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 Computational
Intelligence
Paradigms
Theory and
Applications
using MATLAB
®

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

 Computational
Intelligence
Paradigms
Theory and
Applications
using MATLAB
®

S. sumathi
surekha p.

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
A CHAPMAN & HALL BOOK
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
MATLAB ® and Simulink ® are trademarks of the Math Works, Inc. and are used with permission. The Mathworks does
not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB ® and Simulink
® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by the Math Works of a particular peda-
gogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB ® and Simulink ® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4398-0902-0 (Hardback)

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Sumathi, S., 1968‑

Computational intelligence paradigms : theory & applications using MATLAB / S. Sumathi and
Surekha Paneerselvam.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978‑1‑4398‑0902‑0 (hard back : alk. paper)
1. Computational intelligence. 2. MATLAB. I. Paneerselvam, Surekha, 1980‑ II. Title.

Q342.S94 2010
006.3‑‑dc22 2009022113

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Preface xvii

1 Computational Intelligence 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Primary Classes of Problems for CI Techniques . . . . 5
1.2.1 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 NP-Complete Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Feed Forward Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Fuzzy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 Fuzzy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 Fuzzy Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Evolutionary Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.1 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.2 Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.3 Evolutionary Programming . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.4 Evolutionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Swarm Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Other Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7.1 Granular Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.2 Chaos Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.3 Artificial Immune Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8 Hybrid Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9 Relationship with Other Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10 Challenges To Computational Intelligence . . . . . . . 25
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 Artificial Neural Networks with MATLAB 29

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 A Brief History of Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.1 Comparison of Neural Network to the Brain . 33
2.3.2 Artificial Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

v
vi

2.3.3
Implementation of Artificial Neuron Electroni-
cally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.4 Operations of Artificial Neural Network . . . . 37
2.3.5 Training an Artificial Neural Network . . . . . 40
2.3.6 Comparison between Neural Networks, Tradi-
tional Computing, and Expert Systems . . . . 44
2.4 Neural Network Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.1 Teaching an Artificial Neural Network . . . . . 52
2.4.2 Learning Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.3 Learning Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4.4 MATLAB Implementation of Learning Rules . 61
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3 Artificial Neural Networks - Architectures and Algo-

rithms 69
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Layered Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1 Single-Layer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.2 Multilayer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3 Prediction Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3.1 The Perceptron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3.2 MATLAB Implementation of a Perceptron Net-
work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.3 Feedforward Back-Propagation Network . . . . 83
3.3.4 Implementation of BPN Using MATLAB . . . 91
3.3.5 Delta Bar Delta Network . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3.6 Extended Delta Bar Delta . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.7 Directed Random Search Network . . . . . . . 100
3.3.8 Functional Link Artificial Neural Network
(FLANN) or Higher-Order Neural Network . . 102
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4 Classification and Association Neural Networks 109

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2 Neural Networks Based on Classification . . . . . . . . 109
4.2.1 Learning Vector Quantization . . . . . . . . . 110
4.2.2 Implementation of LVQ in MATLAB . . . . . 115
4.2.3 Counter-Propagation Network . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.4 Probabilistic Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.5 Implementation of the Probabilistic Neural Net
Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

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 vii

4.3 Data Association Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4.3.1 Hopfield Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3.2 Implementation of Hopfield Network in MAT-
LAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.3 Boltzmann Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.4 Hamming Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.5 Bi-Directional Associative Memory . . . . . . . 141
4.4 Data Conceptualization Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.1 Adaptive Resonance Network . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.2 Implementation of ART Algorithm in MATLAB 151
4.4.3 Self-Organizing Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5 Applications Areas of ANN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.5.1 Language Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.5.2 Character Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.3 Data Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.4 Pattern Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.5 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.5.6 Financial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5 MATLAB Programs to Implement Neural Networks 165

