Lab Manual

Electronic Devices and Circuits

(CEN2009)

Computer Engineering Department

National University of Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan
 Version History
Title Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab
Course Code CEN2009
The Lab is designed to provide a practical - hands on - introduction to
electronics with a focus on measurement and signals. The prerequisites are
courses in differential equations, as well as electricity and magnetism. No
prior experience with electronics is necessary. The course will integrate
demonstrations and laboratory examples with lectures on the foundations. The
lab will cover the analysis of bipolar junction transistors (NPN and PNP), DC
Description
circuit analysis, DC Load line of BJT biasing, bias stability, design and
analysis of common emitter, common base, and common collector amplifiers.
FET biasing, design of common source, common drain and common gate
amplifiers. Hybrid parameters, ac gain and frequency analysis of
single/multistage amplifiers. Classes of amplifiers, power amplifiers,
differential amplifiers, operational amplifiers and applications.
Dr. Muhammad Ejaz Khan (Associate Professor)
Created By Engr. Mafaz Ahmad (Lab Engineer)
Engr. Muhammad Adeel Ijaz (Snr Lab Engineer)
Date of Creation 11th August 2020
Maintained By
Version No. Changes Made Updated By Updating Date Status
Lab Engr Mafaz 11th August 2020 Cancelled
V-1.0
Ahmad
Dr. Muhammad 1st Feb 2021 Cancelled
V-2.0 Ejaz Khan / M
Adeel Ijaz
CLOs are Dr. Muhammad 2nd Aug 2021 Active
V-3.0 rephrased/Typos Ejaz Khan / M
fixed Adeel Ijaz

2
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
Learni Taxono
CL PL
O ng my O
Domai Level
n
Explain and verify electric circuits for different
applications in Proteus software and testing their Psychomot
2 4
functionalities using hardware and simulation or
results
Reproduce and validate of electric circuits using Psychomot
hardware and simulation results 3 5
or
Demonstrate experiments individual and in a
Affective 3 8
group

RELEVANT PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOs):

This course is designed to help students in achievement of the PLOs as ticked below:
1 Engineering Knowledge: 7 Environment and Sustainability:

2 Problem Analysis: 8 Ethics:

3 Design/Development of Solutions: 9 Individual and Teamwork:

4 Investigation: 1 Communication:
0

5 Modern Tool Usage: 1 Project Management:

1

6 The Engineer and Society: 1 Lifelong Learning:

3
2

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Electronic Devices and Circuits LabNUTECH, Islamabad

Mapping of CLOs & PLOs to Lab

Practical’s

Lab No. Practical Name CLO PLO

1 Introduction: Basic Concepts and Lab Equipment 1,3 4,8

2 1,3 4,8
Study of Diode and its General Characteristics
4,8
3 1,3
Applications of Diode
4,8
4 1,3
Half Wave Bridge Rectifier
4,8
5 1,3
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

6 1,3 4,8
Zener Diode Characteristics and Voltage Regulation
4,8
7 1,3
Clippers Circuits (Open Ended Lab)

Mid Exam 1 4

8 Clampers Circuits (Open Ended Lab) 1,3 4,8

Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor 4,8

9 1,3
(BJT)
BJT as Common Emitter Amplifier and Common 4,8
10 1,3
Collector Amplifier
4,8
11 1,3
BJT Transistor as a Switch
4,8
12 1,3
JFET Characteristics

13 Characteristics of MOSFET 1,3 4,8

End Exam
1 4

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Electronic Devices and Circuits LabNUTECH, Islamabad

Lab Assessment Policy

Sr No Assessment Weightage
1 Lab Performance (Rubric Based Assessments in Psychomotor Domain 15%
[CLO 1])
2 Lab Reports (Rubric Based Affective assessment for CLO3) 15%
3 Complex Engineering Activity/lab Project (Rubric Based Psychomotor 15%
assessment for CLO 1 and project report [CLO2])
4 Open Ended Labs (Rubric Based Psychomotor assessment for CLO 2 5%
and Lab reports)

5 Mid Semester Exam in Psychomotor Domain 🡪 CLO 1 20%

6 End Semester Exam in Psychomotor Domain 🡪 CLO 1 30%

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Rubrics for Lab Assessments

AFFECTIVE (To be evaluated in the lab during experiment)

Levels of Achievement

Unacceptable Just acceptable Basic Good Excellent

(0) (1) (2) (3) (4)
I.
Totally ignores safety Casual in following Follows adequate Follows desired safety Completely adheres to
Adherence to Safety
procedures safety procedures safety procedures procedures safety procedures
Procedures
II.
Management of Poor management of Manages work area to Manages work area Manages work area Manages work area
Work Area & work area some extent adequately effectively proficiently
equipment Care
III.
Demonstrates
Participation & Shows some commitment Demonstrates Active participation
Shows no commitment, but has commitment and
but fails to perform and effective
Contribution commitment difficulty performing carries out assigned
towards Group assigned roles contribution
assigned roles roles
Goals

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (to be evaluated in the lab as initial lab report, MSE and ESE)

Unacceptable Just acceptable Basic Good Excellent

(0) (1) (2) (3) (4)

Lab Rubrics 15%

I No understanding of Inadequate study and Enough Adequate study and Thorough study and

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Understanding
understanding to solving problem with solving problem
Problem the problem guided problem solving
solve the problem minimum guidance without help

Fails to patch the Completely

Circuit is patched
II circuit according to correct
Circuit is patched under independently but not Successful in patching
the given diagram. patching
Circuit Patching guidance. in a professional the circuit correctly.
independently and
manner.
confidently.
III Learns adequate Learns desired skills
Procedural skills and applies and applies with Masters and
Fails to learn and under guidance. confidence
apply appropriate Learns skills and applies applies desired skills
Skills/
under repeated guidance with ease and
Simulation skills
confidence
Results/Code
IV Can achieve the desired Can achieve Can obtain the desired
Fails to achieve the outcomes with the result result without any Master at achieving
Desired
desired outcomes instructors help with minimum help outside help the desired result
Outcome
Additional Rubrics for Open Ended Labs (CLO 1, CLO 2) 5%

V Satisfactory selection Relevant and smart

Satisfactory selection
No use of tools Unsatisfactory selection of tools to achieve selection of tools to
Select of tools to achieve
leading towards major of tools to achieve desired objective achieve desired
Appropriate desired objective
errors in the objective desired objective along with proper objective along with
ICs/tools without reasoning
reasoning proper reasoning
Lab Reports Rubrics (CLO 2) 20%

The requirements of Report meets all Report meets all

VI Report No report /Report was The report submitted but report are not prescribed requirements and
Writing not prepared in time incomplete requirements with prepared in original
properly addressed
minimum mistakes and creative way.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Lab Project Rubrics 10%

Unacceptable Just acceptable Basic Good Excellent
(0) (1) (2) (3) (4)
Complete project but Complete project Complete Project
I Incomplete project Incomplete project but inadequate with sufficient with thorough
Project Problem with inability to with understanding of explanation of the understanding and understanding and
Understanding solve the problem the problem working explanation confident
explanation
Begins in a
II Unable to generate Clear organized
reasonable way, but Begins in a method. The method
any strategies Begins, but fails to
Approach doesn’t finish leaves reasonable way, but and equation can
to solve complete the problem
out important points miss some points
problem stand alone
of the solution

Can achieve the desired Can achieve the Can obtain the
III Fails to achieve the outcomes with desired result Master at achieving
result with minimum
Desired Outcome desired outcomes without any outside the desired result
instructors help help
help
Report meets all Report meets all
The requirements of requirements and
IV Project No report /Report was The report submitted but prescribed
report are not properly prepared in original
Report not prepared in time incomplete requirements with
addressed and creative way.
minimum mistakes

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Table of Contents
Foreword
Lab Policy
Lab Evaluation Log
Experiment 1
Oscilloscope and Function Generator
Experiment 02
Study of Diode and its General Characteristics
Experiment# 03
Applications of Diode
Experiment# 04
Half Wave Bridge Rectifier
Experiment# 05
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier using myDAQ with the NI ELVISmx Soft Front Panel
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Experiment# 06
Zener Diode Characteristics and Voltage Regulation
Experiment#07
Clippers Circuits
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Experiment#08
Clampers Circuits using myDAQ with the NI ELVISmx Soft Front Panel
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Experiment#09
Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Experiment# 10
BJT as Common Emitter Amplifier and Common Collector Amplifier
Experiment# 11
BJT Transistor as a Switch
Experiment# 12
Characteristics of JFET
Experiment# 13
Characteristics of MOSFET

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Foreword

The Lab is designed to provide a practical - hands on - introduction to electronics with a

focus on measurement and signals. The prerequisites are courses in differential equations, as well
as electricity and magnetism. No prior experience with electronics is necessary. The course will
integrate demonstrations and laboratory examples with lectures on the foundations. The course
will cover the analysis of bipolar junction transistors (NPN and PNP), DC circuit analysis, Load
line BJT biasing, bias stability. Design and analysis of common emitter, common base and
common collector amplifiers. FET biasing, design of common source, common drain and
common gate amplifiers. Hybrid parameters, ac gain and frequency analysis of single/multistage
amplifiers. Classes of amplifiers, power amplifiers, differential amplifiers, operational amplifiers
and applications.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Lab Policy
Groups
Students will be formed into groups / syndicates of ten or twelve on the first lab day. Once a
student has signed up with a group, he may not change groups without prior approval of the
instructor.

