
hazards Lifetoinimprove
the Indus thecities
livingand general urban
standards status
of the people
appears
[44]. to have been similar to that of the Minoans.

Figure5.5.Streets
Figure Streetsin
inMohenjo‑Daro
Mohenjo-Daroare
aresimilar
similartotothose
thoseininMinoan
Minoanplaces
placeswith
withpaved
pavedroads
roadsincluding
including
rainwater drains [44].
rainwater drains [44].

In addition, societies have constructed dams in Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia ever

since the Neolithic times. Thereafter, throughout the Bronze Age (ca 3200–1100 BC), dams
were built in southeastern Greece and the Indus Valley (e.g., the Mohenjo‑Daro is an archae‑
ological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan, built around 2500 BC), to make the cities
more adaptive to flood hazards and to improve the living standards of the people [44].

2.1.5. Babylonian, Assyrian, and Other Civilizations (ca 3500–500 BC)

The Mesopotamian Empire states (Assyria and Babylonia) marked great advances
in civilization during the second millennium BC. The ruins of their cities include well‑
constructed storm drainage and sanitary sewer systems. For example, the ancient cities of
Ur and Babylon, located in present‑day Iraq, had effective drainage for stormwater con‑
trol [45]. These were built as vaulted sewers, connected with drains for household waste,
gutters for surface runoff collection, and flood protection [46]. The structural material was
baked bricks (clay) with asphalt sealant. Mesopotamians viewed urban runoff as a nui‑
sance and flooding concern, a waste conveyor, and a vital natural resource; therefore, rain‑
water was collected for household and irrigation uses. Babylonians were also motivated
to construct urban drainage systems by their desire for cleanliness: like in other ancient
civilizations, uncleanliness was considered a taboo, due to the moral evil it suggested [47].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 10 of 52

2.1.6. Early Chinese Civilization (ca 2000–200 BC)

China developed as a river‑based agricultural society around major rivers, in particu‑
lar the Yangtze River and Yellow River. Accordingly, the evolution of Chinese civilization
and state formation was closely related to the societal interaction with these major rivers.
It is a fact that living at the rivers was and is a priority because of the basic need for water
for agriculture. At the same time, however, the choice to develop next to rivers exposed
societies to flood hazards. Therefore, river flood management has been acknowledged as
vital from early history to the present age.
The mid‑ and downstream sequences of the Yellow River were the center of early Chi‑
nese civilization and the state‑formation process. The earliest documented event of flood
governance as well as the most popular folklore narrative in China is the story of Da Yu the
Great’s governance of water. According to the story, at some point in Da Yu the Great’s
lifetime (around 2000 BC), when the Yellow River was flooding frequently in the middle
basin, which the ancestors of the Chinese inhabited, the people suffered huge distress [48].
Much effort was invested by the leaders of the local tribes in governing the flood but with
no effect whatsoever. Da Yu, the son of the leader of the tribe groups, was appointed to
continue governing the flood after the works of his father and ancestors failed. After a
field survey in the flood areas and assessment of the previous flood‑management works,
he found that the previous works of flood governance failed because they had made a lot
of dams and mounds in order to stop floods, but they neglected managing the water after
the mounds. So he changed the idea of water governance from halting water to leading
water into the East China Sea. He led people to direct water into the sea successfully; after
that, future floods were effectively governed and people experienced a safe environment
for life. Because of this great achievement, Da Yu the Great became the Emperor of the Xia
Dynasty, the first dynasty of China. “Water has to be led and not just be stopped”; this leg‑
end of Da Yu the Great became the most important principle of Chinese water governance,
but it had a profound influence on Chinese society beyond this, including the principle of
flood control becoming a norm of social management for subsequent thousands of years.
Accordingly, according to popular legends and early documents from around 700 BC, the
first dynasty, the Xia Dynasty, emerged dealing with successful flood‑management strate‑
gies and achievements [49].
China was united as a country by Qin the Frist Emperor in 221 BC. However, before
the states were united, the states along the midstream and downstream of the Yellow Basin
had succeeded in flood management in the Yellow River waterway and its tributaries using
dyke dams. At that period, not all flooding was natural but some was artificial due to some
states using water as a weapon to damage and even destroy populations, settlements, and
agriculture. To avoid this disaster, states constructed large dykes and directed waterways
to manage floods. Thus, dyke construction was a very early feature of flood control in the
Chinese context. Concurrently, however, in this early period, sections of the Yellow River
were managed separately by the states, so a consolidated inter‑state dyke construction
strategy was not coherent and uniform enough to be linked together. Thus, in this early
period, flood water was not harvested and saved effectively. This situation changed with
the establishment of the Qin Empire when the emperors’ engineers successfully linked the
dykes into a coherently functioning system.

2.2. Historical Times (ca 1100 BC–476 AD)

2.2.1. The Kingdom of Kush in Egypt and Sudan (ca 1070 BC to 350 AD)
Several ancient civilizations in Africa such as the ancient city of Meroe which was the
capital of the Kingdom of Kush (1070 BC to 350 AD) located in what is now modern‑day Su‑
dan, were located near the Nile river and experienced frequent flooding [50]. In the King‑
dom of Kush, the population likely used various methods to combat floods. These may
have included building levees and dykes along the Nile to control the flow of water and
creating drainage systems to channel water away from populated areas. Additionally, the
Kushite people may have also practiced flood‑resistant agriculture, such as planting crops
 Several ancient civilizations in Africa such as the ancient city of Meroe which was th
capital of the Kingdom of Kush (1070 BC to 350 AD) located in what is now modern-day Su
dan, were located near the Nile river and experienced frequent flooding [50]. In the Kingdom
of Kush, the population likely used various methods to combat floods. These may have in
Land 2023, 12, 1211 cluded building levees and dykes along the Nile to control the flow of water 11 and
of 52 creatin
drainage systems to channel water away from populated areas. Additionally, the Kushite peo
ple may have also practiced flood-resistant agriculture, such as planting crops that could with
stand
that longwithstand
could periods of submersion
long periods ofinsubmersion
water [51].in These
waterstrategies would
[51]. These have helped
strategies would the pop
have helped
ulation the population
mitigate the impacts mitigate the and
of floods impacts of floods
protect their and protect their
communities andcommunities
livelihoods.
and livelihoods.
Furthermore, the Kushites developed a type of reservoir known as a Hafir to stor
waterFurthermore, the and
for irrigation Kushites
otherdeveloped a type
agricultural of reservoir
purposes known
in their as a Hafir
kingdom to store
(Figure 6). A Hafi
water for irrigation and other agricultural purposes in their kingdom (Figure 6). A Hafir is
is a large basin used to store water in ancient Kushite civilization, located in the Nile Val
a large basin used to store water in ancient Kushite civilization, located in the Nile Valley. It
ley. It was a crucial component of their agricultural system and helped in providing
was a crucial component of their agricultural system and helped in providing a consistent
consistent
water sourcewater source
for crops, evenfor crops,
during dryeven during
seasons. drywere
Hafirs seasons. Hafirs
typically were typically
constructed with con
structed with mud bricks and served as a symbol of wealth, power,
mud bricks and served as a symbol of wealth, power, and prestige for the local rulers and and prestige for th
local rulers and
communities. communities.
In addition In addition
to irrigation, to irrigation,
they were also usedthey were also
for fishing andused for fishing and
sometimes
served as a source
sometimes servedofas
drinking
a source water. The creation
of drinking water.and maintenance
The creation and of Hafirs requiredof Hafir
maintenance
significant
required effort and resources,
significant effort andshowcasing the importance
resources, showcasing placed on water management
the importance placed on wate
in the ancient Kushite civilization in what is now modern‑day Sudan.
management in the ancient Kushite civilization in what is now modern-day Sudan.

Figure6.6.The
Figure The Great
Great Hafir
Hafir at Musawwarat
at Musawwarat es-Sufrain
es‑Sufrain west Butana
west Butana in(Wikipedia).
in Sudan Sudan (Wikipedia).

The
Theancient city
ancient of Meroe
city in Sudan
of Meroe is home
in Sudan to several
is home well‑preserved
to several pyramids
well-preserved that
pyramids tha
date back thousands of years. However, the city and its pyramids have been threatened
date back thousands of years. However, the city and its pyramids have been threatened
by recent record flooding (Figure 7). The floods, which have been fueled by heavy rains
Land 2023, 12, 1211
by recent record flooding (Figure 7). The floods, which have been fueled by heavy
12 of 53
rain
and the overflowing of the nearby Nile River, have caused significant damage to the city
and the overflowing of the nearby Nile River, have caused significant damage to the cit
and its ancient structures.
and its ancient structures.

Figure7.7.Threat
Figure Threatto
toSudanese
SudanesePyramids
Pyramids(UNESCO
(UNESCOworld
worldheritage
heritagesite)
site)in
inthe
theMeroe
Meroeplain
plainposed
posedby
by
River Nile Flooding (Woldgang Burkle/Adove Stock).
River Nile Flooding (Woldgang Burkle/Adove Stock).

The pyramids at Meroe are some of the best-preserved ancient pyramids in Africa,
and they are considered to be important cultural and historical landmarks. The floods
have raised concerns about the long-term stability of the pyramids, as well as the safety
of the tourists and local communities who visit the site. Efforts are underway to protect
Land 2023, 12, 1211 12 of 52

The pyramids at Meroe are some of the best‑preserved ancient pyramids in Africa,
and they are considered to be important cultural and historical landmarks. The floods
have raised concerns about the long‑term stability of the pyramids, as well as the safety of
the tourists and local communities who visit the site. Efforts are underway to protect the
pyramids and the city of Meroe from further damage. The Sudanese government, along
with local communities and international organizations, is working to build levees and
other protective structures to prevent flooding and protect the ancient structures.
The recent record flooding in Meroe is a reminder of the vulnerability of ancient struc‑
tures and the importance of protecting cultural heritage. The necessary measures must be
taken to prevent further damage and ensure the preservation of these important landmarks
for future generations.

2.2.2. Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods (ca 750 BC–476 AD)
Students of the ancient Greek past and its Classical heritage are familiar with the
mythological corpus allegedly confirming the cultural order between gods, men, and an‑
imals (e.g., the Prometheus myth), and myths of great deluges, including the Orgygian
and Deucalion floods [28]. Situated in its mythological deep past, the destructive forces of
floods swept and even destroyed Greek lands including Plato’s Atlantis, and he makes re‑
marks in the dialogs Timaeus (22) and Critias (111a–112a) concerning how this occurrence
shaped the physical outline of Attica in his day. This type of mythical construction served
different purposes in the treatises of Greek and Roman antiquity, including contempla‑
tions of moral decline between past and present, and etiological purposes explaining how
the physical world came to be, and how Gods and humans developed and interacted in
the past.
The history of flooding in ancient Greek contexts confines strategies concerned with
the protection of urban areas and in particular agricultural lands. The topography and
geology of the Greek mainland and the isles of the Aegean Sea display great diversity,
including mountain ranges separating smaller and large plains suitable for agriculture.
Rivers cut through these landscapes, and at times currents have had a great impact on
their surroundings with seasonal erosion and alluvial deposits. The hydrology of Greek
landscapes, past and present, is dominated by erratic rainfall throughout seasons, with the
dominant winter rain as a particularly destructive force.
Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the Greek architect, urban planner, physician,
mathematician, meteorologist, and philosopher and “the father of European urban plan‑
ning” [51], was active in the context of the so‑called Ionian School, in Miletus. He devel‑
oped sophisticated urban planning, the so‑called Hippodamian grid, which was not just
the implementation of an ortho‑regular road system; it was the general and physical orga‑
nization of a city to serve its functions in a rational way, including infrastructure to protect
cities from floods [52]. His planning method was first applied to Miletus, then to Kas‑
sope (Cassope), Olynthus, Pella, Piraeus, Priene, Rhodes, Alexandria in Egypt, and other
places [28].
According to the Hippodamian grid plan, the streets were 9 to 10 m wide, except
for the main east–west artery, which was up to 15 m wide (Figure 6a,b). Drainage and
sewerage were built under the pediments (not preserved) as shown in the images of Pella
(the capital of Macedonia founded by King Archelaus I around 400 BC) and Kassope (an
ancient Greek city in Epirus), respectively [28] (Figure 8).
 His
Hisplanning
planningmethod
methodwas wasfirst
firstapplied
appliedto
toMiletus,
Miletus,then
thentotoKassope
Kassope(Cassope),
(Cassope),Olynthus,
Olynthus,Pella,
Pella,
Piraeus,
Piraeus,Priene,
Priene,Rhodes,
Rhodes,Alexandria
Alexandriain inEgypt,
Egypt,and
andother
otherplaces
places[28].
[28].
According
Accordingto tothe
theHippodamian
Hippodamiangrid gridplan,
plan,the
thestreets
streetswere
were99to to10
10m mwide,
wide,except
exceptfor
for
the main east–west artery, which was up to 15 m wide (Figure 6a,b). Drainage
the main east–west artery, which was up to 15 m wide (Figure 6a,b). Drainage and sewer- and sewer-
age
age were
were built
built under
under the
the pediments
pediments (not
(not preserved)
preserved)as as shown
shown inin the
the images
images of
ofPella
Pella (the
(the
Land 2023, 12, 1211 13 of 52
capital
capital of
of Macedonia
Macedonia founded
founded by by King
KingArchelaus
Archelaus II around
around 400
400 BC)
BC) and
and Kassope
Kassope (an
(an an-
an-
cient
cientGreek
Greekcity
cityininEpirus),
Epirus),respectively
respectively[28]
[28](Figure
(Figure8).
8).

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure8.
8.General
General views of cities built on aaHippodamian plan: (a) Pella and (b) Kassope with rem-
Figure 8. General views
views of
of cities
cities built
built on
on a Hippodamian
Hippodamian plan:
plan: (a)
(a) Pella
Pella and
and (b)
(b) Kassope
Kassope with
with rem-
rem‑
nants
nantsof
ofthe
thedrainage
drainageand
andsewerage
seweragesystem
system(photos
(photosA.
A.N.
N.Angelakis).
Angelakis).
nants of the drainage and sewerage system (photos A. N. Angelakis).

Another
Another important
Another important example
important example of
example of flood
of flood control
flood control works
control works is
works is the
is the Alyzia
the Alyzia dam,
Alyzia dam, in
dam, in western
in western
western
Greece. The
Greece. The
Greece. city
The city of
city of Alyzia
of Alyzia was
Alyzia was located
located on
was located on the
on the coastline
the coastline
coastline ofof Akarnania.
of Akarnania.
Akarnania. Close Close to
Close to it,
it, on
to it, on the
on the
the
fringes
fringes of
fringes of the
ofthe Acarnanian
theAcarnanian Mountains,
AcarnanianMountains,
Mountains,lies lies
lies a unique
a unique
a unique example
example
example of ancient
of ancient
of ancient hydraulic
hydraulic
hydraulic struc-
struc-
structures
tures
tures constructed
constructed duringduring
constructed during
the fifththe
the fifth
fifth century
century BC. TheBC.
century BC. The
The arrangement
arrangement includesincludes
arrangement aincludes
stone dam,aa stone
stone dam,
equippeddam,
equipped
equipped with
with aastone-carved
stone-carved lateral
lateral spillway
spillway (Figure
(Figure 9),
9), in
in which
which
with a stone‑carved lateral spillway (Figure 9), in which the bottom part is characterized the
the bottom
bottom part
part is
is char-
char-
acterized
acterized
by squaredby squared
byblocks,
squared blocks,
blocks, irregularly
irregularly irregularly
placed, with placed,
placed, with
smallerwith smaller
smaller
blocks blocks
blocks
filling filling
the gapsfilling the
the gaps
between gaps be-
be-
them.
tween
tween
In them.
the upper In
them.zone, the upper
In thewhere
upperthe zone,
zone, where
slopewhere
becomes the slope
the milder, becomes
slope becomes
stones are milder,
milder, stones
uniformlystones are uniformly
are uniformly
shaped, and reg‑
shaped,
shaped,
ularly and
and regularly
positionedregularly positioned
positioned
with smaller gaps,with
with
which smaller
smaller
did notgaps,
gaps, which
which
require did not
not require
didwith
filling smaller filling
require filling with
stones. with
The
smaller
smaller stones.
structure stones.
impressesThe
The structure
structure
the observerimpresses
with its the
impresses the observer
observer
overall with
with its
technological overall
itsand
overall technological
technological
constructional and
and
quality.
constructional
constructional
According quality.
quality.
to Murray According
This “is to
According
[53]: to Murray
the clearest,[53]:
Murray [53]: This “is
Thisand
largest, the
the clearest,
“ismost clearest, largest,
largest, and
technologically and most
advancedmost
technologically
ancient specimen
technologically advanced
yet known
advanced ancient
in the
ancient specimen yet
yetknown
whole country”.
specimen knownin inthe
thewhole
wholecountry”.
country”.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 9. The dam of Alyzia: (a) the dam and (b) the spillway with its irregular shape formed via
erosion over centuries is shown on the right of the left photo and in operation.