5.1 Illustration 1: Coin Detection Using Euclidean Distance
(Hamming Net) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2 Illustration 2: Learning Vector Quantization - Clustering
Data Drawn from Different Regions . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3 Illustration 3: Character Recognition Using Kohonen
Som Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.4 Illustration 4: The Hopfield Network as an Associative
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.5 Illustration 5: Generalized Delta Learning Rule and
Back-Propagation of Errors for a Multilayer Network . 187
5.6 Illustration 6: Classification of Heart Disease Using
Learning Vector Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.7 Illustration 7: Neural Network Using MATLAB Simulink 198
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

6 MATLAB-Based Fuzzy Systems 203

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.2 Imprecision and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.3 Crisp and Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.4 Fuzzy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

viii

6.5 Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

6.6 Membership Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.6.1 Types of Membership Functions . . . . . . . . 212
6.6.2 Membership Functions in the MATLAB Fuzzy
Logic Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.6.3 MATLAB Code to Simulate Membership Func-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.6.4 Translation of Parameters between Membership
Functions Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.7 Singletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.8 Linguistic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.9 Operations on Fuzzy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.9.1 Fuzzy Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.9.2 Fuzzy Intersections: t-norms . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.9.3 Fuzzy Unions: t-conorms . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.9.4 Combinations of Operations . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.9.5 MATLAB Codes for Implementation of Fuzzy
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.9.6 Aggregation Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6.10 Fuzzy Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.10.1 Arithmetic Operations on Intervals . . . . . . 243
6.10.2 Arithmetic Operations on Fuzzy Numbers . . 244
6.10.3 Fuzzy Arithmetic Using MATLAB Fuzzy Logic
Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.11 Fuzzy Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.12 Fuzzy Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.12.1 MATLAB Code to Implement Fuzzy Composi-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

7 Fuzzy Inference and Expert Systems 261

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.2 Fuzzy Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.2.1 Generation of Fuzzy Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.2 Disintegration of Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.3 Aggregation of Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.3 Fuzzy Expert System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.3.1 Fuzzification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.3.2 Fuzzy Rule Base and Fuzzy IF-THEN Rules . 265
7.3.3 Fuzzy Inference Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.3.4 Defuzzification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

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 ix

7.3.5
Implementation of Defuzzification using MAT-
LAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.4 Fuzzy Inference Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.4.1 Mamdani’s Fuzzy Inference Method . . . . . . 278
7.4.2 Takagi–Sugeno Fuzzy Inference Method . . . . 281
7.4.3 Tsukamoto Fuzzy Inference Method . . . . . . 282
7.5 Fuzzy Inference Systems in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . 283
7.5.1 Mamdani-Type Fuzzy Inference . . . . . . . . 286
7.5.2 Sugeno-Type Fuzzy Inference . . . . . . . . . 292
7.5.3 Conversion of Mamdani to Sugeno System . . 295
7.6 Fuzzy Automata and Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.7 Fuzzy Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.7.1 Fuzzy Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.7.2 A Fuzzy Controller in MATLAB . . . . . . . . 302
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

8 MATLAB Illustrations on Fuzzy Systems 307

8.1 Illustration 1: Application of Fuzzy Controller Using
MATLAB — Fuzzy Washing Machine . . . . . . . . . 307
8.2 Illustration 2 - Fuzzy Control System for a Tanker Ship 317
8.3 Illustration 3 - Approximation of Any Function Using
Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.4 Illustration 4 - Building Fuzzy Simulink Models . . . . 343
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

9 Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling Using MATLAB 351

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.2 Cooperative and Concurrent Neuro-Fuzzy Systems . . 352
9.3 Fused Neuro-Fuzzy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
9.3.1 Fuzzy Adaptive Learning Control Network
(FALCON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.3.2 Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (AN-
FIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.3.3 Generalized Approximate Reasoning-Based In-
telligent Control (GARIC) . . . . . . . . . . . 355
9.3.4 Neuro-Fuzzy Control (NEFCON) . . . . . . . 356
9.3.5 Fuzzy Inference and Neural Network in Fuzzy
Inference Software (FINEST) . . . . . . . . . . 360
9.3.6 Fuzzy Net (FUN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9.3.7 Evolving Fuzzy Neural Network (EFuNN) . . . 363