Lab Reports

You will perform the experiment in a group and turn in individual laboratory reports on the
next day of the conduct. Your report should be self-contained, i.e. an engineering technologist
should be able to perform the experiment and duplicate your results by reading your report. DO
NOT "adjust" your data to make them fit what you believe to be an acceptable value. Your report
should contain an accurate description of the experiment. If your results differ significantly from
reference values you should check your settings carefully (calibration, wrong units, wrong
calculations, etc.), and do the experiment again. Try to explain any discrepancies but do not
"adjust" your data.

Lab Report Format

1. Lab reports to be submitted, for each lab, before next working lab
2. Lab report format should follow following pattern
a. Brief theoretical explanation
b. Explanation of procedure (stepwise)
c. Analysis of Results
d. Conclusion (Must include real life analogies or application of the
performed experiment)

Lab reports are due on the next day of the conduct of the lab. Late lab reports will not be
accepted.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Lab Policy

We want to maintain the high-quality conditions of this lab for the students in future years.
Thus, it is necessary for you to adhere to the established policy of NO BEVERAGES, FOOD,
NEWS PAPERS, MAGAZINES, and TOBACCO PRODUCTS within the lab.

In-Lab: At this stage student will go through all procedure steps and complete the required
observations and calculations. The results/ outcome will be analyzed by the students. The
students’ will show their progress in the form of a lab report which will be graded.
Post Lab: After Lab is completed at this level student will write a comprehensive report
which features the theoretical background, circuits, procedural steps, observations, and
conclusions.

A title page, which includes the following information, in given format:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab Code: CEN2009

Subject/Course Name

Department Registration Number/Name Semester/Section

Instructor’s Name Instructor’s

Date
Signature

A. Objective or purpose and scope of the experiment work.

B. Theoretical aspect of the experiment.
C. Experimental procedure that explains briefly the experiment used to carry out the experiment by
utilizing the equipment and data provided.
D. Experimental and /or calculated results. (Include all data (screenshots) you have taken, a
sample calculation, and the results) All results should be documented as well as maintained in
electronic form. Handwritten results source will not be accepted
E. Discussion of results considering the theoretical “predictions”. Include an error analysis.
Quantify the errors whenever possible.
F. Conclusions, wherein you write what you learned from the experiment. Your conclusions must
summarize your report and must be based on your experimental results.

Lab Evaluation Log

Student name: NUTECH ID

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Lab Title/No. Obtained Marks Checked Date Checked By

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Experiment 1
Oscilloscope and
Function Generator
Objectives:

• To become familiar with the operation and use of the oscilloscope and the function
generator.

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

1 Lecture 20 ~ 30 mins

2 Performing Experiment 100 ~ 120 mins

3 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 20 ~ 30 mins
Total Time: 180

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator

Discussion:

1. Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the
waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal
voltage as a function of time. A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or
pulsating direct current (DC) waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately 1 hertz (Hz)
or as high as several megahertz (MHz). It’s important to note that there are two primary types of
oscilloscopes: analog and digital. Analog and digital oscilloscopes have some basic controls that
are similar, and some that are different. In our lab we have a Digital Oscilloscope.

What Can Scopes Measure?

In addition to those fundamental features, many scopes have measurement tools, which help to quickly
quantify frequency, amplitude, and other waveform characteristics. In general, a scope can measure both
time-based and voltage-based characteristics:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

● Timing characteristics:
a) Frequency and period: Frequency is defined as the number of times per second a
waveform repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of seconds each
repeating waveform takes). The maximum frequency a scope can measure varies, but it's
often in the 100's of MHz range.
b) Duty cycle: The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or negative (there are
both positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a ratio that tells you how long a
signal is "on" versus how long it's "off" each period.
c) Rise and fall time: Signals can't instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have to smoothly
rise. The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point is called the rise time,
and fall time measures the opposite. These characteristics are important when considering
how fast a circuit can respond to signals.
● Voltage characteristics:
a) Amplitude: Amplitude is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a variety of
amplitude measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which measures the absolute
difference between a high and low voltage point of a signal. Peak amplitude, on the other
hand, only measures how high or low a signal is past 0V.
b) Maximum and minimum voltages: The scope can tell you exactly how high and low the
voltage of your signal gets.
c) Mean and average voltages: Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean of your
signal, and it can also tell you the average of your signal's minimum and maximum
voltage.

The screen of oscilloscope is divided into horizontal and vertical divisions. The vertical
sensitivity is provided in volts/div and horizontal sensitivity is in time/div. The magnitude of the
vertical signal can be provided by the relation:

Signal Voltage = Vertical Sensitivity (V/div) x Number of Divisions

Similarly, the time period of the signal can be determined by the following relation:

Period of Waveform = Horizontal Sensitivity (sec/div) x Number of Divisions

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

1.User Interface 6.Trigger Control 11.USB Host

2.Universal Knob 7.Horizontal Control 12.Function Menu Softkeys

3.Function Menus 8.Channel Vertical Control 13.Menu On/Off

4.Run/Stop 9.Probe Compensation 14.Power On/Off

5.Auto Setup 10.Analog Channel Inputs

Procedure:

1. The following steps will describe how to automatically create a stable oscilloscope display
using a 1 kHz, 5 Vpk-pk square wave.
● Power up the oscilloscope by pushing the power button.
● Push the front-panel Default button to set the oscilloscope to a known starting point.
● Connect a passive probe to the channel 1 input. To connect a probe that uses a BNC connector,
push and turn the probe connector until it slides on the oscilloscope channel input connector.
Then, turn the probe locking ring clockwise to lock the probe connector in place.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

● Attach the probe’s alligator style ground lead to the ground connector next to the oscilloscope
display.
● Attach the probe tip to the Probe Comp connector just above the ground lead connector. This
connector provides a 1 kHz square wave that this lab will use to demonstrate the operation of an
oscilloscope.
● Push the front-panel Auto Setup button to cause the oscilloscope to automatically set the vertical,
horizontal and trigger settings for a stable display of the probe compensation 1 kHz square wave.

a Calculate the frequency, Vp and Vp-p of the displayed waveform using the given formula.:
................................................................................................................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

Briefly describe the function of each in your own words.

b Intensity:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
c Vertical and Horizontal Position Controls:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
.

d Trigger Section:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
.

e
Vertical Sensitivity:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

f
Horizontal Sensitivity:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

gInput Coupling:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
h Bandwidth:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
i Channel Amount:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
j Sampling Rate:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
k Input Coupling:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

2. Function Generator:
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most
common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular
wave and sawtooth shapes.

Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For
example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into
a control loop. Function generators are primarily used for working with analog circuits, related
pulse generators are primarily used for working with digital circuits.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

2. Turn ON the oscilloscope and adjust the controls to get a horizontal line across the center of
the screen.
3. Connect the function generator to channel 1 of the oscilloscope and generate the
following signal:

v = 2 + 5Sin (100πt)
4. Record the results and show to instructor.
5. Draw the required waveform in the specified location.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Experiment # 02
Study of Diode and its
General Characteristics
Objectives:

• Ability to recognize diodes in various physical forms.

• Ability to determine the diode polarity and to understand the need for correct connection.
• To obtain knowledge of the forward voltage/current characteristic and the conduction
voltage.
• To study the I-V characteristics of diode.

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

1 Lecture 20 ~ 30 mins

2 Performing Experiment 100 ~ 120 mins

3 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 20 ~ 30 mins
Total Time: 180

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• DC Power Supply
• Digital Multi-meter
• Diode (1N4007)
• Resistors (1k, 2.2k)

Discussion:

Diode is one of the most basic non-linear electronic devices. An ideal diode acts like a one-
way valve for electric current, acting as a short circuit for current flow in one direction (forward
bias connection) while behaving as an open circuit for current flow in the opposite direction
(reverse bias connection). The characteristics of practical diodes are however somewhat different

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

from those of ideal ones. The p-n junction diodes are one of the most popular types of diodes used
in the industry.

A Semiconductor Junction Diode (or just diode) is made from a piece of P-type and a piece
of N-type semiconductor joined together.

If a voltage (potential difference) is applied across the two terminals, the Diode will conduct
electricity. The amount of current that flows depends upon the size and polarity of the applied
voltage.