Construction of such a structure certainly required considerable effort by the city. Var‑
ious hypotheses have been advanced about the reasons that led to its erection. Most con‑
clude that the dam was built to collect drinking, irrigation, or “industrial” use water (for
washing sheep wool). Another study [54] advanced a different scenario, submitting that
floods in the Alyzia valley were exceptionally intense, leading to serious problems in ur‑
ban and suburban areas. To mitigate floods and retain the coarse sediment that inundated
Land 2023, 12, 1211 14 of 52

the valley, the people of Alyzia constructed the dam in the most suitable location along the
river. Even today, this solution could be one of the most effective for flood and sedimenta‑
tion control [28]. The current condition of the dam is excellent: stones are still in place and
only slightly smoothed, giving the clue that the spillway has always operated effectively
for over 2500 years.
The extant evidence from the Classical period (ca 500–300 BC) demonstrates that farm‑
ers were particularly observant of the destructive force of erratic rain causing serious dam‑
age to property including agricultural lands, livestock, and crops. The peninsula of Attica
with its major urban areas of Athens proper and the Piraeus expanded greatly during the
fifth century, and in this process added much‑needed hydraulic infrastructure including
measures against torrential rain and its destructive abilities [34]. In the Attic countryside,
moreover, erratic rainfall caused damage to the road system and triggered legal disputes
between neighbors. In a forensic speech by Demosthenes (Against Callisthenes, no. 55) the
accused defended himself against the plaintiff’s (Callisthenes) accusations of damming a
watercourse with a wall alongside the road between the two estates in question. Thus, al‑
legedly, during a storm water flooded the land and the estate of Callisthenes and caused
damage to land and some barley and wheat flour. The details of the case leave the im‑
pression that the estates were located in a hilly country, and this type of land naturally
called for measures to control the changeable patterns of precipitation of Attica. The set‑
tlement history of the peninsula points in the same direction. In the territory of the south‑
ernmost deme (local administrative entity) Atene, German archaeologists conducted in
the 1980s an intensive survey and identified several outlaying farmsteads with adjacent
agricultural terraces [55]. Together with terrace walls, the survey team observed several
constructions, aimed at directing torrential water through or around the terraces to prevent
damage. In addition, and as a possible side effect, these constructed watercourses drained
water amassed in the soil behind the agricultural terrace walls and thus prevented their col‑
lapse. The possible amassment of water in basins at some of the constructed watercourses
even suggests that the drainage and control of precipitation and irrigation constituted the
double effect of water management in hilly agricultural land [56].
Ostensibly, the same strategy lies behind the outlines of a grand‑scale drainage project
of Lake Ptechae adjacent to the ancient city of Eretria on the island of Evia (Euboea) (Walker
2004 on Eretria, Krasilnikoff 2010 on the drainage project, and Krasilnikoff and Angelakis
2019 on the judicial aspects of the project) [26,57,58]. The inscription (IG XII.9.191A) from
around 320 BC specifying the agreement states that the entrepreneur Chairephanes was
hired to perform the construction and lists details concerning the project. It is uncertain
whether the drainage facilities were ever built, but it is of some importance to acknowledge
that the Eretrians contemplated water‑management projects of significant scale. Presum‑
ably, the double irrigation–drainage function of the project may have assisted in preventing
massive winter rain from causing damage to land and communities in its surroundings.
Inscriptions from the Classical city‑state of Gortyn display the endemic challenge of
flooding agricultural land. In Gortyn as in Attica, control of water agricultural land in
the hilly country posed a challenge to farmers. Extant laws from the Classical period
(ca 500–300 BC) display the keen civic interest in law‑making preventing the negative ef‑
fects of torrential rain and instructing farmers not to lead off water through the land of
neighbors (IC IV 73 A, IC IV 52 A and 52 B, 1–6).
The successor of Aristotle as head of the Peripatetic school at Athens, Theophrastus,
speculated that the climate of the island of Crete was variable: “But if, then, it is true what
others, especially those (living) in Crete, say, that now the winters are longer and more
snow falls, presenting as proof the fact that the mountains once had been inhabited and
bore crops, both grain and fruit‑tree, the land having been planted and cultivated. For
there are vast plains among the Idaean mountain and others, none of which are farmed
now because they do not bear (crops). But once, as was said, they were settled, for which
reason indeed the island was full of people, as heavy rain occurred at that time, whereas
much snow and wintery weather did not occur” [59].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 15 of 52

2.2.3. Indian Historical Times (ca 1100 BC–476 AD)

The Mauryan Empire in India (322–185 BC) was known for its advanced hydraulic
civilization, as evidenced by structures at the locations of Pynes and Ahars (irrigation
and water‑management system) and the Sudarshan Lake reservoir at Girnar. The water‑
management structures of the Mauryans suggest a thorough understanding of dam and
reservoir construction, water channeling, and hydrological processes. Moreover, water
pricing was also an integral part of their water‑management system [60].
The manuscript of Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, who was reportedly the chief
minister to Emperor Chandragupta (ca 300 BC), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, deals
with several issues of governance, including water governance. It mentions a manually
operated cooling device called “Variyantra” (a revolving water spray for cooling the air)
and provides an extensive account of hydraulic structures built for irrigation and other
purposes during the Mauryan empire [61].
Floods have been a recurring natural disaster in India’s history, particularly in riverine
areas. Flood frequency and severity likely varied depending on factors such as climate
variability and human land‑use practices during the Prehistoric Era. Although historical
records from this period are scarce, accounts of significant floods can be found in texts such
as the Vedas, Puranas, and medieval chronicles.
Floods are mentioned in several ancient Indian texts, such as the Shastri and Tagare [62]
in the Vedas and the Puranas. The Vedas, which are some of the oldest sacred texts of Hin‑
duism, contain references to natural disasters, including floods. For example, the Rigveda
describes a great flood that submerged the earth and destroyed all forms of life [63]. The
Puranas, which are later texts that contain stories about the gods and goddesses of Hin‑
duism, also describe floods and their devastating effects. For example, the Matsya Purana
describes a great flood that was sent by the god Vishnu to destroy a world overrun by evil.
The story of the great flood, in which the god Vishnu takes the form of a fish to save the
first man, Manu, and the seed of all living creatures from the flood, is also found in the
Vedas and the Puranas [62].
The ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, presumably composed sometime between
400 BC and 400 AD, describes a devastating flood that occurred during the Kurukshetra
War. The text describes the flooding of the entire world, with only a few survivors
remaining [64].

2.2.4. Roman Period (31 BC–476 AD)

The history of flooding in Rome can be traced back to the myth of the city’s foundation
when Romulus built his city on Palatine Hill. Like many other ancient cities, Rome was
established near a river (the Tiber), providing easy access in and out of it and, at the same
time, defense from enemies. Rome gradually expanded to encompass the famous “seven
hills”, overlooking the marshy floodplains adjacent to the river, which was well protected
from water surges. It is thought that floodplains were not occupied by residential buildings
during ancient times, save for a few establishments dedicated to agriculture or trading [65].
Starting as far back as ca the sixth century BC, the Tiber was altered by engineering projects,
with canals draining the marshes and diverting the flow of nearby streams into the main
course [66]. These projects allowed the development of settlements in the low‑lying areas
below the seven hills. One such area became the famous Roman Forum; the canal that
drained it was eventually covered, becoming the Cloaca Maxima, the main drainage and
sewage system of ancient Rome, critical for draining floodwater from the low‑lying Fo‑
rum and adjacent areas. The Cloaca Maxima also connected drainage systems of nearby
bathhouses, public toilets, and street drains, diverting all water and wastewater into the
Tiber in a large outfall that can still be seen today. However, the Cloaca was not a per‑
fect drainage system, and floodwater from the river sometimes back‑flowed into the city
through it during floods of the Tiber. At a river height above 15.7 m asl, the cloaca would
be completely submerged: the Cloaca Maxima thus differentiated the severity of floods in
Land 2023, 12, 1211 16 of 52

Rome, with major floods occurring with river levels above 16 m asl, and minor local floods
occurring at levels below 16 m.
Due to its location, over the course of centuries, Rome was subjected to many flood
events: in total, 33 recorded floods occurred in ancient Rome, in the period 414 BC to
398 AD [66], although records are relatively vague and do not mention high water marks
or damage caused. This lack of information may suggest that Romans could have been
relatively indifferent towards the effects of the floods, as most of them lived in the hills:
archaeological evidence on building distribution indicates that the majority of public and
commercial buildings were located in the river floodplains, while most private homes were
established in the hills above, and thus would be left untouched by a flood [66].
To develop flood protection, engineers first had to understand how floods formed in
Rome: they are mostly caused by rain during the winter. Due to the watershed’s soil prop‑
erties, composed of relatively impermeable fine particles of volcanic ash, flood conditions
in Rome build up through gradual soil saturation by prolonged rain. Finally the ground
can become saturated very quickly. Floods will usually occur after about 90 days of low
but consistent rainfall, followed by more intense events that will then produce large vol‑
umes of surface runoff, carried by the river. Consequently, Roman engineers developed
plans and structures to protect the city: an important measure for preventing floods was
to build high embankments along the river; however, these were often not successful due
to insufficient height. Records show that to control floods Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, one
of the most influential architects/engineers of the Roman Empire, and curator of public
works under Emperor Augustus implemented programs to keep the riverbed clear of de‑
bris, erect embankments, and improve flow conditions within the Cloaca Maxima. Due
to the frequent floodings, deposited sediment and debris naturally raised the level of the
city, making it more resistant to future floods. In addition, the elevation of some lower ar‑
eas, most notably the Roman Forum, was artificially raised: during excavations, it was
discovered that, in some sections, ancient buildings sit on top of up to eight layers of
man‑made debris [66].
The Romans developed centuriation in Italy and over all the Empire and traces of
the work are still visible today, larger or smaller according to circumstances. Centuriation
entailed a division of a territory into geometrical figures, as regular as possible and of equal
size, the building of infrastructures (roads, canals for drainage, and sometimes canals for
irrigation), and the assignment of single plots [67].
The development of centuriation had the following aims: (a) settling a loyal and sta‑
ble population; (b) guaranteeing water drainage from a flat terrain towards the natural
outlets; (c) increasing agricultural production; and (d) improving the living conditions of
local settlers. Roman centuriation affected many hectares all over Italy and in other areas
of the Empire (France, Spain, England, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Dalma‑
tia, Greece, and North Africa) mostly in the plains. It usually led to radical hydraulic
improvement of the territory. The orientation of this parceling was designed to control
rainwater and discharge from surface water tables, so as to prevent flooding and return to
marshland [67].

2.2.5. Chinese Han Dynasties (ca 202 BC–220 AD)

The Emperors of the Han Dynasty were powerful and resourceful agents of societal
development and prompted a particularly flourishing period in Chinese history. This in‑
cluded significant contributions to the development of water management and flood man‑
agement. The Han Dynasty ruled in two separate chronological and geographical settings,
the West Han (202 BC–8 AD) and East Han (25–220 AD). In this period, flooding frequently
occurred in the mid‑ and downstream basin of the Yellow River; it covered the economic,
social, and politic centers of the empire. Largescale floods are recorded 16 times in the
official historical book “The Han Book”. The Yellow River changed its riverway, at times
in history even connected with the riverway of Huai River, another big river in China. The
change in the riverway of the Yellow River was an important cause of flooding. Flooding of‑
Land 2023, 12, 1211 17 of 52

ten imposed massive loss of lives on local populations, and considerable tracts of farmland
and settlements were damaged or destroyed as well. Consequently, as an example, due
to the flooding in 29 BC in the location of the crevasse at the Yellow River in the Dong‑Jin
prefecture, 9700 people were forced to leave their homeland [48].
Depending on the situation regarding the level of water in the river, restoration and
strengthening of the dyke of the Yellow River became an important governmental affair
of central and local administrations, and especially in and after Emperor Han Wu’s reign,
flood management was practiced on a large scale. Year after year, thousands of laborers
were forced to restore the crevasse and strengthen dykes. On the technical level, water‑
course management was executed using heightening dykes with earth and stone to stop
water from spilling over. The crevasse was blocked off using reinforcing with wood, bam‑
boo, and filling stone and earth. Thus, flood control of the Yellow River was effectively
managed by hard efforts. At the same time, however, the level of the riverbed was in‑
creased above the ground due to the deposition of huge sediment and continually ris‑
ing riverbanks to prevent flood; this caused the river to dry up. This situation caused
most sections of the mid‑ and downstream sections of the Yellow River to flow above
ground level.
The Han Dynasty was not just effective in achieving flood management of the Yellow
River, but excelled in urban water management as well, especially regarding urban flood
management. The Han Dynasty’s capital was Chang’an city, near today’s Xi’an city, Shanxi
Province [45]. According to historical documents, from its very beginning, this capital city
was envisioned to be very large and remained so for 15 dynasties until 907 AD. Chang’an
city extended over 35 km2 and supported a population of 500,000 people [68,69]. Archeo‑
logical studies suggest that a complex water system including a drainage system was built
in the city to support water supply, drainage, storage of water and transportation of ships
(Figure 10). The city was founded at the south side of Wei Shui (渭水) River, but the water
supply was connected to the Jue Shui (泬水) River from the south of the city, which flowed
into the city from the north. Similarly, it flowed across the palaces and the part of the city
called the Ming Ditch (9 km in length), and finally connected with the Wei Shui River on
the other side of the city. The other branch of the Jue Shui River also flows across parts of
the town and then into the Wei Shui River. As a water system, a series of hydraulic engi‑
neering items were built to accomplish separate functions. For example, large ponds were
built for sluice, and the most famous one, which still exists today, is called Kunming Pond.
This pond performs the functions of rainwater sluice in the summer, and water storage
and supply in winter. Outside the town, a fosse (length of 26 km) was built around the
town, connecting with the city river, Ming Ditch, and it also performs the function of stor‑
age of rainwater from the town [69,70]. The water systems were connected to water supply
rivers, ponds, drainage sluiceways, fosses, and drainage rivers. However, rainwater and
waste water gathered via underground sewers and channels from the palaces and resident
places of the city were led into the main system, and later into the Wei Shui River via the
Jue River, which comprises a perfect urban drainage system.
The impact of the water system of Han Chang’an city reached beyond the site itself
and created a model of the urban drainage system and design for major cities in the cen‑
turies to follow. The logic of the model was that a city usually built a fosse circumscribing
the town wall, with one or more canals across the city and some ponds, which were con‑
structed as the main structure of the water system. Finally, the construction and connection
of drainage channels with underground sewers, pipelines, channels, etc., from residential
areas of the city were also achieved. Hence, when the rainwater or wastewater was gath‑
ered, it was directed into the main system via the subsystem and stored in the ponds or in
the fosse. Outside the city, normally, a canal was built to facilitate water for the city’s water
supply, and another channel connected the fosse and the river in the lower reaches of the
river for drainage. With this function, wastewater was usually cleansed in the ponds and
the fosse, and when stormwater came, it was channeled into the ponds and the fosse, and
Land 2023, 12,2023,
Land 121112, 1211 1852of 53
18 of

later into the river. Therefore, flooding could be effectively stopped via this system, and
additionally, the system supported storage of water to be used during the dry season [69].

Figure 10. The sketch map of Chang’an City urban water system (with permission of Xiao
Yun.Zheng).