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

x

9.3.8Self–Constructing Neural Fuzzy Inference Net-

work (SONFIN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.3.9 Evolutionary Design of Neuro-Fuzzy Systems . 364
9.4 Hybrid Neuro-Fuzzy Model — ANFIS . . . . . . . . . 367
9.4.1 Architecture of Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.4.2 Hybrid Learning Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.5 Classification and Regression Trees . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.5.1 CART — Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.5.2 Node Splitting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.5.3 Classification Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.5.4 Regression Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
9.5.5 Computational Issues of CART . . . . . . . . . 375
9.5.6 Computational Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.5.7 Accuracy Estimation in CART . . . . . . . . . 379
9.5.8 Advantages of Classification and Regression
Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.6 Data Clustering Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.6.1 System Identification Using Fuzzy Clustering . 382
9.6.2 Hard C-Means Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.6.3 Fuzzy C-Means (FCM) Clustering . . . . . . . 386
9.6.4 Subtractive Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.6.5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

10 Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling Using MATLAB 395

10.1 Illustration 1 - Fuzzy Art Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
10.2 Illustration 2: Fuzzy C-Means Clustering — Compara-
tive Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
10.3 Illustration 3 - Kmeans Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . 403
10.4 Illustration 4 - Neuro-Fuzzy System Using Simulink . 411
10.5 Illustration 5 - Neuro-Fuzzy System Using Takagi–
Sugeno and ANFIS GUI of MATLAB . . . . . . . . . 414
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

11 Evolutionary Computation Paradigms 419

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.2 Evolutionary Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
11.3 Brief History of Evolutionary Computation . . . . . . 422
11.4 Biological and Artificial Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . 423
11.4.1 Expressions Used in Evolutionary Computation 423

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 xi

11.4.2 Biological Evolution Inspired by Nature . . . . 423

11.4.3 Evolutionary Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
11.5 Flow Diagram of a Typical Evolutionary Algorithm . 428
11.6 Models of Evolutionary Computation . . . . . . . . . . 430
11.6.1 Genetic Algorithms (GA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
11.6.2 Genetic Programming (GP) . . . . . . . . . . . 431
11.6.3 Evolutionary Programming (EP) . . . . . . . . 435
11.6.4 Evolutionary Strategies (ESs) . . . . . . . . . 436
11.7 Evolutionary Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
11.7.1 Evolutionary Algorithms Parameters . . . . . 442
11.7.2 Solution Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
11.7.3 Fitness Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
11.7.4 Initialization of Population Size . . . . . . . . 444
11.7.5 Selection Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
11.7.6 Crossover Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
11.7.7 Mutation Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
11.7.8 Reproduction Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
11.8 Evolutionary Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
11.8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
11.8.2 Procedure of Evolutionary Programming . . . 460
11.8.3 EPs and GAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
11.8.4 Algorithm of EP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
11.8.5 Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
11.9 Evolutionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
11.9.1 Solution Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.9.2 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.9.3 Recombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
11.9.4 Population Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.9.5 Convergence Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.9.6 Computational Considerations . . . . . . . . . 483
11.9.7 Algorithm Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
11.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Evolutionary Compu-
tation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

12 Evolutionary Algorithms Implemented Using MATLAB 491

12.1 Illustration 1: Differential Evolution Optimizer . . . . 491
12.2 Illustration 2: Design of a Proportional-Derivative Con-
troller Using Evolutionary Algorithm for Tanker Ship
Heading Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

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12.3 Illustration 3: Maximizing the Given One-Dimensional

Function with the Boundaries Using Evolutionary Algo-
rithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
12.4 Illustration 4: Multiobjective Optimization Using Evo-
lutionary Algorithm (MOEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
12.5 Illustration 5: Evolutionary Strategy for Nonlinear Func-
tion Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