The Diode is represented in circuits by the symbol shown:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Forward /Reverse Biased Connections:

• When a diode is connected so as to conduct it is FORWARD BIASED.

• When a diode is connected so as NOT to conduct it is REVERSE BIASED.

Figure below shows the method of connecting the diode:

Knowledge of the conduction characteristic when a diode is forward biased is very important
and is the subject of the rest of this Lab. The reverse bias I-V characteristic requires the diode to
operate in the break down region.

Classification of Diodes:

Conventional diodes can be divided into two groups as follows:

• Signal diodes
• Power diodes

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Signal diodes are generally used in low-voltage and low-current applications where speed
and a large backward-to-forward resistance ratio are of significant importance (i.e., wave-shaping
circuits). Their packages are generally the size of a quarter-watt resistor and are made of glass,
ceramic, or plastic.

On the other hand, power diode applications are generally limited to the various rectifier
circuits. Their function is to convert ac power to dc power. The more important characteristics of
the power diodes are their ability to withstand large currents, dissipate power, and withstand large
peak inverse voltages. Power diodes are generally made of plastic or metal, and package size
varies dramatically with the current carrying and power dissipation capability of the diode.

Procedure:

• Testing of Diode:
• The DMM Method:

A quick way to determine whether a diode is defective or not, is to use an ohmmeter. If the
internal battery of the ohmmeter forward biases the pn junction, a low resistance is read on the
scale. Otherwise a high resistance is read. If the diode is defective, the ratio of the two readings is
close to unity (poor rectification).

• Using the DMM, test your diodes.

• Determine their anodes. Does the band on the diode indicate the cathode or the anode terminal?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Determining Diode Voltages (Vγ):

Patch the circuit shown in the figure. At first, set the variable DC source to 0 Volt. Then
slowly increase its value, while watching the input voltage and the voltage on the diode from the
scope.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Using this circuit, how could you find the forward biasing voltage (Vd) of the diode?

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

• Forward Biased DC-Characteristics:

1. Construct the circuit as shown.
2. Vary Vin from 0.1V to 12V.
3. Measure the voltage across resistor and diode
4. Measure the current flowing through the circuit from the formula Vd/R

Observations:

Fill the below table by getting the values from the circuit.
Vin (V) VR (V) VD (V) ID (mA) Region
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1
2
5

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

7
10
12
Sketch
:
From the above readings, draw I-V curve below.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Experiment# 03
Applications of Diode
Objectives:

• To study the application of diode in digital logic gates.

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

1 Lecture + Optional quiz 20 ~ 30 mins

2 Performing Experiment 100 ~ 120 mins

3 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 20 ~ 30 mins
Total Time: 180

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• Digital Multi-meter
• Diode (1N4007)
• Resistors (1kΩ)

Discussion:

• Diode Gates:

Unlike true logic families, diode-resistor gates use the inputs as a voltage source to drive the
output. A voltage source is characterized by its electrical resistance. Other voltage sources in diode
logic are implemented by resistors. To work properly, the inputs must be better voltage sources
than the resistors. If a weak source (for example, another large resistor) is connected to the input,
the gate's resistor will continue to override the weakened diode.

Diodes ideally pass the input voltage directly to the output when turned on. The only way to
achieve an output opposite to the input is to disconnect all the diodes and use only the resistor.
There is no way to use the resistor only when an input is applied, nor to obtain a voltage from the
diode which isn't a constant difference from the input.

• OR Gate Construction:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Diode OR gate

Example with two inputs:

The circuit of a two-input gate is shown above. The cathodes of both diodes are connected to
the output at Node 1. A resistor connects Node 1 to ground (low voltage, Node 2), and the
remaining nodes (3, 4) are the inputs. Whenever, logic 1 is present at the anode of a diode, it
forward biases that diode, causing it to conduct. The input can then induce a current at the output
through the diode, to cause the output voltage to be closer to 1. If a logic 0 is present at the anode
of every diode, they are all reverse-biased and the resistor drives node 1 low.

Let VA be the voltage at node 3, VB at node 4 and VY at node 1. Assuming the diodes are
ideal, the voltage truth table as given in Table is obtained.

(a) shows Logic level equivalent.

AND Gate construction:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Diode AND Gate

Example with two inputs:

The resistor connects Node 1 to the supply voltage at Node 2. Nodes 4 and 5 are the
inputs. The output is obtained at Node 1. If a logic 1 is present at the cathode of every diode,
then they are all reverse biased, remaining in a high-impedance state, and Node 1 is held high
by the power supply through the resistor. If a logic 0 is present at any input, it forward-biases
that diode and pull down node 1 to logic 0.

Let VA be the voltage at node 4, VB at node 5 and VY at node 1. Assuming the diodes
are ideal, the voltage truth table as given in Table is obtained.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

(a) Shows Voltage level truth table whereas, (b) shows Logic level equivalent.

Procedure:

Diode as Logic Gates:

The above circuit is operating as …………………. gate.

Truth Table:
V1 (V) V2 (V) V3(V) VOUT (V)
0 0 0
0 0 5
0 5 0
0 5 5
5 0 0
5 0 5
5 5 0
5 5 5

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

The above circuit is operating as …………………. gate.

Truth Table:
Va (V) Vb (V) Vc (V) Vo (V)
0 0 0
0 0 5
0 5 0
0 5 5
5 0 0
5 0 5
5 5 0
5 5 5

The above circuit is operating as …………………. gate.

Truth Table:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

VA VB (V) VY
(V) (V)
0 0
0 5
5 0
5 5
Voltage Truth Table
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Logic Truth Table.
The above circuit is operating as …………………. gate.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Experiment# 04
Half Wave Rectifier
Objectives:

• To calculate, draw and measure the DC output voltages of half-wave

Equipment:

• Transformer / Function Generator

• Diode
• Digital Multi-meter
• Resistors: 2.2-KΩ [Qty =2]; 3.3-KΩ [Qty =2]
• Silicon Diode (1N4007) [Qty =4]

Theory:

The primary function of half-wave and full-wave rectification systems is to establish a DC

level from a sinusoidal input signal that has zero average (DC) level. The half- wave signal of
Figure normally established by a network with a single diode has an average or equivalent DC
level equal to 31.8% of the peak value V m. The full-wave rectified signal has twice the average or
DC level of half-wave signal, or 63.6% of the peak value V m. For large sinusoidal inputs
(Vm>>VT), the forward- biased transition voltage of diode can be ignored. However, for situations
when the peak value of the sinusoidal signal is not that much greater than V T, VT can have a
noticeable effect on VDC.

Figure 1

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Procedure:

Part 1: Threshold voltage

Choose one of the silicon diodes and determine the threshold voltage VT using the diode
checking capability of DMM or a curve tracer.

VT (measured) =____________

Part 2: Half-Wave Rectification

a. Construct the circuit of Figure 2 using the chosen diode of Part 1. Set the function generator
to 8V(p-p) with f = 1-KHz using oscilloscope.
b. Calculate the R.M.S value of input voltage (Vsin) and record it.

Vrms (calculated) = ______________

c. In addition, measure the R.M.S value of input voltage (Vsin) using DMM and record it.

Vrms (measured) = ______________

d. Is there any difference between calculated and measured value of Vrms?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Figure 2

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

e. Record the measured value of the resistance (R).

R (measured) =____________

f. Record the chosen vertical and horizontal sensitivities.

Vertical Sensitivity = _______________

Horizontal Sensitivity = _______________

g. Draw output voltage VO for the circuit of Figure 2 and sketch the waveform on Figure 3 for
one full cycle using the same sensitivities as written above. Indicate the maximum and
minimum values on the output waveform.

Figure 3
h. Calculate the DC level of the half-wave rectified signal of step 2(g) using following equation:

VDC = 0.318 (Vm – VT)

VDC (calculated)= ____________

i. Measure the DC level of VO using the DC scale of the DMM.

VDC (measured)= ____________

j. Find the percent difference between the measured and calculated value of VDC using the
following equation.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

% Difference = _____________

k. Reverse the diode of Figure 2 and sketch the output waveform obtained using the
oscilloscope on Figure 4. Highlight the maximum and minimum voltage levels of the output
waveform. Write sensitives as well.

Figure 4

l. Calculate and measure the DC level of the resulting waveform of above figure. Insert the
proper sign for the polarity of VDC as defined by Figure 2.

VDC (calculated) = ______________

VDC (measured) = ______________
Part 3: Half-Wave Rectification (continued)

a. Construct the network of Figure 5. Record the measured value of the Resistor R.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Figure 5

b. Draw output voltage VO for Figure 5 and sketch the waveform on Figure 6 below for one full
cycle. Indicate the maximum and minimum values on the output waveform. Write sensitives
as well.