2.2.6. Byukgolje, the Largest Man‑Made Reservoir in Old Korea, Baekje Dynasty (ca
18 10.
Figure BC–660 AD) map of Chang an City urban water system (with permission of Xiao
The sketch
Yun.Zheng).
Because Korea is located in the Monsoon region, flooding and drought can occur in
the same year. To make things worse, since 65% of the country is a mountainous area,
The impact
rainwater of the
flows downwater
withsystem of Han
high force, makingChang an citymanagement
rainwater reached beyond the sitefor
a big concern itself
theand
created a model of
government. A the urbansolution
common drainage hassystem
been toand
builddesign for major
reservoirs citiesrainwater
to collect in the centuries
during to
the The
follow. summerlogicand use model
of the it for spring.
was that a city usually built a fosse circumscribing the town
In the southern
wall, with one or more canals part of the Korean
across thepeninsula, ruins of
city and some an earthen
ponds, whichbank andconstructed
were stone gates as
can be seen in Kimje city, which means “the bank that makes money”. It was completed in
the main structure of the water system. Finally, the construction and connection of drainage
ca 330 AD under King Biryu of the Baekje Dynasty. Its length was 3.3 km with a trapezoidal
channels with underground sewers, pipelines, channels, etc., from residential areas of the
cross‑section of a height of 4.3 m, a bottom length of 17.5 m, and a top length of 7.5 m;
city were
three also
stoneachieved.
gates wereHence,
built towhen
divertthe rainwater
water or wastewater
in the direction of other was
cities.gathered,
The area it
ofwas
the di-
rected into thewas
reservoir main34.5system
2
km with via athe subsystem and
circumference stored
of 68.8 km, in the ponds
which made itortheinlargest
the fosse.
man‑ Out-
side made
the city, normally,
reservoir in theaworld
canalatwas the built to facilitate
time, with water
the function of for the city
collecting s waterand
rainwater supply,
usingand
another
it forchannel
mitigationconnected the fosse
of both floods andand the river in the lower reaches of the river for drain-
droughts.
age. WithThe thissame construction
function, technology
wastewater was was adopted
usually in Japan
cleansed to construct
in the ponds and the Sayama‑Ike
the fosse, and
reservoir in 616 AD. The area of the reservoir, still standing, is 0.36 km 2 , with a circumfer‑
when stormwater came, it was channeled into the ponds and the fosse, and later into the
river.ence of 3 km, bank length of 730 m, and height of 18.5 m. Both Kimje City in Korea and
Therefore, flooding could be effectively stopped via this system, and additionally, the
Sayama City in Japan are trying to list their ancient reservoir construction technologies
system supported storage of water to be used during the dry season [69].
with UNESCO world cultural heritage.

2.2.6.2.2.7.
Byukgolje, thePeriod
Byzantine Largest(ca Man-Made
330–1453 AD) Reservoir in Old Korea, Baekje Dynasty (ca 18
BC–660 AD) According to historical records, several natural catastrophes occurred in the Byzantine
period,
Because with towns
Korea is being destroyed
located by naturalregion,
in the Monsoon calamities, including
flooding andfloods and can
drought tsunamis.
occur in
The Byzantine Empire endured severe weather conditions, a plague, a large
the same year. To make things worse, since 65% of the country is a mountainous flood, two
area,
rainwater flows down with high force, making rainwater management a big concern for
the government. A common solution has been to build reservoirs to collect rainwater dur-
ing the summer and use it for spring.
In the southern part of the Korean peninsula, ruins of an earthen bank and stone gates
Land 2023, 12, 1211 19 of 52

tsunamis, and three significant earthquakes during the reign of Justinian I, earthquakes
being by far the most frequent calamity due to the empire’s location between Anatolia
and the Mediterranean, a highly seismic area [71,72]. According to the Chronicle of John
Malalas, the Daisan (Skirtos) River, a tributary of the Euphrates, in Southeast Asia Minor,
suddenly flooded in 525 AD, and within a few hours, the flood submerged the entire city of
Urfa. Because the city was walled, the flood turned it into a lake until water pressure caused
the walls to collapse, releasing it to the plains outside [72]. Leo the Deacon wrote about
an exceptional storm in Istanbul (formerly known as Constantinople) during June of 967
AD: this was unlike any other storm that had ever occurred. Overflowing rivers invaded
the city’s narrow streets during three hours of continuous rain, destroying anything they
encountered (Deacon). Moreover, during the Second Crusade, 7 and 8 September 1147,
records report that the German camp was flooded and destroyed [73,74].

2.2.8. Medieval Times (ca 476–1400 AD)

The flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia in 628 AD was prob‑
ably one of the main reasons for the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. Blazeri, the Islamic histo‑
rian, attributes the end of the reign of Khosrow Parviz to the occurrence of this great flood.
The event led to the death of many people, the destruction of crops, famine, displacement,
and the spread of the plague [17].
The Turkish Seljuk Empire was established as a result of increased Turkish immigra‑
tion to Anatolia following the Battle of Manzikert on 26 August 1071. In a short period, the
Empire, which dominated Anatolia’s geography, attained political independence. Like
most other states, it experienced diseases and natural disasters. Even though the historical
sources of the time do not accurately reflect the losses incurred as a result of these disasters,
it is not difficult to assume that a significant number of lives were lost and that the Empire
was seriously challenged as a result. The first disaster recorded in that period was the flood
of the Euphrates River: in 1079/80, the river flooded as a result of heavy rain, and the water
climbed 6.12 m [75]. Later, on 19 May 1165, due to the torrential rains in Meyyafarikin, a
flood was able to transport downed trees and grazing animals away; Ibnü’l‑Ezrak indicates
that the catastrophe also claimed the lives of 160 persons (İbnü’l‑Ezrak). A series of violent
storms and floods struck the Cilicia region in 1154, forcing the Turkish Seljuk Sultan Mesut
to postpone his campaign against the Armenians [76].
The city of Antakya experienced a disastrous flood in May 1178 as a result of heavy
rain. According to Syriac Mikhail, “In May 1178, a great rain poured in Antakya. The
city was completely devastated. The flood’s impact was so significant that it exceeded
the height of the walls” [77]. The Sudak Expedition, in 1227 during the reign of Alaed‑
din Keykubad, had the objective of capturing the city of Trabzon, but everything went
awry due to a storm and torrential rain right before the city was to be conquered: due
to flooding, the Seljuk army was forced to retreat. As a result, the siege of Trabzon was
unsuccessful [78].
A significant flood occurred in 1244–1245, during the reign of Gyâseddin Keyhüsrev
II, when the Berdan Stream, which passed close to Tarsus, surged. The bog that was created
prevented the Seljuk force from moving [76,78]. The city of Amasya experienced a flood
on 15 March 1290, which left behind significant damage, largely devastating the city. In
Niksar (Tokat), half of the city was damaged as a result of intense rains and numerous lives
were lost as a result of the flood calamity [77].

2.2.9. India during Medieval Times (ca 476–1400 AD)

Water management in medieval India was an important aspect of society, as the agri‑
cultural economy relied heavily on irrigation. The rulers of the time recognized the impor‑
tance of proper water management and implemented various systems and techniques to
ensure an adequate water supply for crops.
One of the most notable examples of water management in medieval India is the con‑
struction of tanks, reservoirs, and canals. These structures were built to store and distribute
Land 2023, 12, 1211 20 of 52

water for irrigation and were often financed and built by the ruling monarchs [79]. Another
important aspect of water management in medieval India was the development of water‑
lifting devices, such as the Persian wheel and the chain pump. These devices were used
to lift water from a lower level to a higher level, allowing for the irrigation of fields on
higher ground.
Medieval Indian rulers also implemented regulations and laws to ensure the fair dis‑
tribution and use of water resources. In addition to these technological and organizational
aspects, water management in medieval India also had a spiritual and religious dimen‑
sion. Many temples and religious institutions were built near water sources, and rituals
and ceremonies were performed to ensure the continued flow of water [80].
Floods were a common occurrence in medieval India as well. The monsoons, which
bring heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent, were the main cause of floods. The floods
would often cause significant damage to crops and infrastructure, and could also lead to
loss of life [81]. In addition, many rulers and local leaders built dams and embankments to
protect their territories from floods. There are many references to these efforts in historical
texts and inscriptions [82].

3. Floods in Early and Mid‑Modern Times (ca 1400–1850 AD)

The earlier European Renaissance brought a change to the way flood records were
kept: around the 13th century, markers started to be used to record the highest flood wa‑
ter levels after a nearly 400‑year gap in any sort of reliable record keeping. The accuracy of
these markers was also improved in two ways. First, the number of markers being placed
throughout the city was increased; second, the measured height became more accurate
thanks to the installation of hydrometers along the river banks. The Ripetta Wharf hy‑
drometer quickly became the standard reference for all floods’ high water marks, with
records kept to the centimeter [66].
The early techniques used by Romans to prevent flooding fell into oblivion during
the Medieval Period. In Rome, natural and manmade debris built up in the Tiber drains
clogged the system, and several aqueducts, in which residual waters were used to flush
sewers after use, fell into disuse. The buildup of debris in the river raised the riverbed
level, slowing the flow and making floods both more common and devastating. The four
worst floods recorded in Rome’s history occurred during or around the 16th century, with
the high flood levels over the 18 m asl mark in 1530, 1557, 1598, and 1606. During the worst
flood of 1598, water submerged the first story of most buildings in low areas, and buildings
in the Jewish ghetto (the lowest point of the city) were submerged up to the third floor [62].
For the Catholic Church that governed the city, the floods were an embarrassment, as they
destroyed many religious buildings and their contents; therefore, in the aftermath of the
1557 flood, the Church entrusted Andrea Bacci, a physician, and Antonio Trevisi, a mil‑
itary engineer, to come up with a flood‑control plan [83]. Both believed that floods had
been less severe in ancient times because the river and urban drains were kept clear of
the debris that had caused the rising of the riverbed and the reduction of outflow from
the urban stretch of its course. Therefore, they recommended returning to the methods
of the ancient Romans, which mainly included dredging the river, providing more water
to the city, keeping drains clean, and appointing a government official to supervise river
works [83]. The construction of trenches between the Vatican and the low‑lying Traste‑
vere area was also recommended to help prevent local flooding; however, the only portion
that was fully implemented was the one that nowadays forms the moat around Castel
Sant’ Angelo. Subsequent records show that flood levels have never reached the levels
of the 16th century, meaning that the recommended flood control measures have been
somewhat successful.
A major turning point in response to floods in Rome dates to 1870: on 27 December,
waters reached a high water mark of 17.27 m. Such a high water mark was an extreme
anomaly compared to the floods of the time, the highest seen since the 16th century’s
record‑breaking ones [66]. Taking after other European cities of the time, higher embank‑
Land 2023, 12, 1211 21 of 52

ment walls were built along the River, reaching a height of 18 m, higher than all the flood
levels seen since the 16th century. Completed in 1910, the new embankments were the
most successful flood control measure for the city, since Rome has been subject to only
three major floods since, the last occurring in 1937, which did not cause any significant
damage [66].
During its existence, the Ottoman Empire had to deal not only with political, social,
and administrative problems but also with natural disasters. The disasters of the period
included locust invasions, earthquakes, floods, famines, and droughts, which occurred at
various times throughout the country, claiming lives as well as destroying property [84,85].
There are not many detailed records of such disasters, but some major flood events were
well described. Beyşehir Lake overflowed sometimes as a result of intermittent rains that
occurred between 1501 and 1504, turning the Konya Plain into a sea [86]. On 24 August
1553, the 14th night of Ramadan, heavy rains during harvest time destroyed villages and
fields in Kâğıthane; the damage was considerable. The force of the flood swept away trees
and carts and flooded the coastal neighborhoods of Galata [87]. On September 19, 1563,
during a rain that lasted for days, lightning hit 74 times and flooding wreaked havoc on the
coastlines of the Golden Horn, the Galata district’s slopes, Halkalı, Silivri, Küçükçekmece,
and Büyükçekmece. Most of Constantinople was severely affected by the flood, many
buildings were damaged, including the Eyüp Sultan Mausoleum, which was entirely in‑
undated, as a result of the Kâğıthane Creek bursting its banks and the Golden Horn’s water
levels rising. The İskender Çelebi palace was severely damaged in its foundations by the
extreme floods of the Halkalı stream [88].
One of the most significant floods in Turkey occurred in 1571: flooding caused dam‑
age to Edirne, with the Palace and other significant buildings submerged. The villages of
İlbeği‑Bergos, Yund‑Bergos, Hatibköyü, Umurbey, Şahinci, İneoğlu, Ahurköy, Karacaköy,
Kiliseköy, and Saray were impacted by the water disaster in Edirne in 1688–1689 [89]. In
October 1789, there was flooding in Constantinople, Eyüp, Kasımpaşa, Galata, the Bospho‑
rus, and Üsküdar. Markets were wrecked, dwellings and public baths were ruined, and the
Mahmutpaşa and Kasımpaşa courthouses were submerged. The floods claimed the lives
of around 60 people. Trees hundreds of years old and various debris items were dispersed
all over the sea’s surface [90].
Severe damage was caused by a storm that hit Constatinople on 8 July 1808, with in‑
tense rain that lasted for fifty hours and damaged several buildings in the city and along the
Bosphorus [91]. The Water Board‑built Göksu Dam was destroyed by a prolonged night‑
time downpour at the end of September 1911: two bridges and lumber‑storage facilities
were destroyed and 45 persons had to be rescued from the water [92].
One of the most notable floods that occurred during this period in India is the Calcutta
flood. The city of Calcutta (now Kolkata) experienced a devastating flood in 1737 that killed
over 300,000 people. The disaster affected the entire city and surrounding areas, causing
widespread damage to homes and infrastructure and loss of life [93].
Moreover, in 1843 Egypt began construction of modern water infrastructure on the
Nile, e.g., barrages to raise water levels for irrigation during low‑water periods. In 1960,
the high dam of Aswan was constructed in the southern part of Egypt. Since then, flooding
has been stopped and the waters directed into the artificial reservoir of Nasser Lake.

Chinese Mid‑Modern Times

Throughout Chinese history, flooding has been one of the most significant types of
disasters afflicting populations, land and socio‑economic developments. Due to its vast
territory, different parts of ancient China often suffered from floods and droughts at the
same time. Usually, great droughts occurred in the north and massive floods occurred in
the south. However, the Yellow River, which is located in North China, often experienced
flooding, with devastating effects on local settlements. According to incomplete statistics,
during the 482 years from 1368 AD to 1850 AD, the Yellow River burst 267 times, with an
interval of fewer than 1.8 years [94,95].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 22 of 52

Frequent floods have caused significant loss of personnel and property. To prevent
floods, the government of the Ming Dynasty (1368 AD–1644 AD) invested many human,
material and financial resources in river management and storage. However, on the one
hand, a sharp increase in population led to a deterioration in human–land relations and
aggravated the effects of the Yellow River’s flooding. On the other hand, to maintain the
smooth water transport of the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal, the Ming Dynasty and the
Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 AD), with its capital of Beijing, took many measures to control
the flooding of the Yellow River. This took place “from the point of not interfering with
the water transport”, which was very unfavorable to flood discharge and drainage [96].
The Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal is the longest and largest ancient canal in the
world. It undertakes the important task of transporting materials from all parts of the
world to Beijing. Each year, the amount of grain transported by water totals up to
200,000 tons. The canal flows south–north and intersects with the Huaihe River and the Yel‑
low River, respectively. Once the Yellow River overflows, the riverbed rises, the sediment
silts up, and the water transport is interrupted. Therefore, the Ming Dynasty government
always took ensuring the smooth flow of the Grand Canal as the fundamental policy of har‑
nessing the Yellow River. For this reason it adopted the strategy of “blocking the north and
dredging the south” and “diverting water to control water potential”. The former refers
to strengthening the dyke on the north bank of the Yellow River to guide the flood of the
Yellow River to the south. The latter refers to the excavation of new watercourses on the
south bank of the Yellow River to guide the diversion of water from the Yellow River to the
south bank. The more new watercourses were excavated, the stronger the diversion capac‑
ity would be, and the smaller the threat of flood to the canal would be. As the Yellow River
carries 1.6 billion tons of sediment every year, the average annual deposition of sediment
in the lower reaches of the Yellow River is up to 400 million tons, which constantly raises
the riverbed, blocks the river channel, and very easily floods and even bursts in cases of
large floods. From the first year of emperor Ming Wuzong (1506 AD) to the seventeenth
year of emperor Chongzhen (1644 AD), there were 53 years recorded of the Yellow River
breach in the history books [97].
Faced with this serious situation, Pan Jixun, an official and water conservancy expert
in the middle of the Ming Dynasty, was appointed as the minister of river management.
He linked the governance of the Yellow River, the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal, and the
Huaihe River and carried out unified consideration and planning. More importantly, Pan
Jixun invented the “water and sand flushing method”. The engineering and hydraulic prin‑
ciples of this method are as follows: the faster the river flows, the stronger the sediment‑
carrying capacity of the water. Dyke works can dynamically change the flow pattern. The
water of the Yellow River has a large sediment content. The purpose of dredging and
flood control can be achieved by building embankments or other structures on the wide
and shallow river courses. This may tighten the river course, increase the flow rate, and
use the impact of water to impact the sediment at the bottom of the river bed.
Under the guidance of this theory, Pan Jixun summarized the experience of embank‑
ment construction at that time and overhauled the river embankment. He thus formed
a double embankment system consisting of a remote embankment with a water‑blocking
potential and a wisp embankment with a water flow restriction. Under his auspices, the
embankments on both banks of the Yellow River and the Huaihe River below Zhengzhou
were comprehensively repaired and improved, making the river channel stable. Pan Jixun
paid special attention to the quality of embankment construction, put forward the principle
of “true earth without mixed floating sand, high and thick with huge expense” and “cone
by cone exploration of earth embankment”, and strengthened the embankment manage‑
ment and protection work. After the actions taken by Pan Jixun, the problem of the Yellow
River flooding had been solved for a long period. According to the historical records, “The
high weir was built at the beginning, and the river was smooth after clearing the mouth. It
lasted for several years and there was no major disaster in the river” [98].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 23 of 52

Pan Jixun’s work of harnessing the Yellow River was limited to the lower reaches of
the Yellow River, and the middle reaches where the sediment comes from had not been
controlled. The continuous sediment cannot be transported to the sea, and some sediment
must be deposited in the downstream river. So until the Qing Dynasty, although there
was also a capable river governor such as Jin Fu who used the method of “bundling water
and attacking sand” to control the Yellow River, and achieved certain results, the problem
of the Yellow River flooding was not completely solved. With the corruption of officials,
some Chinese scholars have commented that “the floods and droughts caused by these
human factors and the losses caused by them are more than the impact of geographical
conditions” [99].