13 MATLAB-Based Genetic Algorithm 547

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
13.2 Encoding and Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . 548
13.3 Historical Overview of Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . 549
13.4 Genetic Algorithm Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
13.5 Role of Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
13.6 Solution Representation of Genetic Algorithms . . . . 553
13.7 Parameters of Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
13.7.1 Standard Parameter Settings . . . . . . . . . . 554
13.8 Schema Theorem and Theoretical Background . . . . 555
13.8.1 Building Block Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . 556
13.8.2 The Dynamics of a Schema . . . . . . . . . . . 557
13.8.3 Illustrations Based on Schema Theorem . . . . 559
13.9 Crossover Operators and Schemata . . . . . . . . . . . 563
13.9.1 1-Point Crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
13.9.2 2-Point Crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
13.9.3 Linkage and Defining Length . . . . . . . . . . 564
13.9.4 Linkage and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
13.10 Genotype and Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
13.11 Advanced Operators in GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
13.11.1 Inversion and Reordering . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
13.11.2 Epistasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
13.11.3 Deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
13.11.4 Mutation and Naı̈ve Evolution . . . . . . . . . 569
13.11.5 Niche and Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
13.11.6 Restricted Mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
13.11.7 Diploidy and Dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
13.12 GA Versus Traditional Search and Optimization Meth-
ods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
13.12.1 Neural Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
13.12.2 Random Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
13.12.3 Gradient Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
13.12.4 Iterated Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

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 xiii

13.12.5 Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

13.13 Benefits of GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
13.14 MATLAB Programs on Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . 573
13.14.1 Illustration 1: Maximizing the Given One-
Dimensional Function within Given Boundaries 573
13.14.2 Illustration 2: Solving Economic Dispatch Prob-
lem Using Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 576
13.14.3 Illustration 3: Traveling Salesman Problem . . 580
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588

14 Genetic Programming 591

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
14.2 Growth of Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
14.3 The Lisp Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
14.4 Functionality of Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . 596
14.4.1 Generation of an Individual and Population . . 596
14.4.2 Creating a Random Population . . . . . . . . . 597
14.4.3 Fitness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
14.4.4 Functions and Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
14.4.5 The Genetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
14.4.6 Selection Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
14.4.7 MATLAB Routine for Selection . . . . . . . . 601
14.4.8 Crossover Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
14.4.9 MATLAB Routine for Crossover . . . . . . . . 607
14.4.10 Mutation Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
14.4.11 MATLAB Routine for Mutation . . . . . . . . 608
14.5 Genetic Programming in Machine Learning . . . . . . 610
14.6 Elementary Steps of Genetic Programming . . . . . . 612
14.6.1 The Terminal Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
14.6.2 The Function Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
14.6.3 The Fitness Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
14.6.4 The Algorithm Control Parameters . . . . . . 614
14.6.5 The Termination Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . 614
14.7 Flowchart of Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . 615
14.8 Benefits of Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
14.9 MATLAB Examples Using Genetic Programming . . . 618
14.9.1 Illustration 1: Static Function Identification . . 618
14.9.2 Illustration 2: Dynamical Input-Output Model
Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
14.9.3 Illustration 3 - Symbolic Regression Problem
Using Genetic Programming Toolbox . . . . . 632
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