Figure 6

c. Calculate the DC level of the waveform of Figure 3.9 using following equation:

VDC = 0.318 (Vm – VT)

VDC (calculated) = ______________

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

Part 4: Half-Wave Rectification (continued)

Figure 7

a. Construct the network of Figure 7. Record the measured value of each resistor.

R1 (measured) =____________
R2 (measured) =____________

b. Draw output waveform VO and sketch the result on Figure 8. Write sensitives and highlight
the maximum and minimum values of the output waveform.

Figure 8

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

b. Reverse the diode in Figure 7 and record the resulting waveform on Figure 9 below using
oscilloscope. Write sensitives as well.

Figure 9

c. Compare the results of last two Figures. What are the major differences and why?

______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Part 5: Perform Half-Wave Rectification using MyDAQ

Perform the experiment for half wave rectification using MyDAQ and attach the result at the end of
this manual.

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Experiment# 05
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier using myDAQ with the NI ELVISmx Soft
Front Panel
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Objectives:

• To observe the behavior of a Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

Equipment:

• Transformer
• Diode
• Digital Multi-meter
• Resistances (1kΩ)
• Connecting wires

Discussion:

Full-Wave Rectification:

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center
tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification.
Four rectifiers arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to- back form
a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many windings are required on the transformer secondary to obtain
the same output voltage compared to the bridge rectifier above.

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The Bridge Rectifier:

Bridge rectifier uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes arranged as a bridge. The working
and operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The circuit diagrams and waveforms
are given below which will help you understand the operation of a bridge rectifier perfectly. In the
circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge. The transformer secondary is
connected to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A and C. The load resistance
RL is connected to bridge through points B and D.

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Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output Wave Forms

During the First Half Cycle:

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D1 and
D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and
returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is
indicated by solid arrows in the figure. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the
circuit.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

During the Second Half Cycle:

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased
and current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the source
flowing through arm DA. Thus the direction of flow of current through the load resistance RL
remains the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage. See the diagram below – the
green arrows indicate beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load
resistance. The red arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus
completing the circuit.

Path of current in 2nd Half Cycle

The working of full wave bridge rectifier can be understood by another diagram given below
which shows the paths of current for both half cycles.

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Full wave rectifier is used in the construction of constant dc voltage power supplies,
especially in general power supplies. A bridge rectifier with an efficient filter is ideal for any type
of general power supply applications like charging a battery, powering a dc device (like a motor,
led etc.). However, for an audio application, a general power supply may not be enough. This is
because of the residual ripple factor in a bridge rectifier. There are limitations to filtering ripples.
For audio applications, specially built power supplies (using IC regulators) may be ideal.

Procedure:

Circuit Diagram:

• Patch the circuit given above.

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

• Measure the input voltage at output of transformer using DMM.

Voltage at Output of the Transformer = ……………………….

• Observe the final voltage at the load resistor using Oscilloscope and draw the output
waveform.
Vout = ……………………………

Output Waveform
Part 2: Perform Full-Wave Rectification using MyDAQ

Perform the experiment for full wave rectification using MyDAQ and attach the result at the end of
this manual.

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Experiment # 06
Zener Diode Characteristics and Voltage Regulation

Objectives:

• To construct a Zener diode voltage regulator and measure its line and load regulation.

Equipment:

• DC Power Supply
• Digital Multi-meter
• Zener Diode
• Resistances
• Connecting Wires

Discussion:

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward direction
it behaves just like a normal signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage
remains constant for a wide range of currents.

Avalanche Breakdown:

There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase until the diode
breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region. At this
stage maximum current will flow through the Zener diode. This breakdown point is
referred as “Zener voltage”.

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve, we
can study that the Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a
constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the
diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current if the Zener diode
current remains between the breakdown current IZ (min) and the maximum current
rating IZ (max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a
voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the

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diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important

application of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator.

I-V Curve of Diode

The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of a regular diode. The
typical forward voltage at room temperature with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6
volts. In the reverse bias condition, the Zener diode is an open circuit and only a small
leakage current is flowing as shown on the exaggerated plot. As the breakdown voltage is
approached, the current will begin to avalanche. The initial transition from leakage to
breakdown is soft but then the current rapidly increases as shown in the plot. The
voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very nearly constant with only
a small increase in voltage with increasing current. At some high current level, the power
dissipation of the diode becomes excessive and the part is destroyed. There is a minimum
Zener current Iz (min) that places the operating point in the desired breakdown. There is
a maximum Zener current Iz (max) at which the power dissipation drives the junction
temperature to the maximum allowed. Beyond that current the diode can be damaged.

Zener diodes are available from about 2.4 to 200 volts typically using the same
sequence of values as used for the 5% resistor series –2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7,
5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, etc. All Zener diodes

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have a power rating, PZ. From Watt’s law the maximum current is IZ (MAX) = PZ / VZ.
Zener diodes are typically available with power ratings of 0.25, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 5
watts.
However, other values are also available.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load

connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation
in the load current. The Zener diode permits current to flow in the forward direction as
normal as well as allows it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a
certain value i.e., the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode is
specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. In breakdown
the voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus
making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.

The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at VIN (min) and the load
current is at IL (max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least Iz (min). Then
for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the
excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts
the least current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the most current
when the load current is the lowest.

Basically there are two types of regulations such as:

• Line Regulation
• Load Regulation

Line Regulation:

In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input
voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.

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ΔV o
∗100
Percentage of line regulation can be calculated by = ΔV IN

Where V0 is the output voltage and VIN is the input voltage. ΔV0 is the change in
output voltage for a particular change in input voltage ΔVIN.

Load Regulation:

In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output
voltage remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

Percentage of load regulation can be calculated by =

[ V NL−V FL
V NL ]
∗100

Where VNL is the null load resistor voltage (i.e. remove the load resistance and
measure the voltage across the Zener Diode) and VFL is the full load resistor voltage.

Design a Voltage Regulator:

When selecting the Zener diode, make sure that its maximum power rating is not exceeded.

Imax Maximum current for Zener diode

VZ Zener Diode standard voltage
Vin Input voltage (it is known)
Vs Voltage across series resistance
VL Voltage across the load resistance
IS Current passing through the series
resistance
IZ Current passing through the Zener diode
IL Current passing through the load resistance
Calculating voltage and current:

The total current drawn from the source is the same as that through the series resistor.

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The current through the load resistor is:

The Zener diode current is:

If the voltage source is greater than Vz:

If the voltage source is less than Vz:

Procedure:

Line Regulation:

• Make the connections as shown in figure below.

• Supply input voltage from the power supply and vary the voltage from 1V to 20V.
• Measure the output voltage Vout, voltage across resistor VR1, current through diode IZ (mA)
and record the values in the table.

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Line Regulation
Table
Vin(V) Vout(V) VR1(V) IZ RZ (Ω) PZ=VoutIZ PZ=VR1IZ Is the Output
(mA) Regulated?

• IZK = ……………………………
• Regulated Output Voltage=………………
• Percentage Line Regulation =…………………………
• Make graph from the values.

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Load Regulation:

• Make the connections as shown in figure.

• Supply a fixed input voltage of 12V from the power supply and vary the load.
• Measure the output voltage Vout, current through diode Iz (mA) and current through the load
IR2 (mA).
• Record the values in table.

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R2 (Ω) Vout (V) IR2 (mA) IZ (mA) Is the Output Regulated?


• Load Regulation =………………….
• Make graph from the values.

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Experiment # 07
Clippers Circuits
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Objectives:

• To become familiar with the function and operation of Clippers.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• DC Power Supply
• Digital Multi-meter
• Diodes
• Capacitors
• Resistances
• Connecting Wires

Discussion:

Clippers:

A clipper (limiter) is a circuit used to eliminate some portion (portions) of waveform.

• Diode will become forward biased as soon as Vin becomes larger than VBIAS+0.7.
• When diode is forward biased, VA cannot become larger than VBIAS + 0.7 V.
• Thus, the voltage across the load, RL, will also be equal to VBIAS +0.7V.

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• When diode is reverse biased, it appears as an open, so the output voltage is the voltage of RL
alone.

Procedure:

Clippers:

• Patch the given circuits as shown below.

• For each circuit, input signal is 10Vp, 50Hz from function generator. The value of resistor
will be 100Ω and value of DC voltage source will be 5V.
• Observe the input and output waveforms on oscilloscope.
• Fill the graphs for each circuit.

Circuit#1:

Input Waveform

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Output Waveform

Circuit#2:

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Output Waveform

Part 2: Perform experiment using MyDAQ

Perform the experiment using MyDAQ and attach the result at the end of this manual.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

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Experiment # 08
Clampers Circuits using myDAQ with the NI ELVISmx Soft Front
Panel
(OPEN ENDED LAB)
Objectives:

• To become familiar with the function and operation of Clampers.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• DC Power Supply
• Digital Multi-meter
• Diodes
• Capacitors
• Resistances
• Connecting Wires

Discussion:

Clampers:

A clamper adds a DC level to an AC Voltage. It is also called dc restorer.