4. Floods in Contemporary Times (1850 AD–Present)

One of the most common natural disasters that affect people worldwide is flood‑
ing. The average number of disasters caused by weather and the environment has in‑
creased by around 35% during the past three decades [100]. Extreme weather and climate‑
related events alone accounted for 83% of all disasters over the past ten years, resulting in
410,000 fatalities and 1.7 billion people affected [4].
As in the past, modern‑day flood occurrences remain a constant threat and a main
global natural disaster event, with an increasing number of locations facing increased
flood risk. It is, however, a fact that driving factors differ and the features of modern‑
day floods may be very different from early history and data indicate that local conditions
cause unique occurrences. Thus, accordingly, we survey them case by case.
In general, the ultimate measure of the risk involved and the threat posed is the num‑
ber of deaths from natural disasters. Natural disasters kill an average of 45,000 people a
year worldwide. In the last ten years, disasters accounted for 0.1% of deaths worldwide.
The variation was wide, ranging from 0.01% to 0.4%. The number of deaths caused by nat‑
ural disasters has declined sharply over the last century, from millions of deaths per year
in some years to an average of 60,000 in the last decade. Disasters hit the poor hardest, with
most deaths occurring in low‑ to middle‑income countries that lack the infrastructure to
protect themselves and respond to events. In the past, droughts and floods were the dead‑
liest disaster events. Today, the death toll from these events is very low—the deadliest
events today tend to be earthquakes [101].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 Relevant data are shown in Figure 11 for all natural disasters classified
24 of 53 into five cate‑
gories, including floods and the other two hydroclimatic types.

Figure
Figure 11. Evolution
11. Evolution of the frequency
of the frequency of natural
of deaths from deathsdisasters
from natural
per decadedisasters per
in the 20th decade in the 20th and
and
21st centuries. In addition to deaths from floods, deaths from other categories of natural catastro-
21st centuries. In addition to deaths from floods, deaths from other categories of natural catastro‑
phes are also plotted: droughts; “extreme weather” includes storms, extreme temperatures (cold or
phes
heat are
wave; alsowinter
severe plotted: droughts;
conditions), “extreme
and fog; weather”
“earthquake” includes
includes tsunamis;storms,
“other” extreme
comprises temperatures (cold or
landslides (wet or
heat wave; dry), rock
severe falls, volcanic
winter activityand
conditions), (ash fog;
fall, lahar, pyroclastic flow,
“earthquake” and lava
includes flow),
tsunamis; “other” comprises
and wildfires [102].
landslides (wet or dry), rock falls, volcanic activity (ash fall, lahar, pyroclastic flow, and lava flow),
and wildfires
The [102].
impacts of hydroclimatic disasters, including floods, have dropped since the be-
ginning of the 20th century; victims of these types of disasters have diminished, while
other natural disasters still cause large numbers of casualties. In the 2010s, the primary
cause of casualties was earthquakes, representing 59% of the total number of victims. In
2020, floods caused the death of more than 6000 people across the globe, but this death
toll is dwarfed in comparison to the peak recorded in 1999 when some 35,000 people died
[103]. The reason behind these statistics is not that floods and droughts have become less
Land 2023, 12, 1211 24 of 52

The impacts of hydroclimatic disasters, including floods, have dropped since the be‑
ginning of the 20th century; victims of these types of disasters have diminished, while
other natural disasters still cause large numbers of casualties. In the 2010s, the primary
cause of casualties was earthquakes, representing 59% of the total number of victims. In
2020, floods caused the death of more than 6000 people across the globe, but this death toll
is dwarfed in comparison to the peak recorded in 1999 when some 35,000 people died [103].
The reason behind these statistics is not that floods and droughts have become less severe
or less frequent; rather, the improvement of technology, risk assessment, management,
and mitigation, along with the strengthening of international cooperation, contributed to
this effect [102].
The total number of victims from natural disasters, mainly due to floods and earth‑
quakes, in the last 20 years is 30,000/year worldwide, with a slight downward trend, much
less in the developed world than in the developing one. Moreover, taking into account the
global population increase, deaths due to those causes have decreased significantly in re‑
cent years. Losses from other causes, such as traffic accidents, appear to be about 30 times
higher than from natural disasters [88]. According to data from 2010–2017, deaths from
natural disasters represent 0.08% of the total number of deaths, as seen in Figure 12. This
number in this figure ranks them last, with the penultimate cause being cold and heat
(while these are registered together, a multi‑country analysis by Gasparrini et al. [104]
suggests that these are mostly (95%) due to cold). For comparison, the contribution to
Land 2023, 12, 1211 deaths of respiratory diseases (belonging to the broader category of health issues) is2511.6%,
of 53
about 150 times higher than natural disasters (and this figure should have increased due
to COVID‑19) [102].

Figure
Figure12.
12.The
Theaverage
averageshare
shareof
ofdeaths
deathsper
percause
causein
inthe
the2010s.
2010s.Data
Datafrom
fromthe
thedatabase
databaseof
ofOur
OurWorld
World
in
inData
Data(share
(shareof
ofdeaths
deathsbybycause,
cause,World,
World,2019 (ourworldindata.org))[102]
2019(ourworldindata.org)) [102]..

4.1.China
4.1. China
InChina,
In China,large-scale
large‑scaleflooding
floodingusually
usuallyoccurred
occurredin
inthe
theYellow
YellowRiver
Riverand
andYangtze
YangtzeRiver
River
environs, but massive flooding in the Yangtze River basin was more frequently
environs, but massive flooding in the Yangtze River basin was more frequently comparedcompared
tothe
to theYellow
YellowRiver
Rivercontext
contextininthe
the past
past hundred
hundred years.
years. For
Forexample,
example,floods
floodsin
inthe
themiddle
middle
reaches of the river occurred less than one time every 50 years on average during the years
reaches of the river occurred less than one time every 50 years on average during the years
between 551 and 760 AD. However, that value increased to 29.5 times every 50 years dur‑
between 551 and 760 AD. However, that value increased to 29.5 times every 50 years dur-
ing 951–1320 AD, and it has continued to increase to 111 times during the 20th century be‑
ing 951–1320 AD, and it has continued to increase to 111 times during the 20th century
tween 1921 and 2000 [105]. After the establishment of the Peoples’ Republic of China, four
between 1921 and 2000 [105]. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China,
massive floods occurred in the Yangtze River basin. In 1954, the flooding of five provinces
four massive floods occurred in the Yangtze River basin. In 1954, the flooding of five prov-
inces impacted 3.17 million ha2 of farmland and caused the losses of more than 30,000
lives. In 1981, a rainstorm occurred at the basins of the tributaries of the Minjiang River,
the Tuo River, and the Jialing River, at the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Massive
amounts of water entered the main watercourse of the river and caused the water level in
Land 2023, 12, 1211 25 of 52

impacted 3.17 million ha2 of farmland and caused the losses of more than 30,000 lives. In
1981, a rainstorm occurred at the basins of the tributaries of the Minjiang River, the Tuo
River, and the Jialing River, at the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Massive amounts
of water entered the main watercourse of the river and caused the water level in the upper
reaches of the mainstream to rise by 10 to 20 m, and more than four provinces were flooded.
In 1998, the midstream reaches of the Yangtze River were flooded and this brought disas‑
ter to the Hunan province, Hubei Province, Jiangxi Province, Anhui Province, etc. At the
same time, there are 975 dykes at the river and its tributaries were a leveed failure, and
more than 3000 people died. In 2020, the Yangtze River experienced massive flooding only
surpassed in effect and mass of water by the floods of 1954 and 1998 [106]. During the
period of 1 June to 15 July, the observation stations along the river registered that the wa‑
ter level of the river in the period of the first peak of the flood increased in total between
10 and 11.23 m [107]. However, this flood did not bring large flooding to the residential
areas along the river due to regulation of the Three Gorges Dam and other facilities.
Currently, flooding is mainly caused by meteorological factors, but human activities
are another obvious cause as well. Human activities have brought changes to the river
basin, obviously in soil erosion via deforestation, and have reduced the capacity of sluices
via diminished areas of lakes and marshes in past decades, both to increase farmland to
meet the food requirements of population growth. For example, the lakes connected with
the Yangtze River covered an area of 10,000 km2 in the 1950s, but this was reduced to about
6600 km2 in the early 1980s [108].
In recent years, flooding has remained a profound threat to the populations residing
around large river basins, but effective control due to ecological restoration and dam con‑
struction reduces the negative effects of flooding. A series of large dams were constructed
in the mainstreams of the Yellow River and Yangtze River after the 1950s, for example, the
Sanxia Dam (Three Gorges Dam) in the Yangtze River, the Sanmenxia Dam in the Yellow
River, etc. All of them functioned and have demonstrated effective flood control in the
past decades. In 2021, the Sanxia Reservoir blocked 25.4 billion m3 of flood water, which
reduced the flood risk effectively [109].

4.2. India Floods in Contemporary Times (1850 AD–Present)

The incidence of floods, as well as associated human fatalities in the country, increased
in modern times. Increased flood events and flood‑related human fatalities are caused by
population growth, urbanization, advancements in disaster reporting and recording tech‑
nology, increased social and media interest, and increased human interference in hydro‑
logical processes through the expansion of public works, road networks, and so on [110].
Furthermore, these findings indicate that flood‑management plans in the country, both
structural (embankments, flood walls, channel improvement, diversion of floodwaters)
and nonstructural (flood proofing, forecasting, warning systems, rescue services), have
not been executed efficiently.
Flood data for India revealed 44,991 fatalities from 2443 flood events between 1978
and 2006, with 9085 of them (20%) occurring in just 10 events. The most lethal event in
terms of human fatalities was undoubtedly the 1979 incident in Gujarat, which resulted in
at least 1485 deaths. A dam failure in Gujarat’s Rajkot district triggered a flash flood that
inundated the entire Saurashtra region, destroying approximately 8000 houses [111].
India has experienced several major floods during the 21st century also, resulting in
significant loss of life and affecting millions of people. The Mumbai flood of 2005, the
Uttara hand floods of 2013, the Jammu and Kashmir floods of 2014, the Gujarat and Chen‑
nai floods of 2015, the 2016 Assam floods, the 2017 Gujarat flood, the Kerala floods in
2018 and 2019, the 2020 Assam and Hyderabad floods, the Uttara hand and Maharash‑
tra floods of 2021, and the 2022 Assam floods are only a few notable flood events in the
last two decades which suggest that flood disasters are increasing in the country. Despite
the implementation of flood‑management plans, the problem has persisted and not been
effectively addressed.
Land 2023, 12, 1211 26 of 52

Between 1900 and 2000, the frequency of floods in India in the various subdivisions
multiplied from less than 5 times to over 29 times, with Saurashtra and Kutch experiencing
the maximum number of floods, while Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, and Assam
(owing to large areas of underground cover) experienced fewer than five floods in the
same period.

4.3. Japan
Floods can be highly dangerous in megacities: Tokyo, one of the most populous cities
in the world, is very vulnerable to floods. In 1947, a big typhoon named Kathleen landed
in the Boso Peninsula and struck the entire Kanto Region. In the Tone River catchment,
the total three‑day rainfall accumulation (13 September to 15 September) averaged 318
mm above the Yattajima gauging site, generating the highest discharge ever recorded in
Japan. Consequently, a 350 m long levee breach occurred in the middle river reach, and
overflowing water followed its natural pathway towards Tokyo, as shown in Figure 13.
An area of approximately 450 km2 in the Katsushika and Edo wards of Tokyo was inun‑
dated and water finally flowed into Tokyo Bay [112]. The areas of Tokyo, Gunma, Saitama,
Tochigi, Ibaraki, and Chiba suffered severe flood damage. In Gunma and Tochigi prefec‑
Land 2023, 12, 1211 tures, debris flow and flooding of rivers followed one after another, resulting in more
27than
of 53
1100 deaths and missing people in both prefectures [113].

(a) (b)
Figure 13. Floodwater in Japan in 1947 based on historical records: (a) Floodwater pathways and (b)
Figure 13. Floodwater in Japan in 1947 based on historical records: (a) Floodwater pathways and
People escaping in Tokyo (adapted from [112]).
(b) People escaping in Tokyo (adapted from [112]).

4.4.Africa
4.4. Africa
LargeAfrican
Large African coastal
coastal cities such as as Abidjan,
Abidjan,Accra,
Accra,Dakar,
Dakar,Dar DaresesSalaam,
Salaam, andandLagos
La‑
are are
gos vulnerable to flooding
vulnerable driven
to flooding by rising
driven sea levels.
by rising Thus,Thus,
sea levels. floodsfloods
pose apose
threat to main-
a threat to
taining the achievements
maintaining the achievements that that
havehave
beenbeen
made in reducing
made malaria
in reducing occurrences
malaria occurrences andandex-
expanding access
panding access to to clean
clean water
water because
because they they contaminate
contaminate drinking
drinking waterwater
and and
serveserve as
as mos-
mosquito breeding
quito breeding grounds
grounds [4]. [4].
Floods
Floodswere
werecommon
commonto toancient
ancientcivilizations
civilizationsin inMorocco
Moroccoand andhadhadaasignificant
significantimpact
impact
on
on the lives and communities of people living there. For example, Volubilis(located
the lives and communities of people living there. For example, Volubilis (locatednearnear
the
thecity
cityof
ofFes
Fesin
inmodern
modernMorocco),
Morocco),the thecapital
capitalofofthe
theKingdom
Kingdomof ofMauretania
Mauretaniaand andaamajor
major
center
centerofofthe
theRoman
RomanEmpire
Empirein inNorth
NorthAfrica,
Africa,waswaslocated
locatednear
nearaaseasonal
seasonalriver
riverthat
thatflooded
flooded
regularly.
regularly. Despite
Despite thethe challenges
challenges posedposed byby floods,
floods, many
many ancient
ancient civilizations
civilizations inin Morocco,
Morocco,
such
suchasasthe
theBerbers,
Berbers,developed
developedirrigation
irrigationandandwater‑management
water-managementsystems systemsto tomitigate
mitigatetheirtheir
effects and ensure the survival of their crops and
effects and ensure the survival of their crops and settlements. settlements.
Historical
Historicalfloods
floodsstill
stillhaunt
hauntMoroccans’
Moroccans memories.
memories. On On 16
16 May
May 1890,
1890, the
the cities
cities of
of Se‑
Se-
frou and Fez were destroyed. Sefrou being built in the hollow of a deep
frou and Fez were destroyed. Sefrou being built in the hollow of a deep valley, the water valley, the water
gathered
gatheredbehind
behindthethewall,
wall,and
andwhenwhenititreached
reachedthe theupper
upperpart,
part,ititcaused
causedititto
tocollapse
collapseand and
the water was launched violently onto the small town. A large number
the water was launched violently onto the small town. A large number of houses, in Sefrou of houses, in Se‑
as in Fez, are crossed by branches of the Aggaï wadi, so that they were invaded by water
both from within and without. The number of victims reached 90, among whom were
many young people and children [114].
Another historical flash flood occurred on 25 September 1950, when it was flooded
Land 2023, 12, 1211 27 of 52

frou as in Fez, are crossed by branches of the Aggaï wadi, so that they were invaded by
water both from within and without. The number of victims reached 90, among whom
were many young people and children [114].
Another historical flash flood occurred on 25 September 1950, when it was flooded
by a 6 m‑high sheet of water, killing 100 people. Yet another flood ravaged the Ziz Val‑
ley on 11 May 1965, leaving 25,000 inhabitants homeless, an incident that accelerated the
construction of the Hassan Addakhil Dam. The same flow of this flood occurred at the
beginning of 2009, which delighted the populations of Errachidia since the dam filled and
provided five years of irrigation water reserve for the surrounding areas. The flooding
of the Moulouya, which occurred on 23 May 1963, was so violent that it swept away the
left bank foundation of the Mohammed V dam (the flood had a peak flow of 7200 m3 /s
and a volume of 570 million m3 , or the equivalent of the reservoir’s capacity). Flooding
occurred in Ourika in August 1995 [115]. Floods affected large cities such as Mohammedia
(November 2002), Tangier (October 2008, December 2009, January 2013), and Casablanca
(November 2010 and January 2013) [116]. Recent years have seen the completion of studies
of the phenomena, particularly the development of the National Flood Protection Plan. It
has now been finished and serves as Morocco’s main flood protection database.