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xiv

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646

15 MATLAB-Based Swarm Intelligence 649

15.1 Introduction to Swarms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
15.2 Biological Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
15.3 Swarm Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
15.4 Stability of Swarms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
15.5 Swarm Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
15.5.1 Properties of a Swarm Intelligence System . . 655
15.6 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) . . . . . . . . . . 656
15.6.1 Mathematical Model of PSO . . . . . . . . . . 657
15.6.2 Algorithm of PSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
15.6.3 Parameters and Tuning of Parameters in PSO 658
15.6.4 Neighborhood Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
15.7 Extended Models of PSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
15.7.1 PSO-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
15.7.2 PSO-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
15.7.3 PSO-III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
15.7.4 PSO-IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
15.8 Ant Colony Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
15.8.1 Mathematical Model of ACO . . . . . . . . . . 664
15.8.2 Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . 664
15.9 Studies and Applications of Swarm Intelligence . . . . 665
15.9.1 Ant-based Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
15.9.2 Clustering Behavior of Ants . . . . . . . . . . 665
15.9.3 Graph Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
15.9.4 Machine Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
15.9.5 Quadratic Knapsack Problem . . . . . . . . . . 667
15.9.6 Traveling Salesman Problem . . . . . . . . . . 668
15.10 MATLAB Examples of Swarm Intelligence . . . . . . . 668
15.10.1 Illustration 1: Simulation of the Movement of
Swarm to Minimize the Objective Function . 669
15.10.2 Illustration 2: Behavior of Particle Swarm Op-
timization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
15.10.3 Illustration 3: Ant Colony Optimization to De-
termine the Shortest Path . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
15.10.4 Illustration 4: Ant Algorithm for the Quadratic
Assignment Problem (QAP) . . . . . . . . . . 687
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

A Glossary of Terms 693

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 xv

B List of Abbreviations 737

C MATLAB Toolboxes Based on CI 741

C.1 Genetic Algorithm Toolbox for MATLAB . . . . . . . 741
C.2 Fuzzy Logic Toolbox 2.2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
C.3 Neural Network Toolbox 6.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
C.4 Genetic Algorithm and Direct Search Toolbox 2.2 . . 754
C.5 GPLAB - A Genetic Programming Toolbox for MAT-
LAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

D Emerging Software Packages 765

D.1 BUGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
D.2 ComputerAnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
D.3 DGenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
D.4 Ease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
D.5 Evolution Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
D.6 Evolutionary Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
D.7 GAC, GAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
D.8 GAGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
D.9 GAGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
D.10 GAlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
D.11 GALOPPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
D.12 GAMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
D.13 GANNET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
D.14 GA Workbench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
D.15 GECO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
D.16 Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
D.17 GENEsYs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
D.18 GenET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
D.19 Genie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
D.20 Genitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
D.21 GENlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
D.22 GENOCOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
D.23 GPEIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
D.24 Imogene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
D.25 JAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
D.26 LibGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
D.27 mGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
D.28 PGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
D.29 PGAPack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
D.30 SGA-C, SGA-Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
D.31 Splicer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
D.32 Trans-Dimensional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
belonged to the same tribe, or family, as the owner of the land which
had been granted to him, the abbacy remained with this family, who
provided from among the members of it a person duly qualified to
fulfil the functions of abbot. There was thus connected with each
monastery, to use the words of Dr. Reeves, a ‘Plebilis progenies,’ or
lay family, ‘in whom the tenancy of the lands was vested, possessing
a regular succession, and furnishing from its members certain
Coärbs, or successors, to the first abbot, who formed the
Ecclesiastica progenies and who, being unmarried, exhibit no lineal
succession. In fact, the rule was, on each avoidance of the abbacy,
to fill up the situation from founders’ kin, and, failing a qualified
person in the direct line, to choose a successor from a collateral
branch.’[136] The monastery of Derry is an instance of this. Aedh, son
of Ainmire, the king of Ireland who granted the land, and Columba,
the saint who founded the monastery, both belonged to the same
tribe—that of the Cinel Conaill. The rule is thus stated in the Brehon
Laws: ‘When it is a Church of the Tribe of the Land and the Church
of the Tribe of the Saint and of the Land at the same time. That is,
the tribe of the land succeeds to the church—that is, the tribe of the
saint and the tribe of the land are one tribe in this case, and the saint
is on his own land,—

The saint, the land, the mild monk,

The Dalta Church of fine vigour,
The Compairche, and the Deoruid De,
By them is the abbacy taken (in their order).’[137]