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• When input voltage goes initially negative, diode is forward biased.

• Capacitor charges to near peak of input (Vp(in) – 0.7).
• Right after the negative peak, diode is reverse biased (because cathode is held near Vp (in) –
0.7 by the charge on capacitor).
• Capacitor can only discharge through the RL, Since RL has high resistance, the capacitor
discharges very little in each period.
• Note that time constant should be large (at least 10 times the period of the input voltage).
• Since capacitor retains charge, it acts like a battery in series with the input voltage.

Procedure:

Clampers:

• Patch the given circuits as shown below.

• For each circuit, input signal is 10Vp, 50Hz from function generator. The value of resistor
will be 100Ω and value of DC voltage source will be 5V. Whereas, capacitor value is 0.47uF
 Observe the input and output waveforms on oscilloscope.
• Fill the graphs for each circuit.

Circuit#1:

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Input Waveform

Output Waveform

Circuit#2:

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Input Waveform

Output Waveform

Part 2: Perform experiment using MyDAQ

Perform the experiment using MyDAQ and attach the result at the end of this manual.

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Experiment#09
Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Objectives:

• To determine transistor type (NPN, PNP), terminals, and material using a digital multimeter
(DMM).
• To determine the value of the alpha and beta ratios of a transistor.
• To plot output characteristics of a BJT using experimental methods.
• To study the behavior of transistor as a switch.

Equipment:

• DC Power Supply =24V (fixed)

• Resistors: 1-kΩ [Qty =1]; 330-kΩ [Qty =1]
• Potentiometers: 5-kΩ [Qty =1]; 1-MΩ [Qty =1]
• Transistor: 2N3904 (or equivalent) [Qty =1]
• Digital Multi-meter
• Resistors

Discussion:

Bipolar transistors are made of either Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge). Their structure
consists of two layers of n-type material separated by a layer of p-type material (NPN), or of two
layers of p-material separated by a layer of n-material (PNP). In either case, the center layer forms
the base of the transistor, while the external layers form the collector and the emitter of the
transistor. It is this structure that determines the polarities of any voltages applied and the direction
of the electron or conventional current flow. The arrow at the emitter terminal of the transistor
symbol for either type of transistor points in the direction of conventional current flow. One part of
this experiment will demonstrate how you can determine the type of transistor, its material, and
identify its three terminals.

The relationships between the voltages and the currents associated with a bipolar junction
transistor under various operating conditions determine its performance. These relationships are
collectively known as the characteristics of the transistor. As such, they are published by the
manufacturer of a given transistor in a specification sheet.

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It is one of the objectives of this lab to experimentally measure these characteristics and to
compare them with their published values.

The three terminals of a transistor are following:

• Collector
• Base
• Emitter

NPN Transistor:

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer to
the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors
used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors,
allowing greater currents and faster operation.

NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-
doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the
collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to
the emitter.

The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

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NPN BJT structure creates two p-n junctions. The junction between the n-type collector and
the p-type base is called the Collector-Base Junction (CBJ). Note for the CBJ, the anode is the
base, and the cathode is the collector. However, the junction between the n-type emitter and the p-
type base is called the Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ). Note for the EBJ, the anode is the base, and
the cathode is the emitter.

PNP Transistor:

PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector
output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

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PNP BJT structure creates two p-n junctions. For the PNP BJT, the anode of the CBJ is the
collector, and the cathode of the CBJ is the base. Likewise, the anode of the EBJ is the emitter, and
the cathode of the EBJ is the base.

Procedure:

Determination of Transistor’s Type, Terminals and Material:

The following procedure will determine the type, terminals and material of a transistor. The
procedure will utilize the diode testing scale found on many modern multimeters. If no such scale
is available, the resistance scales of the meter may be used.

a. Label the transistor terminals of below figure as 1, 2 and 3. Use the transistor without
terminal identification for this part of the experiment.

Figure: Determination of the identities of BJT leads

b. Set the selector switch of the multimeter to the diode scale (or to the 2kΩ range if the
diode scale is unavailable).
c. Connect the positive lead of meter to terminal 1 and the negative lead to terminal 2.
Record the reading the Table.

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d. Reverse the leads and record your reading.

e. Connect the positive lead to terminal 1 and the negative lead to terminal 3. Record the
reading.
f. Reverse the lead and record the reading.
g. Connect the positive lead to terminal 2 and the negative lead to terminal 3. Record your
reading.
h. Reverse the leads and record your reading.
i. The meter readings between two of the terminals will read high (or higher resistance)
regardless of the polarity of the meter leads connected. Neither of these two terminals
will be the base. Based on the above calculations, record the number of the base terminal
in the table below.

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j. Connect the negative lead to the base terminal and the positive lead to either of the other
terminals. If the meter reading is low (approximately 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge or
lower resistance), the transistor type is PNP. If the reading is high, the transistor type is
NPN.
k. (1) For PNP Type: Connect the negative lead to the base terminal and the positive lead
alternatively to either of the other two terminals. The lower of the two readings obtained
indicates that the base and collector are connected. Thus, the other terminal is the emitter.
Record the terminals in the above table.
(2) For NPN Type: Connect the positive lead to the base terminal and the negative lead
alternatively to either of the other two terminals. The lower of the two readings obtained
indicates that the base and collector are connected. Thus, the other terminal is the emitter.
Record the terminals in the above table.
l. If the readings in either (1) or (2) of (k) were approximately 700mV, the transistor
material is Silicon. If the readings were approximately 300mV, the material is
germanium. If the meter does not have a diode testing scale, the material cannot be
determined directly.
Record the Type of Material in the above table.

Alternative Method for the Checking of BJT Transistor:

Modern DMMs have the capability to determine the terminals and type of the BJT transistor.
The DMM has a transistor sockets which is used to test the BJT transistor. This socket has 4 upper
and 4 lower holes to test both the types of BJT transistor (NPN or PNP). Since BJT transistor has
three terminals, you can test the transistor by inserting it randomly into these holes. When proper
slot has been achieved, transistor will show some gain value (hfe). At this instant, you can find out
the terminals as well as the type of the transistor by reading the statistics of the socket.

Part 2: The Collector Characteristics

a. Construct the circuit of Figure 8.2 on the breadboard. Record the measured values of RB
and RC.

RB (measured) =___________

RC (measured) =___________

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Figure 8.2

b. Set the voltage VRB = 3.3V by varying the 1MΩ potentiometer (Pot-1). This adjustment
will set IB = VRB/ RB to 10μA as indicated in Table 7.3.
c. Then set VCE to 2V by varying the 5kΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) as required in Table 7.3.
d. Record the voltage VRC and VBE in Table 7.3.
e. Vary the 5kΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) to increase VCE from 2V to the values appearing in
Table 7.3. Note that IB is maintained at 10μA for the range of VCE levels. For each value
of VCE, record VRC and VBE. Use the mV scale of DMM to measure V BE. Record all the
values in Table 7.3.
f. Repeat all the steps form 2(b) to 2(e) for VRB=6.6V. VRB will be adjusted by varying the
1MΩ potentiometer (Pot-1). This adjustment will set IB = V RB/ RB to 20μA as indicated
in Table 7.3. Record all the desired values in Table 7.3.
g. Again repeat all the steps form 2(b) to 2(e) for VRB=9.9V. This newer value of V RB will
set IB = VRB/ RB to 30μA as indicated in Table 7.3. Record all the desired values in
Table
7.3.
h. After all data have been obtained, compute the values of I C = VRC/RC and IE from IE = IB
+ IC. Use the measured value for RC.
i. Using the data of Table, plot IC versus VCE for the different values of IB on the graph
paper given in Figure. Choose an appropriate scale for IC and label each IB curve.

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Table: Data for the construction of output characteristics of BJT

VRB (V) IB (μA) VCE VRC IC VBE IB α β
(meas.) (meas.) (V) (V) (mA) (V) (mA) (calc. (calc.
(meas.) (meas.) (meas.) ) )
(meas.) (calc)
2
4
6
3.3 10 8
10
12
14
16
2
4
6
6.6 20 8
10
12
14

16
2
4
6

9.9 30 8

10

12

14

16

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Part 3: Variation of α and β:

IC
a. For each line of table, calculate the corresponding levels of α and β using α =
IE

IC and complete the table.

and β=
IB

b. In there a significant variation in α and β from one region to characteristics to

another?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

c. Find out the largest and smallest level of βmax and βmin.