4.5. Greece
In Greece, concerning the spatial distribution of food events and casualties as ex‑
pressed in population per administrative unit and in spatial density, Diakakis et al. [110]
show that most urban areas are faced with flooding problems, such as Attica and the
greater Athens area. Outside the capital region, significant parts of Greece suffer from
floodings: the wider area of Thessaloniki, Patras, south Peloponnese (e.g., Messinia and
Laconia), the eastern part of Evros, the prefectures of Serres, and central Greece (mainly
Larissa, Trikala, Magnesia, and Karditsa). Additionally, food events also occur in islands
such as Rhodes, Samos, Corfu, and Crete (mainly the cities of Iraklion and Chania) [28].
The island of Crete experienced a flood in 1820–1821, and its effects persisted into
1830–1831. On the island of Crete, business and agricultural operations suffered tremen‑
dously during this time [117]. On 14 November 1896, a flood occurred in the cities of
Athens and Piraeus, causing the death of 61 people. At that time, the capital area lacked
infrastructure and Kifissos and Ilissos rivers were at constant risk of flooding.
Another devastating flood occurred on 4 January 1907 in Central Greece when the
Litheos River overflowed and 100 people died, 1200 houses were destroyed, and 6000 resi‑
dents were left homeless. Except for one bridge, all other bridges of the river crossing the
city of Trikala collapsed. On 4 November 1924, heavy rainfall in Kalamata led to 15 deaths
and damage to the city’s infrastructure (destruction of roads and squares). Moreover, a
strong storm in the Peloponnese on 28 November 1928 caused the flooding of the Pinios
River in Ilia with 10 deaths and extensive damage to agricultural production. In addition,
major floods occurred in 1934 in Athens (6 dead) and Volos in 1955 (27 dead).
In 1961, due to heavy rainfall in Athens, a severe flooding phenomenon occurred, caus‑
ing the death of 43 people and the destruction of 4000 houses and leaving 3700 residents
homeless. In November 1977 and in October 1994 significant floods caused the death of
40 and 10 people, respectively, and widespread destruction. However, more recently, in
2017, a flood in Mandra (West Attica) led to great disasters and the death of 24 people.
Rackham and Moody [118] addressed the erratic weather and diverging climate of
present‑day Crete (1996) that cause local deluges, especially in the lowlands of the is‑
land. Moreover, the occasional violent rainstorms are most vividly documented by Jen‑
nifer Moody as occurring in the 1980s, with one incident tearing away juniper woods,
with silt and gravel deposited and removed and cultivated fields and old terraces de‑
stroyed [119]. It seems obvious that the Cretan context provides evidence from antiquity
to the present for extreme local weather occurrences, which have occasionally had dev‑
astating effects on rural life and infrastructure, and it seems as if occurrences of extreme
weather incidents have increased since antiquity.
Land 2023, 12, 1211 28 of 52

In September 2020, intense floods have occurred in Karditsa (Western Thessaly, Cen‑
tral Greece) due to the Mediterranean cyclone/Medicane Ianos. This cyclone developed
from the Gulf of Sirte (Libya), moved north, crossed the Ionian Sea, and then moved S‑
SE towards the coast of Egypt. During its movement, it passed over Kefalonia island and
affected the area of Karditsa (Central Greece, West Thessaly). In Kefalonia, 645 mm of
rain was measured and high wind speeds occurred (maximum 159 km/h with gusts of
195 km/h). Floods and landslides were caused. Also in Western Thessaly significant floods
occurred with extensive damages (a significant part of the city of Karditsa was flooded,
with the destruction of a major part of the irrigation network of the TOEB Tavropos). More
than 21,000 ha were flooded in West Thessaly. The maximum amount of rain that fell in
24 h (18 September 2020) was 239 mm in Pertouli, 191 mm in Karditsa, and 254 mm in
Mouzaki stations.
The flood protection of the country in general and of the urban areas must be im‑
proved and this is the reason for all the disasters and deaths. At the same time, there have
been interventions in natural watercourses that have created problems in the flow of rivers
and streams.
In Greece, spatial planning has not always followed the steps dictated by logic and sci‑
ence, i.e., first the carrying out of spatial planning and then the implementation of the plan.
Residential development has usually been carried out with an incomplete plan. In the past,
“arbitrary constructions” were a common practice in Greece, which was mainly due to eco‑
nomic reasons. These constructions were carried out at the margin of urban areas or in
rural areas, without any administrative construction license. That practice was implicitly
tolerated by the administration, which abstained from imposing sanctions on arbitrary con‑
structions. Moreover, several legislative initiatives were taken throughout the years for the
“legalization” of those constructions [120]. In other words, the state intervened later to le‑
galize the constructions already made and to build infrastructure to protect the areas from
disasters and to improve their situation (arrangements for watercourses, floods protection
works, sewers, water supply works, etc.).

4.6. Pakistan
In the year 1947, a devastating flood in the Indo‑Pak sub‑continent was faced by peo‑
ple migrating from India to Pakistan. During the partition of the subcontinent into Hindu‑
dominated India and Muslim‑majority Pakistan, about 500,000 people were killed in mass
violence and thousands of families were torn apart as 10 million refugees crossed the new
border [121].
The 2010 floods were regarded as the most brutal disasters in Pakistani history. The
Indus River flooded in Pakistan in late July and early August 2010, causing what is thought
to be one of the worst humanitarian catastrophes in Pakistani history. The floods, which
impacted about 20 million people, devastated infrastructure, crops, and homes and left mil‑
lions of people at risk of starvation and waterborne illnesses. Between 1200 and 2200 people
are believed to have died in total, and 1.6 million dwellings were damaged or destroyed,
leaving an estimated 14 million people without a place to live (Britannica, The Editors of
Encyclopedia). The floods destroyed 200,000 livestock, buried 17 million acres (69,000 km2 )
of Pakistan’s most fertile cropland, and washed away vast quantities of food. The fact that
farmers were not be able to plant new seeds by the autumn 2010 deadline raised serious
concerns about lost food output in 2011 and probable long‑term food shortages [58]. In
addition to the loss of over 500,000 tons of stored wheat and 300,000 acres (1200 km2 ) of
animal fodder, and the stored grain losses, the agricultural damage totaled more than USD
2.9 billion and included over 700,000 acres (2800 km2 ) of lost cotton crops, 200,000 acres
(810 km2 ) of sugar cane, and 200,000 acres (810 km2 ) of rice [122,123]. One fifth of the entire
land area was impacted by the flooding in 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was more severely
affected by the 2010 flood than the rest of the nation.
The 2022 floods in Pakistan claimed 1739 lives between 14 June and 20 October 2022.
A total of 33 million people were impacted by the floods of 2022, compared to 20 million
Land 2023, 12, 1211 29 of 52

in 2010. In 2022, along with Khyber, Pakhtunkhwa, Baluchistan, and Sindh were more
severely impacted by the flood. According to estimates, the 2010 flood caused a net loss of
USD 43 billion. The 2022 flood caused a net loss of USD 14.9 billion in property damage
and USD 15.2 billion in economic output. According to reports, the flooding was the worst
in the nation’s history and the deadliest flood in the world since the floods that hit South
Asia in 2020. Additionally, it was listed as one of the most expensive natural disasters in
recorded history [124].
A total of 1739 individuals lost their lives, including 647 children, and 12,867 more
were hurt. The floods rendered more than 2.1 million individuals homeless. Since 2010,
when over 2000 people died from flooding, these floods have killed the most people in
Pakistan, and since the South Asian floods of 2020, and they have killed the most peo‑
ple worldwide [110]. Between 7 and 12 percent of Pakistan was inundated [125]; the
entire area of floodwaters that remained reached its height between July and August at
about 32,800 square miles (84,952 km2 ) [126]. The water also wreaked havoc on agricul‑
tural lands. A total of 33 million people were affected by the floods, which also damaged
1,391,467 homes and destroyed 897,014 of them. A total of 1,164,270 animals were killed,
most of them in the province of Balochistan, and access to the flood‑affected areas has been
hampered by the damaging of 439 bridges and 13,115 km (8149 miles) of roads. More than
22,000 schools were destroyed or damaged [127].
Both the 2010 and 2022 floods were brought on by glacier overflow flooding, severe
monsoon rains, La Niña, pre‑monsoon thunderstorms, and climate change. Pakistan is
one of the top eight nations dealing with long‑term climate change implications [128].

5. Learning from the Past: Notable Examples of Flood Protection Measures

Methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These include plant‑
ing vegetation to improve water retention, terracing hillsides to slow downhill runoff, and
construction of floodways (artificial channels to divert floodwaters), levees, dykes, dams,
reservoirs, or retention ponds to hold excess water during times of high flow. At the urban
level, many “green” practices can be implemented nowadays without heavy modification
of the existing urban environment.
Ancient Romans identified some effective measures of controlling floods in their cap‑
ital: by keeping riverbeds clear of debris, improving flow conditions in urban drainage,
and using embankment walls, they were able to successfully protect the city for many cen‑
turies. The worst floods occurred when these good practices were discontinued, but upon
reinstatement, they showed excellent effectiveness again: it is clear that embankment walls,
improved in the 19th century, have so far been effective in preventing the Tiber River from
flooding the streets of Rome.
As a future outlook, it is now clear from the example of Rome and other cities that
negligence of riverbed management is potentially conducive to high risk and damage.
One of the most notable flood‑control measures in cities today is stormwater drains.
These, however, allow solid debris to enter them and either sink to the bottom of the drain
itself or settle in drainage pipes. Regular maintenance (cleaning) of drains and network
pipes could avoid exacerbating flood risk due to water backup or increased flow resis‑
tance. Urban pavements also present unique challenges for urban flood control. Many
older street surfaces in historic city centers are paved with brick or stone blocks. The gaps
between the blocks allow for this type of pavement to be more permeable than modern
asphalt or concrete pavement used in cities, even though not completely. In Rome, for
example, many roads in the center are paved with “Sampietrini”, much to the dismay
of cyclists and motorcyclists. The Sampietrini paving technique, first used in St. Peter’s
Square during the 16th century (hence the name), consists of basalt stone cubic blocks
hammered into a sand bed; surface gaps allow water infiltration and its absorption by
the underlying soil, helping reduce runoff, and hence the threat of floods even when ac‑
tual drains are not present. Today, Sampietrini covers over 100 km of streets in Rome,
although it is not the most common form of street pavement. Despite its permeability,
Land 2023, 12, 1211 30 of 52

Sampietrini is not the most structurally sound or practical form of pavement, since erosion
of the sand bed by water and vehicle load can lead to the formation of surface depressions.
In addition, Sampietrini (and other similar forms of stone block pavements used in cities,
for example, porphyry blocks in Milan) are very slippery when wet, may contribute to
road accidents, and are quite undesirable for two‑wheeled vehicles to ride over. Another
downside to using stone pavement is that it is far more expensive to maintain than its
modern counterparts.
As indicated by Bacci and Trevisi centuries ago, the best flood‑control measures that
a city can take are often just regular maintenance and updating of existing flood controls.
The equivalent measures for flood control in urban areas are known today as part
of LEED/LID practices: green roofs/rooftop gardens absorb rainwater and help mitigate
flooding. These have become popular across Europe, with benefits both to building own‑
ers and communities. Rainwater infiltration and attenuation systems at the street level can
provide underground storage/infiltration for aquifer recharge and water reuse [129]. Per‑
meable pavements, sidewalks, and gardens can contribute to the concept of sustainable
drainage replacing impermeable urban surfaces with permeable materials.
Creating a “sponge city” is a concept that has become very popular recently, especially
in China, a country that due to fast urbanization has seen the rate of urban flooding more
than double in recent years. A “sponge city” is defined as one that can hold, clean, and
naturally drain water through an ecological approach. Rather than quickly conveying rain‑
water away, a sponge city retains it within its boundaries for later local use, including local
irrigation (e.g., gardens and urban farms), depleted aquifer recharge, or even processing
for reuse as drinking water.
Distributed flood control basins may provide a variety of additional functions, such as
energy generation, water quality control, recreation, wildlife habitat, and purely aesthetic
improvement. Flood control basin design requires regional/local impact modeling, both
upstream and downstream, for the duration of a possible flood event. All these measures
are designed to mimic the pre‑development hydrological regime.
Possible risk‑reduction measures are the construction of channels, embankments, di‑
version channels, dams, and storage reservoirs, preventing deforestation, and implement‑
ing large‑scale afforestation. Special attention is to be given to proper drainage and anti‑
water‑logging measures. Specific measures should be undertaken for early flood detection
and warning, community participation and education, and the development of a master
plan for flood management.

6. Emerging Trends of Causes and Measures for Protection from Floods

6.1. Climate Variability
The climate is affected by the exchange of energy, mass, and momentum among the at‑
mosphere, ocean, biosphere, land surface, and cryosphere on all time scales, which results
in regular variations in climatic variables such as rainfall [99]. The associated distributions
of particular types of events, such as floods, occurring at a certain place and time scale also
fluctuate [130,131]. This regular variation is a type of natural climate variability known
as “modes” or “oscillations.” These modes include the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
(AMO), El Niño‑Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Pacific North American Pattern (PNA),
the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the Northern
and Southern Annular Modes (SAM), the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and the East Atlantic
pattern (EA) [101,132,133]. They fluctuate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales,
and their changes can have an impact on temperature variations at any scale [101].
Previous studies on climate have revealed that, for most regions, the two to three
decades from the 1920s to the 1950s appear to have been different from the remainder of
the 20th century in some ways. For instance, it appears that during this time, the tropical
Pacific’s ocean–atmosphere interactions were different. The first half of the 20th century
encompassed exceptional events, several of which are touched upon: Indian monsoon fail‑
ures during the turn of the century, droughts and extreme heat waves in North America
Land 2023, 12, 1211 31 of 52

in the 1930s, the World War II period drought in Australia between 1937 and 1945, and the
European droughts and heat waves of the late 1940s and early 1950s [134].
In addition, in some areas of eastern and western North America, the linkages be‑
tween large‑scale continental hydrology and simple oceanic and atmospheric indices of
tropical Pacific activity are different from those of previous and later decades [130]. Us‑
ing detrended temperature data representing the early and late 20th century, Hamlet and
Lettenmaier showed that spatially homogeneous temperature changes over the western
United States in the 20th century, on the order of +1 ◦ C per century, have resulted in sig‑
nificant changes in flood risks over much of the region [135]. The study also demonstrated
that warmer transient basins along the coast, particularly those in Washington, Oregon,
and California, are likely to exhibit increasing flood risk. Flood risks are significantly im‑
pacted by climate fluctuations linked to the PDO and ENSO [135].
Ficchi and Stephens revealed that ENSO and IOD are the most significant modes of
climate variability in various parts of Africa while recognizing the impact of other climatic
modes on rainfall. Their study also identifies significant time discrepancies for yearly flood
episodes between the positive and negative phases of the IOD and ENSO, in some cases
exceeding three months [132]. Another study looked at the ENSO, NAO, and EA through‑
out their neutral, positive, and negative phases to better understand the links between the
occurrence and intensity of excessive rainfall, the occurrence of floods, and the damage
caused by floods. It was found that the NAO and EA’s positive and negative phases are
associated with increased (or decreased) frequency and intensity of heavy seasonal rainfall
across most parts of Europe. The association between ENSO and the frequency and inten‑
sity of extreme rainfall in Europe is significantly smaller than the relationships with NAO
or EA, although it is still significant in some locations. The study also demonstrates that
flood damage and flood occurrence are substantially connected with climate variability,
notably in southern and eastern Europe [133].
Räsänen and Kummu [136] reveal that ENSO significantly affects the hydrology of the
Mekong River Basin in Southeast Asia, especially in the years following ENSO episodes.
They further stated that the southernmost regions of the basin experienced the greatest
influence of precipitation and discharge and that the discharge association showed decadal
changes as well [136].
While the natural climate system’s variability and impacts are evident in the literature,
anthropogenic influences in pursuit of industrialization and economic growth are altering
these natural processes and are often difficult to comprehend and control due to the un‑
predictable nature of human behaviors. If these influences are not controlled and made
climate‑sensitive, they will keep changing the natural climate systems and worsen floods
and other impacts.