When, however, the saint who founded the monastery belonged to

a different tribe from that of the chief from whom the grant was
obtained and in whose tribe it was founded, the succession to the
abbacy was often retained by the family to whom the saint belonged,
from the members of which the abbot was in the same manner
supplied. The monastery of Drumcliffe is an instance of this. It was
founded by Columba in a district which belonged to a stranger tribe,
and in the old Irish Life it is said that ‘he gave the authority, and the
clergy and the succession to the Cinel Conaill for ever’—that is, to
his own tribe. When this was the case, instead of the same tribe
forming a lay and ecclesiastical ‘progenies,’ or family, the two
families connected with the succession—the tribe of the land and the
tribe of the saint—were different, and the following is the rule in the
Brehon Laws:—
‘The Church of the Tribe of the Saint. That is, the tribe of the Saint
shall succeed in the Church as long as there shall be a person fit to
be an abbot (Damna Apaidh, or materies of an abbot), of the tribe of
the saint, even though there should be but a psalm-singer of these, it
is he that will obtain the abbacy. Where this is not the case, it is to be
given to the tribe of the land until a person fit to be an abbot, of the
tribe of the saint, shall be found; and when he is, it is to be given to
him if he be better than the abbot of the tribe of the land who has
taken it. If he be not better, he shall take it only in his turn. If a person
fit to be an abbot has not come of the tribe of the saint or of the tribe
of the land, the abbacy is to be given to the tribe of the monks (Fine
Manach), until a person fit to be an abbot, of the tribe of the saint or
of the tribe of the land, shall be found; and where there is such, he is
preferable. If a person fit to be abbot has not come of the tribe of the
saint, or of the tribe of the land, or of the tribe of the monks, the
Annoit shall take it in the fourth place; the Dalta shall take it in the
fifth place; the Compairche shall take it in the sixth place; the nearest
Cill shall take it in the seventh place. If a person fit to be an abbot
has not come in any of these seven places, the Deoruid De shall
take it in the eighth place. If a person fit to be an abbot has not
arisen of the tribe of the saint, or of the land, or of the monks
together, and the Annoit, or the Dalta, or the Compairche, or the
nearest Cill, or the Deoruid De, has the wealth, it must be given to
the tribe of the saint, for one of them fit to be an abbot goes for
nothing. The abbacy goes from them.’[138] The untranslated terms in
these passages are used to designate the different churches which
belonged to the same monastic group. The Annoit is the parent
church or monastery which is presided over by the patron saint, or
which contains his relics.[139] The Dalta was a church affiliated to it.
[140]
The Compairche was a church in the same ‘parochia.’[141] The
Cill was the ‘Cella,’ as distinguished from the ‘Monasterium.’[142] The
Deoruid De, literally ‘God’s stranger or pilgrim,’ was, as we shall
afterwards see, the anchorite or solitary who lived secluded from his
brethren in a stone cell.[143] The Cell Manach, or ‘Cella Monachorum,’
is thus explained. ‘That is, a cell of monks is held by the tribe of
monks; and the abbacy shall always belong to the monks as long as
shall be a person of them fit to be an abbot; and whenever this is not
the case, it is similar to that before mentioned of the tribe of the land,
binding the tribe of the saint by a guarantee to the tribe of the land,
upon the Annoit.’[144]
The right of the These notices as to the succession in which
church from the the abbacy is held, obscure and fragmentary as
tribe. are some of them, are sufficient to show the close
connection in this respect between the church and the tribe; but that
connection was rendered still more intimate by the claims which the
church had now established upon the people of the tribe. They are
thus defined:—‘The right of the Church from the Tuath or tribe is
tithes and first fruits and firstlings; these are due to a church from her
members,’ Tithes probably belong to a late period of the church; but
the two others seem to be more archaic, and are thus defined:
—‘What are lawful firstlings? Every first-born, that is, every first birth
of every human couple, and every male child that opens the womb of
his mother, being the first lawful wife, with confession according to
their soul-friend, by which a church and souls are more improved;
and also every male animal that opens the womb of its mother, of
small or lactiferous animals in general. First fruits are the fruit of the
gathering of every new produce, whether small or great, and every
first calf and every first lamb which is brought forth in the year,’
‘Every tenth birth afterwards, with a lot between every two sevens,
[145]