βmax =______________
βmin =______________

d. Mark the βmax and βmin on the plot of Figure.

e. In general, did β increase or decrease with increase in IC?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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f. In general, did β increase or decrease with increase in VCE?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

g. Find the average value of β using the data of Table. That is, find the sum of the β
values and divide by the number of values.
β (average) =______________
h. h. Determine the average value of V BE using the data of Table. As in step 3(g),
find the sum of the VBE values and divide by the number of values.

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Experiment# 10
BJT as Common Emitter Amplifier and Common Collector
Amplifier

Objectives:

• To study the common emitter amplifier configuration.

• To simulate the circuit in Proteus.
• Implementation of common emitter circuit on Hardware.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• Transistor
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Digital Multi-meter

Part 1: BJT as Common Emitter Amplifier

Discussion:

One of the earliest and important applications of bipolar transistors is in small-signal

amplifiers. These are systems that accept input signal of small amplitudes (on the order of 100
mV) and deliver larger replicas. We emphasize the use of the bipolar transistor in linear amplifier
applications. Linear amplifiers imply that, for the most part, we are dealing with analog signals.
The magnitude of an analog signal may have any value, within limits, and may vary continuously
with respect to time. A linear amplifier then means that the output signal is equal to the input
signal multiplied by a constant, where the magnitude of the constant of proportionality is, in
general, greater than unity.

Common Emitter Amplifier Configuration:

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Common Emitter Configuration

All types of Transistor Amplifiers operate using AC signal inputs which alternate between a
positive value and a negative value so some way of “presetting” the amplifier circuit to operate
between these two maximum or peak values is required. This is achieved using a process known as
Biasing. Biasing is very important in amplifier design as it establishes the correct operating point
of the transistor amplifier ready to receive signals, thereby reducing any distortion to the output
signal.

Static or DC load line can be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show all the
possible operating points of the transistor from fully “ON” to fully “OFF”, and to which the
quiescent operating point or Q-point of the amplifier can be found.

The aim of any small signal amplifier is to amplify all of the input signal with the minimum
amount of distortion possible to the output signal, in other words, the output signal must be an
exact reproduction of the input signal but only bigger (amplified).

To obtain low distortion when used as an amplifier, the operating quiescent point needs to be
correctly selected. This is in fact the DC operating point of the amplifier and its position may be
established at any point along the load line by a suitable biasing arrangement. The best possible
position for this Q-point is as close to the center position of the load line as reasonably possible,
thereby producing a Class A type amplifier operation, i.e., V CE = 1/2Vcc. Consider the Common
Emitter Amplifier circuit shown below.

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Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

The single stage common emitter amplifier circuit shown above uses what is commonly
called “Voltage Divider Biasing”. This type of biasing arrangement uses two resistors as a
potential divider network across the supply with their center point supplying the required Base bias
voltage to the transistor. Voltage divider biasing is commonly used in the design of bipolar
transistor amplifier circuits.

Voltage Divider Network

This method of biasing the transistor greatly reduces the effects of varying Beta, (β) by
holding the Base bias at a constant steady voltage level allowing for best stability. The quiescent

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Base voltage (Vb) is determined by the potential divider network formed by the two resistors, R1,
R2 and the power supply voltage Vcc as shown with the current flowing through both resistors.

Then the total resistance RT will be equal to R1 + R2 giving the current as i = Vcc/RT. The
voltage level generated at the junction of resistors R1 and R2 holds the Base voltage (Vb) constant
at a value below the supply voltage.

Then the potential divider network used in the common emitter amplifier circuit
divides the input signal in proportion to the resistance. This bias reference voltage can be easily
calculated using the simple voltage divider formula below:

Beta Value:

Beta is the transistor’s forward current gain in the common emitter configuration. Beta has no
units as it is a fixed ratio of the two currents, Ic and Ib. So a small change in the Base current will
cause a large change in the Collector current. One final point about Beta is that transistors of the
same type and part number will have large variations in their Beta value. For example, the BC107
NPN Bipolar transistor has a DC current gain Beta value of between 110 and 450 (data sheet
value) this is because Beta is a characteristic of their construction and not their operation.

As the Base/Emitter junction is forward-biased, the Emitter voltage, Ve will be one junction
voltage drop different to the Base voltage. If the voltage across the Emitter resistor is known then
the Emitter current, Ie can be easily calculated using Ohm’s Law. The Collector current, Ic can be
approximated, since it is almost the same value as the Emitter current.

Coupling Capacitors:

In Common Emitter Amplifier circuits, capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling

Capacitors to separate the AC signals from the DC biasing voltage. This ensures that the bias
condition set up for the circuit to operate correctly is not affected by any additional amplifier

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stages, as the capacitors will only pass AC signals and block any DC component. The output AC
signal is then superimposed on the biasing of the following stages.

A bypass capacitor, CE is also included in the Emitter leg circuit. This capacitor is an open
circuit component for DC bias meaning that the biasing currents and voltages are not affected by
the addition of the capacitor maintaining a good Q-point stability. However, this bypass capacitor
short circuits the Emitter resistor at high frequency signals and only RL plus a very small internal
resistance acts as the transistors load increasing the voltage gain to its maximum. Generally, the
value of the bypass capacitor, CE is chosen to provide a reactance of at most, 1/10th the value of
RE at the lowest operating signal frequency.

A single stage Common Emitter Amplifier is also an “Inverting Amplifier” as an increase in

Base voltage causes a decrease in Vout and a decrease in Base voltage produces an increase in
Vout.
In other words, the output signal is 180 degree out-of-phase with the input signal.

Common Emitter Voltage Gain:

The Voltage Gain of the common emitter amplifier is equal to the ratio of the change in
the input voltage to the change in the amplifier’s output voltage. Then ΔVL is Vout and ΔVB is Vin.
But voltage gain is also equal to the ratio of the signal resistance in the Collector to the signal
resistance in the Emitter and is given as:

As the signal frequency increases, the bypass capacitor, CE starts to short out the
Emitter resistor. Then at high frequencies RE = 0, making the gain infinite.

However, bipolar transistors have a small internal resistance built into their Emitter region
called as Re. The transistors semiconductor material offers an internal resistance to the flow of
current through it and is generally represented by a small resistor symbol shown inside the main
transistor symbol.

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Transistor data sheets tell us that for small signal bipolar transistors this internal
resistance is equal to 25mV ÷ IE (25mV being the internal volt drop across the Base/Emitter
junction depletion layer).

This internal Emitter leg resistance will be in series with the external Emitter resistor,
RE. Then the equation for the transistors actual gain will be modified to include this internal
resistance so will be:

At low frequency signals, the total resistance in the Emitter leg is equal to RE + Re.
At high frequency, the bypass capacitor shorts out the Emitter resistor leaving only the internal
resistance Re in the Emitter leg resulting in a high gain. Then for our common emitter amplifier
circuit above, the gain of the circuit at both low and high signal frequencies is given as:

At Low Frequencies:

At High Frequencies:

The voltage gain is dependent only on the values of the Collector resistor, RL and the Emitter
resistance, (RE + Re). It is not affected by the current gain Beta, β of the transistor.

Procedure:

• Connect the circuit as given in the manual.

• Give an input of 0.5Vp-p (f = 1 kHz) to the amplifier.
• Observe the output at Oscilloscope.
• Draw the input and output waveforms.

Voltage Gain: …………………………….

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Circuit Diagram:

Troubleshooting Guidelines:
1. Be sure that the power is turned on.

2. Be sure the ground connections are common.

3. Be sure the circuit you built is identical to that in the diagram. (Do a node-by-node check)

4. Be sure that the supply voltages are correct.

5. Be sure you plug in cable to the right terminal in the multimeter to measure the

voltage/resistance (upper terminal) or the current (lower terminal).

6. Be sure that the equipment is set up correctly and you are measuring the correct parameter.

7. Be sure the BJT’s collector and emitter terminals are in correct orientation.

8. If steps 1 through 5 are correct, then you probably have used a component with the wrong

value or one that doesn't work. It is also possible that the equipment does not work (although

this is not probable) or the breadboard on trainers you are using may have some unwanted

paths between nodes. To find your problem you must trace through the voltages in your

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circuit node by node and compare the signal you have to the signal you expect to have. Then

if they are different use your engineering judgment to decide what is causing the different.

Part 2: BJT as Common Collector Amplifier

Objectives:

• To study the common collector amplifier configuration.

• To simulate the circuit in Proteus.
• Implementation of common collector circuit on Hardware.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• Power Supply
• Transistor
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Digital Multi-meter

Discussion:

There are three basic configurations for implementing single stage BJT amplifiers.

• Common Emitter
• Common Collector
• Common Base

In each case, one terminal is common to both input and output signal.

Common Collector Configuration:

In electronics, a common-collector (also known as an emitter follower or voltage follower)

amplifier is one of three basic single-stage bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies. It
is typically used as a voltage buffer.