6.2. Urbanization
6.2.1. Urbanization Status All over the World
In the last two decades, many researchers around the world have conducted studies
on urbanization, water resources, and hydrological modeling. According to the Scopus
data, there are 679 publications with urbanization, hydrology, modeling, and water as key‑
words, as seen in Figure 14 [137]. Most of these studies were conducted in the United States,
China, India, England, Canada, Germany, Australia, France, Brazil, Italy, South Korea, the
Netherlands, Turkey, and Japan, in that order, as illustrated in Figure 15 [137]. The increas‑
ing rate of urbanization in the regions with the most deadly floods in the world, such as
China, India, Japan, Italy, America, Brazil, the Netherlands, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, has
led to an increase in the number of flooding events in these areas [116]. According to the
data presented in Figure 16 [138], the number of citations of these studies has gradually in‑
creased since the early 2000s, with flood disasters peaking in the 2000s. This indicates the
urgency of addressing this issue and highlights the importance of recognizing the relation‑
ship between urbanization and flooding events. Research into floods has seen a noticeable
increase over the past 30 years. In particular, the 2000s saw a shift in focus to research on
Land 2023, 12, 1211 32 of 52

flood events, which are often a consequence of urbanization. To analyze this trend, the
Global Flood Database (2022) examined the number of documents, publication dates, and
Land 2023, 12, 1211 33 of 53
citations. This revealed that some of the studies were conducted in the aftermath of the 33
Land 2023, 12, 1211 of 53
flood events and in the following period.

90 2023, 12, 1211

Land 3500 33 of 53
90 3500
80 Number of documents
Number of documents

80
Number of documents 3000
Number of documents 3000

Number of citations

Number of citations
70 70
2500 2500
60 9060 3500
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Number of documents
Number of documents

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Number of citations
40 7040 1500 1500
2500
30 6030 1000
1000
20 5020 2000
500
10 4010 500 1500
30 0 0
0 0 1000
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
1998
1997
1996
1992
1988
1984
1982
1977
20
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
1998
1997
1996
1992
1988
1984
1982
1977
10 500
Year
0 Year 0
Figure 14. Number of documents and citations by year [137].
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
1998
1997
1996
1992
1988
1984
1982
1977
Figure 14. Number of documents and citations by year [137].
Figure 14. Number of documents and citations by year [137].
Year
250
Number of documents

250 14. Number of documents and citations by year [137].

Figure 200
Number of documents

200 150
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150 100
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Figure 15. Number of documents by country [136].
Country
Country
Figure15.
Figure 15.Number
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country[136].
Figure 15. Number of documents by country [136].

Figure 16. Number of recorded flood, extreme weather, drought, and extreme temperature events
from 1900 to 2019 [138].

Figure According to
of research conducted onweather,
the Webdrought,
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and(WoS), a temperature
total of 975 events
studies
Figure 16. Number of16. Numberflood,
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studies .began to increase in the early 2000s. The majority of these studies
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 Land
Land 2023,
2023, 12,12, 1211
1211 3434of of5353
Land 2023, 12, 1211 33 of 52

inincountries
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Land 2023, 12, 1211 34 of 52

Overall, the research shows that urbanization has a significant impact on flooding,
both directly and indirectly. To reduce flood risk, strategies must be developed to mitigate
the direct effects of urbanization and address the indirect effects of water withdrawal and
land‑use change.

6.2.2. Urbanization Impacts on Floods

Urbanization is a process of population concentration in urban areas, resulting in the
growth of cities and their associated infrastructure. As cities become increasingly popu‑
lated, the demands for water resources also increase, leading to a variety of changes in the
environment. One of the most significant impacts of urbanization on water resources is the
increased pressure on existing water sources. As cities become larger and more populous,
the demand for water increases [126,127]. This can lead to the over‑extraction of existing
water sources, such as rivers, lakes, and aquifers, resulting in water shortages and reduced
water quality. Additionally, the increased demand for water from urban areas can lead
to the displacement of traditional water sources and their associated cultural practices, re‑
sulting in a loss of cultural identity [140,141]. Urbanization can also lead to degradation
of water quality due to the introduction of pollutants into water sources. This is due to in‑
creased human activities associated with urban development, such as the discharge of in‑
dustrial wastewater and agricultural runoff into water sources. These pollutants can lead
to the eutrophication of bodies of water, causing algal blooms and other environmental
impacts [142]. Urbanization can lead to the introduction of non‑native species into water
sources, which can have a variety of impacts on the ecology. These species can compete
with native species for resources and can disrupt food webs, resulting in a decrease in bio‑
diversity. Finally, urbanization can also have an impact on the hydrological cycle. The
presence of impervious surfaces, such as roads, roofs, and parking lots, can reduce the
infiltration of water into the ground, leading to increased surface runoff and decreased
groundwater recharge [141,143]. This can lead to flooding and increased erosion of rivers
and streams, resulting in a decrease in water quality and aquatic life.
Urbanization has a significant impact on flooding, both directly and indirectly. Di‑
rectly, urbanization increases the impervious surface area, which accelerates runoff and
increases the probability of flooding. Indirectly, urbanization can cause modifications to
the local hydrological cycle, such as increased water abstraction, increased evapotranspi‑
ration, and changes in land use. A bibliometric analysis of the literature on the effects of
urbanization on flooding reveals that the majority of research has focused on the direct
effects [141]. In particular, there is a wealth of research examining the impacts of urbaniza‑
tion on surface runoff and the associated increase in flood risk. This research has largely
focused on the development of urban hydrological models, the application of these models
in urban areas, and the development of strategies to reduce the risk of flooding [141,144].
The literature on the indirect effects of urbanization on flooding is much more limited. Re‑
search in this area has largely focused on the impacts of water abstraction and land‑use
change on the local hydrological cycle and the associated impacts on flooding [145].
Although floods have occurred throughout the history of mankind, the frequency of
floods has increased along with the development of urbanized areas. The seasonal distri‑
bution of floods in Rome from 414 BC to 2000 AD is indicated in Table 1. From 414 BC
to 399 AD, a very limited number of floods are indicated. However, from 400 to 1699 (i.e.,
13 centuries) 30 floods occurred and from 1700 to 2000 (i.e., only 3 centuries) 76 floods were
recorded. Therefore, even allowing for missing records, an increasing trend of floods can
be seen in Rome (Table 1) [66].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 35 of 52

Table 1. Seasonal distribution of floods in Rome, Italy (adapted from [66]).

414 BC–399 AD 400–1699 1700–2000

Months
Floods of Floods of
Definite Date Uncertain Date
January–February 1 0 7 25
March–April 2 2 1 13
May–June 1 0 0 2
July–August 2 2 0 0
September–October 0 0 4 2
November–December 0 1 18 34

Historically, urbanization has developed at a very slow rate since prehistoric times.
Until the middle of the last century, only New York was considered a megacity, i.e., a city
with a population of more than 10 million. Today, there are about 45 in the world [146].
In 1800, less than 10% of people lived in urban areas. Today, more than 4.3 billion people,
or 55% of the world’s population live in urban settings. By 2050, approximately 70% of
the world’s population will live in cities, urban areas, and metropolitan centers, where the
future of humanity is “stacked” and built.
Thus, urbanization has had a drastic impact on the management of stormwater runoff.
It has influenced the quality of storm runoff, has reduced infiltration, and has increased
both the peak and the volume of runoff. Management measures by which the volume and
pollution of stormwater could be reduced are as follows: (a) collection, storage, and reuse,
(b) infiltration into porous surfaces, and (c) facilitating its evaporation [28]. Management
strategies in urban areas aim to ensure flood risks will be eliminated and conservation
and reuse will be improved. Such strategies include, among others, green roofs, pervious
pavements, grid pavers, rain gardens, vegetated swales, disconnection of impervious sur‑
faces, and of course collection, storage, and reuse of rainwater [147]. This year, Pakistan
has received nearly twice as much rain as the 30‑year average, totaling 390.7 mm. These
torrential rains and flooding have submerged a third of the country and killed more than
1191 people, including 399 children; the United Nations appealed for aid on Tuesday for
what it described as an “unprecedented climate catastrophe” [148]. A recent fast attribu‑
tion study found that human‑caused climate change increased the risk of fatal flooding in
West Africa in 2022 by about 80 times. Floodwater caused more than a million hectares
of farmland to be devastated and displaced 1.3 million people in Nigeria alone, where the
catastrophe was described as the most disastrous in a decade. Severe flooding killed more
than 800 people in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and neighboring countries between June and Oc‑
tober 2022 [149]. In addition, numerous Sudanese states endured severe and persistent
rainfall in 2022. Infrastructure and many houses were damaged by flash floods, which
also caused thousands of people to be displaced [150].
The top ten countries with the highest proportion of poor and flood‑prone people are
all in Africa: South Sudan, Congo Republic, Madagascar, CAR, Malawi, Guinea Bissau, the
DRC, Mozambique, Liberia, and Mali [13]. Over 71 million people in Sub‑Saharan Africa
are estimated to live in both extreme poverty and significant flood risk [4].
In fact, over 1100 flood‑related disasters have been reported over the previous 50 years,
causing over 43,000 deaths in Africa and affecting 13.4 million people annually [5,151]. This
presents a variety of challenging issues for managing floods across the continent, such as
reducing the risk of flooding for the 238 million people who live in sub‑Saharan informal
settlements, managing flood regimes in sizable, transboundary river basins such as the
Niger and Zambezi, and forecasting extreme flood flows in ungauged catchments in arid
regions of North Africa [152]. Climate‑related costs for African nations might reach USD
50 billion annually by 2050, according to forecasts [5].
Land 2023, 12, 1211 36 of 52

Droughts and floods combined to kill 43,625 people between 1990 and 2019 in Africa,
harming 13.4 million people annually and costing at least USD 456 million in economic
losses (Figure 19). On a continent already struggling with extreme poverty and food in‑
Land 2023, 12, 1211 security, the current climate crisis is predicted to amplify the destructive effects of37floods
of 53
and droughts; adapting to climate variability is an essential concern [151].

Figure19.
Figure 19.Impacts
Impactsof
ofnatural
naturaldisasters
disastersin
inAfrica
Africaduring
duringthe
theperiod 1990–2019[151]
period1990–2019 [151]..

6.3. Spreading of Emerging Pollutants and Contaminants

6.3. Spreading of Emerging Pollutants and Contaminants
Floods may induce the spreading of a variety of pollutants and contaminants, such as
Floods may induce the spreading of a variety of pollutants and contaminants, such
organic compounds, originating from human metabolism or discharges, i.e., pharmaceu‑
as organic compounds, originating from human metabolism or discharges, i.e., pharma-
ticals (e.g., personal care products and antibiotics) and endocrine‑disrupting compounds
ceuticals (e.g., personal care products and antibiotics) and endocrine-disrupting com-
(EDCs), disinfection by‑products (DBPs), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances
pounds (EDCs), disinfection by-products (DBPs), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl sub-
(PFAS), pesticides–herbicides, metals, and others. These compounds, under severe flood‑
stances (PFAS), pesticides–herbicides, metals, and others. These compounds, under severe
ing events, may be transferred from the land‑use areas (e.g., natural, agriculture–livestock,
flooding events, may be transferred from the land-use areas (e.g., natural, agriculture–
and manufacturing/industrial lands, areas with wastewater discharges) to the underly‑
livestock, and manufacturing/industrial lands, areas with wastewater discharges) to the
ing soils, surface waters, and sediments, groundwater, and coastal areas. They may thus
underlying soils, surface waters, and sediments, groundwater, and coastal areas. They
change the quality of the environment (e.g., causing eutrophication), induce the antibiotic
may thus change the quality of the and
resistance of microorganisms, environment
threaten(e.g., causing eutrophication),
microbiota and animal and induce the
human
antibiotic resistance of microorganisms, and threaten microbiota and animal
life [153–156]. The main pathway causing contamination/pollution is runoff and soil ero‑ and human
life
sion[153–156]. The main pathway
(contaminants/pollutants causing
absorbed contamination/pollution
into soil particles); however,istransport
runoff and soil ero-
through the
sion (contaminants/pollutants absorbed into soil particles); however, transport
soil profile is possible. In the next paragraphs the main emerging pollutants/contaminants through
the
thatsoilshould
profile is
bepossible. In the next
of concern, paragraphs
particularly in the main
sites emerging to
vulnerable pollutants/contami-
flooding events,
nants that should
are summarized. be of concern, particularly in sites vulnerable to flooding events, are
summarized.
Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance have been recognized by the World Health Or‑
Antibiotics
ganization (WHO) andasantibiotic resistance
critical public have
health beenfor
issues recognized by the World
the 21st century [157]. Health Or-
Antibiotics
ganization (WHO) as macrolide,
(such as beta‑lactam, critical public health issues
quinolone, for the trimethoprim,
sulfonamide, 21st century [157]. Antibiotics
and tetracycline)
(such as beta-lactam, macrolide,
and antibiotic‑resistant quinolone,
genes (ARGs) sulfonamide,
are transported to trimethoprim, and tetracycline)
aquatic environments [157–160].
and antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) are transported to aquatic environments
These substances originate from municipal wastewater effluents or other anthropogenic [157–160].
These substances originate from municipal wastewater effluents or other anthropogenic
activities and they can degrade the quality of drinking water resources, soils, and plants,
and/or induce antibiotic resistance, thus increasing the risk to humans health [161].
Likewise, the spreading of metals, e.g., mercury, cadmium, copper, nickel, chro-
Land 2023, 12, 1211 37 of 52

activities and they can degrade the quality of drinking water resources, soils, and plants,
and/or induce antibiotic resistance, thus increasing the risk to humans’ health [161].
Likewise, the spreading of metals, e.g., mercury, cadmium, copper, nickel, chromium,
or iron, in aquatic reservoirs is also important to ARGs and gene transfer pathways, impact‑
ing the quality of reservoirs and their potential to harm animal and human life [162,163].
The EDCs are another category of contaminants [164,165], defined as “exogenous sub‑
stances or mixtures that alter the function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently
cause adverse health effects in an intact organism, its progeny, or (sub) populations”. So
far they have been identified in domestic effluents, sludge/biosolids, industrial wastewa‑
ters, landfill effluents, livestock wastes, and aquatic reservoirs [166–168].
A recent study highlighted the presence of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in
many locations worldwide. These compounds are of high resistance regarding their degra‑
dation and may cause severe harmful effects on humans.
Finally, a small fraction of plastics, e.g., polyamide nylon 6 (PN6), polyethylene (PE),
or polyvinyl chloride (PVC), known as microplastics (<5 mm), have been found in terres‑
trial and aquatic ecosystems associated also with harmful effects on microorganisms, plant
species, and humans [169,170]. Recent studies have revealed the ability of specific types
of microplastics (i.e., PN6) that can act as carriers of anionic dyes [171], nitrate [172], and
antibiotics [173], transforming microplastics into potential long‑range carrier material that
can cause severe pollution/contamination to the environment [170,174,175].
Worldwide, there are several examples of contaminated water resources due to ma‑
jor flood events causing the transfer of pathogens and chemical substances to surface and
subsurface water. An example is the Adyar River of Chennai, a major city in India, where
extreme flooding and inundated wells led to an increase in concentrations of various pol‑
lutants (e.g., ions, trace metals), and contaminants in groundwater [176]. There, detected
pathogens showed resistance to antibiotics, such as ceftriaxone, doxycycline, and nalidixic
acid [176]. In Colorado, USA, across the Colorado Front Range, extreme floods in 2013
caused damage to infrastructure and private homes, impacting the whole Cache La Poudre
River watershed [177]. There, 277 ARGs subtypes were identified across samples, covering
areas that are pristine and historically heavily influenced by wastewater treatment plants
and animal feeding operations. From a positive perspective of floods, the concentrations
of accumulated antibiotics in fresh‑water Poyang Lake, in China, decreased during flood
season due to dilution [178]. In Houston, Texas, in the USA, changes in antibiotic resistance
and soil microbial communities were detected even after months of urban flooding events
caused by Hurricane Harvey [179]. In Australia, a study showed that an intense Brisbane
River flood that occurred in 2011 mobilized previously stored metal‑rich sediments (e.g.,
containing zinc, lead, copper, nickel, chromium, manganese, and phosphorus), delivering
them to coastal waters. Authors highlighted the magnitude of floods in subtropical regions
as an important factor in controlling metal transport to coastal waters [180]. Finally, there
is limited field evidence regarding the spreading of microplastics after major flooding, e.g.,
a threefold increase in microplastic concentration was observed in India; in the Adyar and
Cooum River catchment area the values were 240 mm and 227 mm, respectively, following
a flood event on 23 November 2015 [181].