with his lawful share of his family inheritance to the claim of the
church, and every tenth plant of the plants of the earth and of cattle
every year and every seventh day of the year to the service of God,
with every choice taken more than another after the desired
order.’[146] It is very characteristic of the spirit of these laws that the
day of rest—the seventh day—should form one of the demands of
the church upon the lay tribe, which its members were bound to
render for the service of God with their other dues. The position of
the son so given to the church is thus described: ‘The son who is
selected has become the tenth, or as the firstling to the church; he
obtains as much of the legacy of his father, after the death of his
father, as every lawful son which the mother has, and he is to be on
his own land outside, and he shall render the service of a free monk
(saermanuig) to the church, and the church shall teach him learning;
for he shall obtain more of a divine legacy than of a legacy not
divine.’ The term Manach, or Monk, embraced all who were
connected with, or subject to, the ecclais or monastery, and formed
her muintir, or ‘familia,’ down to the lowest grade of those who
occupied the church lands; and when they had any of the church
orders conferred upon them, there was attached to it a very valuable
privilege which must have powerfully attracted them to the service of
the church. It is thus stated:—‘The enslaved shall be freed, the
plebeians exalted, through the orders of the church and by
performing penitential service to God. For the Lord is accessible; he
will not refuse any kind of man after belief, among either the free or
the plebeian tribes; so likewise is the church open for every person
who goes under her rule.’[147]
Right of the tribe On the other hand, ‘the right of the Tuath or
from the church. tribe against the church’ is thus stated:—‘They
demand their right from the church, that is, baptism and communion
and requiem of soul, and the offering (oifrend) from every church to
every person after his proper belief, with the recital of the Word of
God to all who listen to it and keep it.’[148] However difficult it may be
for us now to comprehend the full import of these arrangements,
they still indicate clearly enough how much the monastic church was
a tribal institution, and how completely her rights were interwoven
with those of the members of the tribe. This is implied, in a tract on
the legal constitution and rights of privileged classes, when it is said,
‘It is no Tuath or tribe without three free neimhedh, or dignitaries—
the Eclais, or church; the Flaith, or lord; and the File, or poet.’[149]
Influence of the The influence of the church, however, in her
church. spiritual and moral aspect was as great as that
which arose from her adaptation to the customs and laws of the
tribe; and if we would understand how she so rapidly attained so
powerful a position in the social organisation of the aggregate of
tribes forming the population of Ireland, we must advert to her
character and mode of operation as a missionary church. We can
readily understand that these large monastic churches founded upon
the mainland might at once exercise a great influence among the
surrounding population; but when we consider the almost universal
preference shown, in founding these churches, towards placing them
in small islands, either near the coast or in the large inland lakes,
and how numerous these island monasteries were, it seems difficult
now to understand how there should have proceeded so great an
influence from a small body of monastic clergy living on these
isolated and unfrequented spots, as so rapidly to overthrow the
heathenism of a great people, and to bring them so generally and
speedily into subjection to the Christian Church. The monastic
character of the church gave, however, a peculiar stamp to her
missionary work which caused her to set about it in a mode well
calculated to impress a people still to a great extent under the
influence of heathenism. It is difficult for us now to realise to
ourselves what such pagan life really was—its hopeless corruption,
its utter disregard of the sanctity of domestic ties, its injustice and
selfishness, its violent and bloody character; and these
characteristics would not be diminished in a people who had been
partially Christianised and had fallen back from it into heathenism.
The monastic missionaries did not commence their work, as the
earlier secular church would have done, by arguing against their
idolatry, superstition, and immorality, and preaching a purer faith; but
they opposed to it the antagonistic characteristics and purer life of
Christianity. They asked and obtained a settlement in some small
and valueless island. There they settled down as a little Christian
colony, living under a monastic rule requiring the abandonment of all
that was attractive in life. They exhibited a life of purity, holiness, and