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Common Collector Configuration

In this circuit, the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the emitter as the output,
and the collector is common to both (for example, it may be tied to ground reference or a power
supply rail), hence its name. The properties are high input impedance, a very low output
impedance, a unity (or less) voltage gain and a high current gain.

The aim of any small signal amplifier is to amplify the entire input signal with the minimum
distortion possible to the output. In other words, the output signal must be an exact reproduction of
input signal but only bigger (amplified).

To clear the concepts of common collector, read this example.

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It is called the common-collector configuration because (ignoring the power supply battery)
both the signal source and the load share the collector lead as a common connection point.

It should be apparent that the load resistor in the common-collector amplifier circuit receives
both the base and collector currents, being placed in series with the emitter. Since the emitter lead
of a transistor is the one handling the most current (the sum of base and collector currents, since
base and collector currents always mesh together to form the emitter current), it would be
reasonable to presume that this amplifier will have a very large current gain (maximum output
current for minimum input current). This presumption is indeed correct: the current gain for a
common collector amplifier is quite large, larger than any other transistor amplifier configuration.

Unlike the common-emitter amplifier, the common-collector produces an output voltage in

direct rather than inverse proportion to the rising input voltage. As the input voltage increases, so
does the output voltage. More than that, a close examination reveals that the output voltage is
nearly identical to the input voltage. This is the unique quality of the common-collector amplifier:
an output voltage that is nearly equal to the input voltage. This amplifier has a voltage gain of
almost exactly unity 1.

It is simple to understand why the output voltage of a common-collector amplifier is always

nearly equal to the input voltage. Referring back to the diode-regulating diode transistor model, we
see that the base current must go through the base-emitter PN junction, which is equivalent to a
normal rectifying diode. So long as this junction is forward-biased (the transistor conducting
current in either its active or saturated modes), it will have a voltage drop of approximately 0.7
volts, assuming silicon construction. This 0.7-volt drop is largely irrespective of the actual
magnitude of base current, so we can regard it as being constant.

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Given the voltage polarities across the base-emitter PN junction and the load resistor, we see
that they must add together to equal the input voltage, in accordance with Kirchhoff's Voltage
Law. In other words, the load voltage will always be about 0.7 volts less than the input voltage for
all conditions when the transistor is conducting. Cutoff occurs at input voltages below 0.7 volts,
and saturation at input voltages in excess of battery (supply) voltage plus 0.7 volts.

Because of this behavior, the common-collector amplifier circuit is also known as the voltage
follower or emitter-follower amplifier, in reference to the fact that the input and load voltages
follow each other so closely.

Applying the common-collector circuit to the amplification of AC signals requires the same
input "biasing" used in the common-emitter circuit: a DC voltage must be added to the AC input
signal to keep the transistor in its active mode during the entire cycle. When this is done, the result
is a non-inverting amplifier.

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Here is another view of the circuit, this time with oscilloscopes connected to several points of
interest:

Since this amplifier configuration doesn't provide any voltage gain (in fact, in practice it
actually has a voltage gain of slightly less than 1), its only amplifying factor is current. The
common emitter amplifier configuration had a current gain equal to the β of the transistor, being
that the input current went through the base and the output (load) current went through the
collector, and β is the ratio between the collector and base currents. In the common-collector

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configuration, though, the load is situated in series with the emitter, and thus its current is equal to
the emitter current. With the emitter carrying collector current and base current, the load in this
type of amplifier has all the current of the collector running through it plus the input current of the
base.
This yields a current gain of β plus 1.

A popular application of the common-collector amplifier is for regulated DC power supplies,

where an unregulated (varying) source of DC voltage is clipped at a specified level to supply
regulated (steady) voltage to a load.

• The output voltage of a common-collector amplifier will be in phase with the input voltage,
making the common-collector a non-inverting amplifier circuit.
• The current gain of a common-collector amplifier is equal to β plus 1. The voltage gain is
approximately equal to 1 (in practice, just a little bit less).

Procedure:

Circuit Diagram:

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Where,

C1 = 0.1μF

C2 = 0.1μF

R1 = 10kΩ

R2 = 6.8kΩ

R3 = 1kΩ

R4 = 1kΩ

VCC = 12V

Vin = 40 mVp-p (10kHz)

• Connect the circuit as given in the manual.

• Give an input of 40 mVp-p (f = 10 kHz) to the amplifier.
• Observe the output at Oscilloscope.
• Draw the input and output waveforms.

Voltage Gain: …………………………….

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Experiment# 11
BJT Transistor as a
Switch
Objectives:

• To observe the action of a BJT transistor as an electronic switch.

• To measure the voltage across the BJT transistor when it is in ON or OFF state.

Equipment

• DMM
• DC Power Supply =5V (fixed)
• Function Generator (having a facility of variable duty cycle)
• Resistor: 1-kΩ [Qty =2]
• Power Resistor: 22-Ω/5W [Qty =1]
• Si Diode (1N4001) [Qty =1]
• Transistor: 2N4401 [Qty =1]
• LED [Qty =1]
• DC Motor [Qty =1]

Theory:

Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching purposes in electronic
networks. A BJT transistor can be driven back and forth between saturation and cutoff region to
act as a switch as demonstrated in Figure 1 below.

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Figure 1
Part 1: BJT Transistor as a switch to glow LED

The schematic of Figure

2 shows how a BJT transistor is used to switch the LED. The circuit operation of schematic
diagram can be categorized in two different modes.

i. When the input voltage (Vin) is equal to 0V, BJT is in cutoff region. In the cutoff region (both
junctions are reversed biased), the voltage across the collector-emitter junction is very high.
Since input voltage (Vin) is zero, both base and collector currents are zero, hence the
resistance offered by the BJT is very high (ideally infinite). It can be stated that the switch is
in OFF state (open).
ii. When the input voltage (Vin) is equal to 5V, the transistor is driven into saturation region. In
saturation region (both junctions are forward biased), there is a small voltage drop across the
collector-emitter junction. The collector current (IC = VRC / RC) flows from collector to
emitter. Hence, it can be stated that the switch is in ON state (closed).

Figure 2

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Procedure:

a. Construct the circuit of Figure 12.2 on the breadboard.

b. Set the input voltage (Vin) equal to 0V. Measure VBE, VCE, VRC, VLED and IC to fill the
Table 1.
c. Set the input voltage (Vin) equal to 5V, and measure VBE, VCE, VRC, VLED and IC. Record
these values in Table 1.
d. Observe that the LED glows when the input voltage is ‘0V’ and the LED will not glow when
the input voltage is ‘5V’.
Table 1

Part 2: BJT Transistor as a switch to drive DC Motor

A BJT transistor can also be used to drive and regulate the speed of the DC motor in a
unidirectional way by switching the transistor in regular intervals of time as shown in Figure 3. A
DC motor is an inductive load so we have to place a freewheeling diode across it to protect the
circuit. By switching the transistor in cutoff and saturation regions, we can turn ON and OFF the
motor repeatedly. It is also possible to regulate the speed of the motor from standstill to full speed
by switching the transistor at variable duty cycle. We can generate this variable duty cycle from a
microcontroller IC or from a control circuitry.

Procedure:

i. Construct the circuit of Figure 3 on the breadboard.

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Figure 3
ii. Set the input voltage (Vin) equal to 0V. Observe the rotation of DC motor. Is it rotating or
not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Set the input voltage (Vin) equal to 5V. Observe the rotation of DC motor. Is it rotating or
not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iv. Using function generator, apply an input square wave signal (Vin) having two amplitudes 5V
(peak) and -5V (peak). Set the frequency of square wave to 100-Hz with duty cycle equal to 50%.
Observe the rotation of DC motor. Is it rotating or not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
v. Is the motor rotating at the same speed as noticed in step 2(c) or not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Experiment# 12
Characteristics of JFET
Objectives:

• To examine the properties of a JFET.

• To observe the effect of various biasing schemes.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Digital Multi-meter
• Transistor: 2N3819 or equivalent N-JFET
• DC Power Supply = -12V (fixed), 24V (fixed)
• Resistors: 100-Ω [Qty =1]; 1-kΩ [Qty =2]; 10-kΩ [Qty =1]
• Potentiometers: 5-kΩ [Qty =1]; 1-MΩ [Qty =1]

Theory:

The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) is a unipolar conduction device. The current
carriers are either electrons in an N-channel JFET or holes in a P-channel JFET. In the N-channel
JFET, the conduction path is N-doped material, germanium or silicon, while in the P-channel
JFET, the conduction path is P-doped germanium or silicon. Conduction through the channel is
controlled by the depletion region established by oppositely doped regions in the channel. The
channel is connected to two terminals, referred to as the drain and the source, respectively. For N-
channel JFETs, the drain (D) is connected to a positive voltage, and the source (S) to a negative
voltage, to establish a flow of conventional current in the channel. The polarities of the applied
voltages for the P-channel are opposite to those of the N-channel JFETs. A third terminal, referred
to as the gate (G) terminal, provides a mechanism for controlling the depletion region and thereby
the width of the channel through which conventional flow can exist between the drain and the
source terminals. For an N-channel JFET, the more negative, the gate-to-source voltage (V GS) is,
smaller are the channel width and the drain-to-source current (ID).