6.4. Flooding and the Food System Notion

According to Reed et al. [182], flooding had an impact on the food security status of
12% of those who experienced food poverty in Africa between 2009 and 2020. Flooding
and the accompanying meteorological circumstances can also concurrently worsen local
food security while improving it at regional geographical scales, resulting in significant
changes in the outcomes for overall food security.
Current studies on food security make extensive use of the food system model, which
seeks to clarify the complexities of societal food acquisition. One ongoing project is the
University of Oxford Martin project, which defines the food system notion as follows:
Land 2023, 12, 1211 38 of 52

Land 2023, 12, 1211 “The food system is a complex web of activities involving the production, pro‑ 39 of 53
cessing, transport, and consumption. Issues concerning the food system include
the governance and economics of food production, its sustainability, the degree
to whichtowe waste
which wefood,
wastehow food
food, production
how affects the
food production natural
affects environment
the natural environment
and the and
impact of food on individual and popular health”.
the impact of food on individual and popular health”.
The Oxford project is
The Oxford highly
project is inspired by Ericksen’s
highly inspired models [183]
by Ericksen model for[183]
a modern and
for a modern and
global food system
global linking linking
food system five elements as shown
five elements in Figure
as shown 20. According
in Figure to Ericksen,
20. According to Ericksen, a
a food system consists
food system of allofthose
consists environmental
all those and and
environmental socio‑economic
socio-economic factors, which
factors, whichin in con-
concert cert
constitute the strategies of a society to uphold its food system outcomes or
constitute the strategies of a society to uphold its food system outcomes or degree of degree
of food food
security. ThisThis
security. is not a constant
is not a constant or or
“steady‑state”
“steady-state” system
systemininbalance
balance(ecosystem
(ecosystem termi-
terminology),
nology), but a system that tends to fluctuate and change from time tototime.
but a system that tends to fluctuate and change from time time. This
This important
important point is actually not very prominent in other definitions of food systems
point is actually not very prominent in other definitions of food systems applied to the applied
to the study
studyofofour
ourcontemporary
contemporary(globalized)
(globalized)world.
world.

Production

Waste Processing/packing

Consumption Distribution/Retail

Figure 20. The five

Figure elements
20. The of food systems
five elements adopted adopted
of food systems from [183].
from [183].

For ourFor purpose, one important

our purpose, point point
one important about about
Ericksen’s
Ericksendefinition of theoffood
s definition sys‑ system
the food
tem is its dependency on socioeconomic and environmental drivers, respectively.
is its dependency on socioeconomic and environmental drivers, respectively. On On the the one
one hand, environmental drivers would determine access to the essential precondition
hand, environmental drivers would determine access to the essential precondition for for ag-
agricultural production
ricultural (land,(land,
production soil, water, climate,
soil, water, etc.), and
climate, etc.),onand
the on
other
thehand
otherthe socio‑
hand the socio-
economic drivers determine how the basic productive elements converge
economic drivers determine how the basic productive elements converge to foodto food and are and are
made accessible to the recipient. In the above example from modern Crete, the implica‑
made accessible to the recipient. In the above example from modern Crete, the implica-
tions of erratic weather phenomenon such as flooding for food security involve questions
tions of erratic weather phenomenon such as flooding for food security involve questions
of how flooding impacts local productive facilities, and the second concern is how local
of how flooding impacts local productive facilities, and the second concern is how local
farmers and authorities possess the right measures to counter the negative effects of flood‑
farmers and authorities possess the right measures to counter the negative effects of flood-
ing. As demonstrated by the examples from Greece above, the successful upholding of
ing. As demonstrated by the examples from Greece above, the successful upholding of
local food systems is essential to sustain populations in rural regions, and this precondi‑
local food systems is essential to sustain populations in rural regions, and this precondi-
tion measures against destructive weather phenomena. Alternatively, rural populations
tion measures against destructive weather phenomena. Alternatively, rural populations
tend to migrate towards major urban centers and rural regions experience depopulation.
tend to migrate towards major urban centers and rural regions experience depopulation.
We expect future studies of climate variability will clarify more precisely the correlation
We expect future studies of climate variability will clarify more precisely the correlation
between erratic weather and food security.
between erratic weather and food security.
Land 2023, 12, 1211 39 of 52

6.5. Causes and Measures for Protection from Floods

Developing protection measures against major flooding events requires understand‑
ing the fate, and underlying mechanisms and processes, of pollutants and contaminants,
as well as the changes caused in infrastructure, environment, biodiversity, and food chains.
This information should be combined with other social‑economic priorities and goals in an
integrated approach. The aim of such an approach would be to produce effective flood risk
management for either urban or agricultural/natural waste streams, targeting flood miti‑
gation and the protection of sustainability of natural (soil and water) resources, quality of
life, and economy [184]. For example, a study simulated the future flood risk for the Bel‑
gian coast, by using climatic and socioeconomic projections, as well as the value of specific
spatial adaptation measures, including land‑use zoning and compartmentalization, pro‑
jecting a reduction in flood risk from 10 to 60% [185]. Recently, a review study divided dif‑
ferent flood‑management measures, targeting reduction of specific risk components (e.g.,
hazard, exposure, and vulnerability) [186], into four classes: (a) flood abatement (rain har‑
vesting, reforestation, soil conservation, and groundwater recharging); (b) flood control
(retention and storage water, dykes, floodwalls, flow diversion, river re‑profiling, river con‑
veyance); (c) flood alleviation (encroachment control, building codes, rescue, evacuation,
land‑use adaptation, flood proofing, and public awareness); and (d) recovery from floods
(insurance, relief efforts, and compensation) [186]. According to the authors, each of the
measures should be evaluated based on the reduction of risk under site‑specific economic,
social, topographical, or environmental constraints [186]. Despite the progress that has
been made in studying floods and their impacts on the environment, infrastructure, and
economy, there are still great challenges, particularly due to uncertainties arising from
the applied hydrological, flood damage, climate, and population and economic growth
models [187,188]. Understanding of these uncertainties would help risk communication,
policy decisions, and the development and application of adaptation strategies and mea‑
sures [164]. Another domain of research could focus on the short‑ or long‑term impacts of
the proposed measures/strategies/policies on different sectors (e.g., infrastructure, society,
and economy). A standardized assessment tool or framework, which involves the interac‑
tions between sectors, has been proposed to improve the resilience of flood‑mitigation ac‑
tions [184]. In the EU, floods are treated in the European Directive 2007/60/EC, suggesting
the following for river basin districts of the member states:
(i) preliminary flood risk assessment, (ii) flood hazard and risk maps, and (iii) flood risk‑
management plants (includes measures for achieving prevention and/or reduction of the
adverse consequences of flooding for human health, the environment, and economic activ‑
ity). Moreover, there are relative guidelines, such as those concerning the dissemination
of specific pollutants/contaminants, pharmaceuticals (e.g., antibiotics), and anti‑microbial
resistance and other organic and inorganic compounds, [189]. Other relevant proposed
EU strategies and policies for flood management are those for pharmaceuticals [190], sus‑
tainable and toxic‑free environment [191], “Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil” [192],
microplastics [193], and the endocrine disruptors’ [194,195]. Currently, at the EU mem‑
ber state scale, a risk‑based flood‑management approach is adopted by countries, such as
Germany and Netherlands, according to the EU flood directive (2007/60/EC); the Nether‑
lands adopted the framework Multi‑Layer Safety to achieve flood protection, sustainable
spatial planning, and emergency management [196]. Germany, after the disastrous floods
in 2002 along the Elbe and the Danube rivers, revised the national framework legislation
regarding spatial planning and household and business damage prevention [196]. Climate
challenges contributed further to the application of more efficient and multipurpose usage
flood adaptation measures. The USA has adopted flood risk management, named the Fed‑
eral National Flood Insurance Program, introducing requirements for buildings and flood
zoning [196]. Flood mapping is also carried out by the US Federal Emergency Manage‑
ment Agency, providing data for the understanding of flood hazards and the assessment
of the protection measures at a local scale [188].
d 2023, 12, 1211 41 of 53
Land 2023, 12, 1211 40 of 52

6.5.1. Case Study at Korea: Star City Rainwater Management

6.5.1. Case Study at Korea: Star City Rainwater Management
Motivated by the Korean philosophy and tradition of respecting rainwater, a modern
example is a model Motivated by the Korean
of decentralized philosophyrainwater
multi-purpose and tradition of respecting
management rainwater,
in Seoul, Ko- a modern
example is a model of decentralized multi‑purpose rainwater management in Seoul, Korea,
rea, known as the Star City project. The Star City—located in the northeastern part of
known as the Star City project. The Star City—located in the northeastern part of Seoul,
Seoul, near the Han River, South Korea—is a major real-estate development project of
near the Han River, South Korea—is a major real‑estate development project of more than
more than 1300 apartments. The Star City rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) has been
1300 apartments. The Star City rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) has been operating
operating since 2007 and is receiving worldwide attention as a model water-management
since 2007 and is receiving worldwide attention as a model water‑management system that
system that supplements the existing centralized water infrastructure strategy [197].
supplements the existing centralized water infrastructure strategy [197].
Several innovative concepts have been applied in implementing the Star City RWHS
Several innovative concepts have been applied in implementing the Star City
[198]:
RWHS [198]:
(a) The concept of a multi-purpose system: the system is used in flood mitigation, water
(a) The concept of a multi‑purpose system: the system is used in flood mitigation, water
conservation, and emergency response.
conservation, and emergency response.
(b) The proactive management of flooding: the Star City RWHS has a remote-control
(b) The proactive management of flooding: the Star City RWHS has a remote‑control
system for monitoring
system for and controlling
monitoring andthe tank water
controlling thelevel. Three level.
tank water different
Threetanks also tanks also
different
store water separately according to water quality. The risk of flooding is mitigated
store water separately according to water quality. The risk of flooding is mitigated
with the remote-control system by emptying
with the remote‑control system byoremptying
filling theortanks
fillingappropriately.
the tanks appropriately.
(c) The city(c)government s incentive program for the developer
The city government’s incentive program for the developer to alleviate the to
fear of any the fear of
alleviate
economic disadvantage.
any economicThe developer The
disadvantage. wasdeveloper
permittedwas to permitted
construct three percent
to construct three percent
more floor space
more floor space than would normally be allowed. Considering thereal
than would normally be allowed. Considering the price of es-of real estate
price
tate in Seoul,inthat is athat
Seoul, remarkable incentive.
is a remarkable incentive.
A schematicAdiagram
schematic of the Star City
diagram RWHS
of the is shown
Star City RWHS inis
Figure
shown 21.inAFigure
total of
21.3000 m3 of 3000 m3
A total
of water is stored in three
of water separate
is stored tanks
in three with a tanks
separate total floor
witharea of 1500
a total floorm
2. The capacity
area of 1500 m2 .ofThe capacity
each tank isof1000 m 3. Two of the tanks 3 are used to store rainwater from
each tank is 1000 m . Two of the tanks are used to store rainwater the rooftops andthe rooftops
from
the ground.andGarden irrigationGarden
the ground. is achieved efficiently
irrigation by ground
is achieved infiltration,
efficiently by groundwhichinfiltration,
is recy- which is
cled to the tank for multiple
recycled uses.
to the tank forThe third uses.
multiple tank stores emergency
The third tap emergency
tank stores water. Freshtap tapwater. Fresh
water is maintained
tap waterby regular replenishment
is maintained after decanting
by regular replenishment halfdecanting
after of the old water
half of theinto
old water into
the rainwater tank.
the rainwater tank.

Figure 21.
Figure 21. Schematic Schematic
diagram diagram
of the of the
Star City Star City RWHS.
RWHS.

The total area of the Star City complex is around 51,200 m2 , comprising 6200 m2 of
The total area of the Star City2 complex is around 51,200 m2, comprising 6200 m2 of
rooftops and 45,000 m of terrace and garden. When considering the infiltration capacity
rooftops and 45,000 m2 of terrace and garden. When considering the infiltration capacity
of the garden, the runoff coefficient of the terrace is assumed to be 60% of that of the roof.
of the garden, the runoff coefficient of the terrace is assumed to be 60% of that of the roof.
The total equivalent area thus becomes ~34,550 m2 . The tank volume–catchment area ra‑
The total equivalent area thus becomes ~34,550 m . The tank volume–catchment area ratio
2
tio is 5.8 m3 /100 m2 . As the utilization rate–catchment area ratio is small (ranging from
is 5.8 m3/100 m2. As the utilization rate–catchment area ratio is small (ranging from 0–0.3
0–0.3 L/min 100 m2 ), the Star City RWMS can be designed and analyzed using the R‑S‑D
L/min.100 m2), the Star City RWMS can be designed and analyzed using the R-S-D model.
model. These factors can be plotted on the TP (Tank volume—Peak runoff) curves for the
These factors can be plotted on the TP (Tank volume—Peak runoff) curves for the R-S-D
R‑S‑D system as described in Nguyen and Han [198] and the flood mitigation potential
system as described in Nguyen
can be evaluated. A and Han [198] and the
100‑year‑frequency flood
peak mitigation
runoff of 26 m3potential
/h (Point can be be reduced
A) can
Land 2023, 12, 1211 42 of 53
Land 2023, 12, 1211 41 of 52

evaluated. A 100-year-frequency peak runoff of 26 m3/h (Point A) can be reduced to 18

m318
to /h m
(Point B) through
3 /h (Point a rainwater
B) through tank installation
a rainwater with with
tank installation a tank volume–catchment
a tank volume–catchmentarea
ratio of 5.8 m 3/1003 m2, as shown
2 in Figure 22. The peak runoff of 18 m 3/h indicates
3
area ratio of 5.8 m /100 m , as shown in Figure 22. The peak runoff of 18 m /h indicates a 10-
year-frequency peak runoff (Point C). Therefore, the Star City complex, which
a 10‑year‑frequency peak runoff (Point C). Therefore, the Star City complex, which has ahas a stor-
age array
storage withwith
array a 10-year design
a 10‑year period,
design would
period, protect
would from
protect a 100-year
from flood.
a 100‑year flood.

Figure 22. TP
Figure TP(tank
(tankvolume–peak
volume–peakrunoff)
runoff)curves
curves forfor
R-S-D system
R‑S‑D systemusing different
using design
different return
design pe-
return
riods (using
periods Seoul
(using rainfall
Seoul data
rainfall and
data Huff
and method,
Huff method, normalized
normalizedfor for
100100
m2 m
catchment area).
2 catchment A 100-
area). A
year frequency
100‑year peakpeak
frequency runoff when
runoff therethere
when is noisstorage tanktank
no storage of 26ofm26
3/h (point A) can
m3 /h (point A)be reduced
can to 18
be reduced
m3/h thanks to this rainwater tank (Point B). The peak runoff of 18 m3/h indicates a 10-year frequency
to 18 m3 /h thanks to this rainwater tank (Point B). The peak runoff of 18 m3 /h indicates a 10‑year
peak runoff (Point C) [198].
frequency peak runoff (Point C) [198].