This experiment will establish the relationships between the various voltages and the currents
flowing in a JFET, the nature of these relationships determine the range of JFET applications.

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Procedure:

Part 1: Measurement of the saturation current (IDSS) and pinch-off voltage (VP)

a. Construct the network of Figure 1. The 10kΩ resistor in the input circuit is included to protect the
gate circuits if the 12V battery is applied with the wrong polarity and the potentiometer is set on
its maximum value.

Figure 1

b. Record the measured value of R.

R (measured) =___________
c. Vary the 1-MΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) until VGS = 0V. Recall that ID = IDSS when VGS = 0V.

d. Set VDS to 8V by varying the 5-kΩ potentiometer (Pot-1). Measure the voltage VR.
VR (measured) =___________

e. Calculate the saturation current from IDSS = ID = 𝐕𝐑/𝐑 using the measured resistor value and
record below.

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IDSS (measured) =___________

f. Maintain VDS at about 8V and reduce VGS (by varying Pot-2) until VR drops to 1mV. At this level,
ID=𝐕𝐑 / 𝐑=𝟏𝐦𝐯 / 𝟏𝟎𝟎 =10uA0mA. Recall that V P is the voltage VGS that results in ID
= 0mA.
Record the pinch off voltage below.
VP (measured) =___________
g. Check with two other groups in your laboratory area and record their levels of I DSS and VP.

1. IDSS =_________, VP =_________

2. IDSS =_________, VP =_________

h. Based on the above results, are the IDSS and VP the same for all 2N3819 transistors?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Part 2: Transfer Characteristics

a. Using Shockley’s equation (below), find out I D for the particulars values of VGS and fill the Table
10.1. Use values of IDSS and VP as determined in step 1(d) and 1(e) respectively.

Table 1: Data for Transfer Characteristics

b. Sketch the transfer characteristics (ID vs. VGS) for the device on Figure 2 using data of Table 1.

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Figure 2: Transfer Characteristics for N-JFET

Part 3: Output Characteristics

This part of the experiment will determine ID vs. VDS characteristics for the N-channel JFET.

a. Using the network of Figure 1, vary the 1-MΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) until VGS = 0V.
b. Vary the 5-kΩ potentiometer (Pot-1) until VDS = 0V. Measure and record VR in Table 2.
c. Determine drain current (ID) from ID = VR / R using the measured value of R and record it in
Table
2.
d. Maintain VGS at 0V and increase VDS through 14V (in 2V steps) by varying Pot-1(5-kΩ), record
the measured values drain current (I D) against each value of VR. Be sure to use the measured
value of 100Ω resistance in your calculations.

Table 2 (For VGS = 0V)

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e. After the completion of Table 2, vary the 1-MΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) until VGS = -2V.
f. Repeat all steps through 2(b) to 2(d) and complete Table 3.

Table 3 (For VGS = -2V)

g. After the completion of Table 3, vary the 1-MΩ potentiometer (Pot-2) until VGS = VP.
h. Repeat all steps through 2(b) to 2(d) and complete Table 4.

Table 4 (For VGS = VP)

i. Plot the output characteristics for the JFET (VDS vs. ID) on the graph of Figure 3

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Figure 3 (Output Characteristics of N-JFET

j. Does the plot verify the conclusion of Part 1? That is, is the average value of I D for VGS = 0V
relatively close to IDSS? Is the value of VGS that results in ID = 0mA close to VP?
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
IDSS (from Part 1) =_________, IDSS (from Figure 3) =_________
VP (from Part 1) =_________, VP (from Figure 3) =_________

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Experiment# 13
Characteristics of
MOSFET
Objectives:

• To examine the properties of a MOSFET.

• To observe the effect of various biasing schemes.

Equipment:

• Oscilloscope
• Digital Multimeter
• MOSFET
• Capacitors
• Resistors

Discussion:

Previously, we have been considering BJTs, besides BJT, another more important three
terminal devices are Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET) or MOS.
MOSFETs are used more widely in industry for implementing digital designs. They are preferred
in industry because of their size (smaller), ease of manufacture and lesser power utilization.
MOSFET technology allows placement of approximately 2 billion transistors on a single IC and
therefore forms the backbone of very large scale integration (VLSI).

Basic Structure and Principle of Operation:

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The n-type Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET) consists of a

source and a drain, two highly conducting n-type semiconductor regions which are isolated from
the p-type substrate by reversed-biased p-n diodes. A metal (or polycrystalline) gate covers the
region between source and drain, but is separated from the semiconductor by the gate oxide. The
basic structure of an n-type MOSFET and the corresponding circuit symbol are shown below.

It can be seen in the figure that the source and the drain regions are identical. It is the applied
voltages which determine which n-type region provides the electrons and becomes the source,
while the other n-type region collects the electrons and becomes the drain. The voltages applied to
the drain and gate electrode as well as to the substrate by means of a back contact are referred to
the source potential, as also indicated in the figure.

A top view of the same MOSFET is shown below where the gate length, L, and gate width,
W, are identified. Note that the gate length does not equal the physical dimension of the gate, but
rather the distance between the source and drain regions underneath the gate. The overlap between
the gate, the source and drain region is required to ensure that the inversion layer forms a
continuous conducting path between the source and drain region. Typically, this overlap is made
as small as possible in order to minimize its parasitic capacitance.

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The typical current versus voltage (I-V) characteristics of a MOSFET

The flow of electrons from the source to the drain is controlled by the voltage applied to the
gate. A positive voltage applied to the gate, attracts electrons to the interface between the gate
dielectric and the semiconductor. These electrons form a conducting channel between the source
and the drain, called the inversion layer. No gate current is required to maintain the inversion layer
at the interface since the gate oxide blocks any carrier flow. The net result is that the current
between drain and source is controlled by the voltage which is applied to the gate.

Modes of Operation and Voltage Transfer Characteristic Curve:

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Three regions exist in VTC.

• VGS < Vt (Cut off)
• VOV = VGS – Vt < 0
• ID = 0
• Vout = VDD
• Vt < VGS < VDS + Vt (Saturation)
• VOV = VGS – Vt > 0
• ID = ½ kn(VGS – Vt)2
• VDS >> VOV
• Vout = VDD – IDRD
• VDS + Vt < VGS < VDD (Triode)
• VOV = VGS – Vt > 0
• ID = kn(VGS – Vt – VDS)VDS
• VDS > VOV
• Vout = VDD – IDRD

MOS transistor acts as an amplifier in Saturation region and as an inverter in Triode and Cut
off regions.

Biasing a MOSFET:

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For a MOSFET to act as an amplifier, a proper DC bias point is required. The DC bias circuit is
to ensure the MOSFET in saturation with a proper collector current ID. ID however, is dependent on
a number of factors which also includes physical factors which can vary with temperature and a
number of factors.

Therefore, a number of biasing schemes have been presented. Two of which will be covered
in Lab.

(1) Biasing using Gate-to-Drain Feedback Resistor:

In this type of biasing category, a single power supply is needed. There will be no current
between drain and gate. RG ensures the MOSFET in saturation (VGS=VDS). MOSFET operating
point is maintained.

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The value of the feedback resistor RG affects the small-signal gain. RD acts as a negative feedback
resistor to stabilize the drain current.

(2) Biasing using Fixed VG with Source Resistor:

This configuration generates fix VG from the given power supply by making a voltage divider.
Therefore, according to the equation:

As VG is fixed, VGS would vary to keep ID fixed. In this configuration, gate resistance is
chosen to be very high to give high input impedance to the AC signal which is to be coupled to the
MOSFET. Drain resistance also need to be high in order to give high voltage gain, however, it
should not be such large that FET move away from saturation. Also, RS (Source Resistance) is
kept very high to nullify the effect of parametric changes.

NMOS as an Inverter:

When VIN is logic 1, VOUT is logic 0. Constant nonzero current flows through the transistor.
Power is used, even though no new computation is being performed. When VIN changes to logic 0,
transistor gets cutoff. ID goes to 0. Resistor voltage goes to zero. VOUT “pulled up” to 5 V.

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Procedure:

Biasing a MOSFET:

(1) Biasing using Gate-to-Drain Feedback Resistor:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

VDD = …………….
RD = ……………...
RG = ……………...

VG VD VGS VDS Mode

(2) Biasing using Fixed VG with Source Resistor:

VDD =.................. RD = …………...

RG1 = ………….
RG2 = ………….
RS = ……………

VG VD VGS VDS Mode

NMOS as an Inverter:

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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab NUTECH, Islamabad

VIN VOUT

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