The success
The success of of the
the Star
Star City
City project
project serves
serves asas aa model
model forfor enacting
enacting regulations
regulations aimed
aimed
at rainwater
at rainwater harvesting
harvesting and and management
management in in Seoul.
Seoul. In In December
December 2004,2004, the
the city
city authority
authority
announced new rules to enforce the installation of RWHSs, with
announced new rules to enforce the installation of RWHSs, with the main purpose of the main purpose ofmiti‑
mit-
igating urban flooding and a secondary purpose of conserving
gating urban flooding and a secondary purpose of conserving water and extending energy water and extending en-
ergy savings. These measures are expected to ensure the safety of
savings. These measures are expected to ensure the safety of the city from future flooding. the city from future
flooding.
A A special
special feature of feature
the newofsystem
the new system
is the is the of
provision provision
a networkof afor
network for monitoring
monitoring water lev‑
water
els levels
in all water intanks
all water
at thetanks
centralat the central disaster-prevention
disaster‑prevention agency in theagency in the (Figure
City Office City Office23).
(Figure
Data will23).
be Data will from
gathered be gathered
each Gufrom each Gu
or district or district
office. Dependingoffice. onDepending
the expected onamount
the ex-
pected
of amount
rainfall, of rainfall,
the central theprevention
disaster central disaster
agencyprevention
may issue an agency
ordermay issue anowners
to building order toto
building
either owners
fully to either
or partially fullytheir
empty or partially
rainwaterempty their
tanks. Anrainwater
incentivetanks. An incentive
program is planned pro-
to
gram isthose
reward plannedwhoto reward
follow the those
order who follow the
and penalize thoseorder
whoand penalize
do not. Afterthose
a stormwho do not.
event, the
After awater
stored stormcan event, the for
be used stored water can
firefighting andbenon‑drinking
used for firefighting
purposes,andsuchnon-drinking pur-
as toilet flushing
poses,
and such as toilet flushing and gardening.
gardening.
 Land2023,
Land 2023,12,
12,1211
1211 43 of 52
42 of 53

Figure23.
Figure 23.AAdiagram
diagramshowing
showing the
the monitoring
monitoring of of a multiple
a multiple rainwater
rainwater tank
tank system
system for prevention
for the the preven-
tion of urban flooding and for water conservation.
of urban flooding and for water conservation.

ByBy2022,
2022,more
morethanthan100100 local
local authorities
authorities in South
in South KoreaKorea
had madehad made regulations
regulations on rain‑on
rainwater management to promote DRWMSs by providing
water management to promote DRWMSs by providing financial incentives and subsidies, financial incentives and sub-
sidies,
and and by establishing
by establishing operating operating
rainwater rainwater committees.
committees. Many other Manycitiesotherare cities are plan-
planning to
ning to
make make rainwater
rainwater regulationsregulations
under theunder Greenthe Green Policy
Growth Growth ofPolicy
the Southof the Southgovern‑
Korean Korean
government.
ment.
Themain
The mainquestion
questionisiswhat
whatcan/should
can/shouldbe bedone
doneto toprevent
prevent and/or
and/or avoid
avoid such
such events.
events.
Themost
The mosteffective
effectivesolution
solutionwould
wouldbe bethe
thedemolition
demolitionand andreconstruction
reconstructionofofour ourcities
citiesafter
after
properurban
proper urbanplanning.
planning.ThisThisisisimpossible.
impossible. Therefore,
Therefore, in in the
the future,
future, letlet us
us imitate
imitate our
our an‑
an-
cestors
cestorsand andother
otherpeoples,
peoples,atatleast
leastin inthe
the urban
urban planning
planning and and infrastructure
infrastructure of of our
our cities.
cities.
As
Asalready
alreadymentioned,
mentioned,an aninteresting
interestingexample
exampleisisHippodamus
Hippodamusof of Miletus
Miletus (498–408
(498–408 BC), BC),
architect
architectand andtown
townplanner
plannerand andaaprominent
prominentpersonality
personalityof of the
the ancient
ancient Classical
Classical world,
world,
was
wasinitially
initiallyactive
activeininIonia,
Ionia,andandmainly
mainlyininhis hisplace
placeofoforigin,
origin,Miletus.
Miletus.He Hecreated
createdthe the
urban plan known as the Hippodamian system, which was not
urban plan known as the Hippodamian system, which was not just the application of an just the application of an
orthonormal
orthonormalsystem systemofofstreets,
streets,butbutthe
themore
moregeneral
generalorganization
organizationof ofaacity
citysosothat
thatits
itsfunc‑
func-
tions
tionswerewereserved
servedrationally.
rationally. ItIt was
was first
first applied
applied toto Miletus,
Miletus, and and thenthen toto Priene,
Priene, Piraeus,
Piraeus,
Rhodes,
Rhodes,Olynthos,
Olynthos,Kassope,
Kassope,and andelsewhere.
elsewhere.Despotopoulos
Despotopoulosconsidered
consideredititas asananexpression
expression
ofofthe
thecollective
collectivelogic
logicin
inthe
thecity,
city,as
asananexpression
expressionof ofthe
theconscious
consciousand andthethenon‑accidental,
non-accidental,
and
andindeed
indeedas asananexpression
expressionofofsocial
socialcollectivity
collectivity[30].
[30].
In addition, alongside proper urban
In addition, alongside proper urban planning, planning, thethe
need need for organized
for organized rainwater‑
rainwater-man-
management
agement practices, i.e., their collection, storage, and use, is imperative. For this,this,
practices, i.e., their collection, storage, and use, is imperative. For we we can
can
introduce our ancestors. The ancient Greeks, from the beginning of the Minoan era,era,
introduce our ancestors. The ancient Greeks, from the beginning of the Minoan de-
developed rationalpractices
veloped rational practicesininthis
thisfield
fieldas as well.
well. Recently,
Recently, aa study
study entitled
entitled “The
“Thecisterns
cisternsof of
Santorini, miracles of wisdom and art” was published in the international
Santorini, miracles of wisdom and art” was published in the international scientific press, scientific press,
where
wherethe thewisdom
wisdomofofantiquity
antiquityisis“married”
“married”with withmodern
modernwater waterresource‑management
resource-management
technologies
technologies in the GWP-Med project, between Cornell University,USA,
in the GWP‑Med project, between Cornell University, USA,and andthetheMunici‑
Munic-
pal Water and Sewerage Company of Santorin
ipal Water and Sewerage Company of Santorin (DEYAS) [199]. (DEYAS) [199].

6.5.2. African Cases and Policy

Ancient civilizations in Morocco, such as the Berbers, Phoenicians, and Romans, faced
the challenges of seasonal floods and water scarcity and developed innovative methods to
manage their water resources. For example:
Land 2023, 12, 1211 43 of 52

(a) The Berbers, who lived in North Africa as early as 3000 BC, developed a sophisti‑
cated system of irrigation and water management to make use of the limited water
resources available in the region. They built dams, cisterns, and underground chan‑
nels to store and transport water, and used terracing and other techniques to protect
their crops from floods [200].
(b) The Phoenicians, who established trading colonies along the coast of Morocco, also
made use of irrigation systems to cultivate crops and support their settlements. They
built cisterns to store rainwater and channeled water from springs to their fields [201].
(c) The Romans, who conquered the Kingdom of Mauretania and established the city of
Volubilis as their capital, also made use of irrigation systems and constructed aque‑
ducts to transport water from distant sources to their cities. They built public baths,
fountains, and other public facilities that relied on a constant supply of water [202].
Overall, the ancient civilizations in Morocco developed a range of strategies to cope
with the challenges posed by floods and water scarcity and made significant contributions
to the field of water management and engineering. These innovations helped to support
the growth and development of these civilizations and paved the way for the cultural and
technological advances of subsequent generations.
African inhabitants have used various methods to combat floods and protect their
settlements throughout history. Some of these methods include:
(a) Building levees and dykes. In areas prone to frequent or severe flooding, communi‑
ties have built levees and dykes to protect their settlements. The ancient Egyptians,
for example, built a system of levees and dykes along the Nile River to prevent flood‑
ing and preserve their fertile agricultural land.
(b) Relocating settlements. In some cases, communities relocated their settlements to
higher ground to avoid flood‑prone areas. This was common in areas where seasonal
or irregular floods were a regular occurrence.
(c) Improving drainage systems. In areas with poor drainage, communities have im‑
proved drainage systems to reduce the risk of flooding. For example, in some African
cities, the authorities have built drainage canals and improved the infrastructure to
prevent flash flooding during heavy rains.
(d) Developing early warning systems. In some communities, early warning systems
have been developed to give residents advance notice of impending floods. This al‑
lows them to take appropriate action to protect their settlements, crops, and livestock.
These methods have been used to varying degrees across Africa, and the strategies
used have varied depending on the local climate, geography, and resources. Neverthe‑
less, combating floods has been a continuous challenge for African inhabitants, and adapt‑
ing to changing environmental conditions remains a key concern for communities across
the continent.
To address the ongoing challenges and those that will arise in the future, considerably
more work must be done. Due to this, the IFRC and Movement partners continue to sup‑
port African National Societies in addressing the needs and enhancing the quality of life for
marginalized populations throughout Africa, both before and after disasters and crises [4].
African National Societies launched 52 small‑scale response operations through the IFRC’s
Disaster Emergency Relief Fund (DREF) with budget funding of 80 million Swiss francs,
targeting 1.9 million people, and 11 larger responses through IFRC Emergency Appeals
with budget funding of 11 million Swiss francs, targeting 564,000 people, since January
2019, in response to floods, flash floods, landslides, and cyclones [4].
By enabling the development of a national disaster risk‑management strategy, sup‑
porting structural risk‑reduction investments for more than 174,000 beneficiaries, insuring
nearly 9 million people against bodily injury in catastrophic events, and establishing a sol‑
idarity fund benefiting nearly 6 million of Morocco’s poorest and most vulnerable citizens,
the Morocco Integrated Disaster Risk Management and Resilience Program has helped
strengthen Morocco’s disaster and climate resilience [116]. Dam policy, which was set up
Land 2023, 12, 1211 44 of 52

in Morocco in the late 1960s, is today regarded as one of the best practices for flood protec‑
tion and improving water supplies.
The private sector seems interested in funding adaptation to new circumstances in
Africa and elsewhere. Nevertheless, it will not act unless it is persuaded that doing so will
have a beneficial economic impact, which is still a concern given how little awareness there
is among businesses of the opportunity costs of inaction and the potential technologies that
might be used [151].

7. Epilogue
Floods are phenomena that occur throughout the world without distinguishing be‑
tween developed and developing countries. The global forecasts for the risk of flood events
show that a large part of the planet will face increased problems due to population increase,
urbanization, and the reduction and/or deficit management of forestlands. The risk is par‑
ticularly high in closed basins (an internally draining watershed, whose waters do not flow
to the sea or ocean) which are not surrounded by karst rocks and are drained by sinkholes
with low maintainability and mainly low drainage capacity.
Since prehistoric times, important developments have included the implementation
of hygienic living standards, advanced hydraulic technologies for water transportation,
constructions for flood and sediment control, and sustainable urban water‑management
practices, which can be compared to modern‑day practices. In a brief overview of the his‑
tory of flooding in ancient times from the Early Bronze Age to the present day, three major
periods were considered: the prehistoric to the medieval period (ca 7600 BC–1400 AD),
the early and middle modern period (1400–1900 AD), and the modern period (1900 AD
to date) [26]. For example, Nile flooding has marked the most important ecological cycle
in Egypt since ancient times. Ancient Egyptians’ lives were highly affected by the Nile
summer floods. Egyptians adopted early many technologies to control these floods.
Floods have been a recurrent natural disaster in India throughout history, with ref‑
erences to floods in ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas. In ancient times, floods were
mainly caused by heavy monsoon rains and overflowing of rivers such as the Indus, Ganges,
and Brahmaputra. These floods resulted in significant loss of life and property damage. As
the population grew, and urbanization and deforestation increased, the impact of floods
became more severe. Climate variability also has an impact on floods in India, with heavier
rainfall and rising sea levels exacerbating the problem. In recent years, the Indian govern‑
ment has implemented various measures to mitigate the impacts of floods, such as building
dams and embankments, early warning systems, and disaster‑management plans. How‑
ever, despite these efforts, floods continue to cause significant damage and loss of life.
Throughout all these above‑mentioned periods, climatic conditions do not seem to
have changed drastically, but they nevertheless exhibit intense variability also for pro‑
longed periods [203]. Recent climate variability and/or climate change has a great impact
on flood quantity and frequency everywhere, driven not only by alterations in precipita‑
tion patterns, but also by changes in land use by humans, which increase the flooding risk.
Deforestation, for example, reduces the capacity of the land to absorb water, leading to in‑
creased runoff and the potential for flooding. Furthermore, increase in global temperature
due to increased greenhouse gas emissions may result in melting of glaciers and polar ice
caps, and, subsequently, a rise in sea level. This may increase the risk of coastal flooding
from storm surges.
Decision‑making must be directed toward policies in which lessons from past floods
have been included. Developing precise hydrological models to forecast river discharge,
heavy rainfalls, and flash floods would be beneficial for future studies. Decision‑making
must play a critical role in addressing the impacts of climate variability, particularly in
terms of reducing the risk of floods. Effective decision‑making can help communities and
governments to prepare for and respond to the increasing frequency and intensity of flood
events. This can include decisions such as:
Land 2023, 12, 1211 45 of 52

(a) Land‑use planning. Decisions about how land is used and developed can have a
significant impact on the risk of flooding. For example, decisions about urban devel‑
opment and land use can influence the level of impermeable surfaces and runoff.
(b) Climate adaptation. Decisions about how to adapt to the impacts of climate vari‑
ability, such as floods, are crucial. This can include measures such as building flood
protection structures, creating early warning systems, and developing emergency re‑
sponse plans.
(c) Mitigation. Decisions about reducing greenhouse gas emissions and slowing climate
variability will also have an impact on the frequency and intensity of floods.
In short, decision‑making at all levels (local, national, and international) will play a
key role in reducing the impacts of urbanization and protecting communities from the risk
of flooding. Moreover, historical flood accounts often contain details of corroborative in‑
formation (e.g., watermarks), which permit comparison of past events with recent floods or
can even be used in the estimation of historical peak discharges. The long periods covered
by historical records, relative to systematic instrumental observations, permit a more re‑
liable estimation of high‑magnitude low‑probability events, providing an important tool
in flood risk estimation [204]. Learning from past events is an important tool for better
understanding floods and for the provision of more effective protective measures against
future events.
Finally, Confucius’ (551–479 BC) saying is confirmed, i.e., “Study the past before plan‑
ning anything for the future”.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.N.A. has the original idea and was written the origi‑
nal draft. A.G.C. Reviewing and edited. B.T. writing the Climate Variability section. M.V. has con‑
tributed in Prehistoric to Medieval Era, Medieval Times, Contemporary Times, and Emerging Trends.
J.K. Review and editing, Contributing to Prolegomena, the sections on Ancient and modern Greece,
and Food systems, Epilogue. A.T.A. Writing the section on early ancient Egyptians. L.M. Con‑
tributed in Prolegomena, Historical Times, Floods in Contemporary Times, Urbanization, Causes
and measures for protection from Floods, and Epilogue. V.A.T. Writing the section on spreading
pollutants and contaminants and a part for causes and measures for protection from floods section
and submitting the manuscript. A.B. and E.B. Writing the section of the Byzantine period, Medieval
times, and floods in early and Mid‑Modern Times urbanization. R.K. Writing mainly on the part of
the manuscript for India. X.Z. and Z.M. Contributing in Prolegomena and Chinese sections. M.H.
wrote the part on old Korea during Baekje Dynasty and that on modern Korea. N.D. Contributed
to the Greece in ancient times and contemporary times. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Many thanks are due to Madalina Buzatu, Land Journal Relations Specialist
for her interest, effort, and contribution mainly in organization two meetings, very productive and
development the work plan.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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