self-denial. They exercised charity and benevolence, and they forced
the respect of the surrounding pagans to a life the motives of which
they could not comprehend, unless they resulted from principles
higher than those their pagan religion afforded them; and, having
won their respect for their lives and their gratitude for their
benevolence, these monastic missionaries went among them with
the Word of God in their hands, and preached to them the doctrines
and pure morality of the Word of Life. No wonder if kings and nations
became converted to Christianity and incorporated the church into
their tribal institutions in a manner which now excites our wonder, if
not our suspicion. The lives of the saints show us these
missionaries, owing to their devoted and self-denying lives, first
received with respect by some chief, then obtaining a grant of land to
found their monastery, and the people soon after converted by the
preaching of the Word of God. Their influence, however, was soon
enhanced by a less legitimate feature. We know how readily a rude
and primitive people invest with superstitious and supernatural
power those claiming superior sanctity, and the newly converted
people soon surrounded these saints, as they termed them, with the
same old halo of reverence and awe which had belonged to their
pagan priests, such as they were. The power with which the latter
were supposed to be endowed, of influencing the action of their
native gods, was transferred to the Christian missionary, who was
believed to exercise a similar power with regard to the Christian
Deity. Their intercession was sought for, their malediction dreaded,
and the claims and rites of the Christian Church invested with
superstitious sanctions which brought the people more readily and
universally into subjection to her. We can trace this feeling in the
Brehon Laws. We are there told that ‘there are three periods at
which the world is worthless: the time of a plague, the time of a
general war, the dissolution of express contracts. There are three
things which remedy them: tithes and first fruits and alms; they
prevent the occurrence of plague; they confirm peace between the
king and the people; they prevent the prevalence of war; they
confirm all in their good contracts and in their bad contracts; they
prevent the worthlessness of the world.’[150] And again, in explaining
the rights of the Graid Feine, or country people, as to marriage, the
commentary adds, ‘That is, the daughter of each of them to the
other, such a person as is not under the word, or curse, of a patron
saint.’[151]
Monasteries were But these monastic establishments probably
seminaries of acquired a still greater influence from the extent
instruction. to which they had obtained possession of the
instruction of the young. They soon became, in fact, great
educational seminaries to which the youth of the tribe were sent, not
only to be trained to monastic life, but also for the purpose of
receiving secular education. Each monastic church had, besides her
community of monks, a body of young people who received
instruction; thus in one of the laws it is said, ‘purity benefits the
church in receiving every son for instruction, every monk to his
proper penance, with the proper payments of all to their proper
church.’[152] Even in the smaller monasteries, the number of scholars
was usually fifty.[153] In the larger, of course, a much greater number
were taught. Hence a single generation was sufficient to convert the
mass of the people to be devoted adherents of the Church.
Early Churches The great evidence, however, of life and
founded in the energy in a church is her missionary spirit
Western Isles. towards foreign countries, and the irrepressible
desire of her members to carry her teaching and her institutions into
the neighbouring countries; and this evidence of her vitality the Irish
Church at this period manifested in a very remarkable degree. It was
natural that the opposite coast of North Britain and the islands which
lay between it and Ireland should attract these missionaries at once
to their shores. The first impulse seems to have been given by
Brendan of Clonfert, who, it is said, soon after he had been ordained
priest by Bishop Erc and assumed the monastic habit, sailed with
fourteen of his monks in search of the land of promise of the saints,
and spent seven years in the search before he returned home. The
narrative of his seven years’ voyage became one of the most
popular tales of the Middle Ages, and numerous editions exist of it.
In its present shape it is, no doubt, a mere romance or monkish
dream, in which the narrator, under the fiction of an imaginary
voyage to different unknown islands, endeavours to realise his ideal
of monastic and eremitical life, and it possesses some truly
picturesque features. But there must have been some historic
foundation for it; and such a romance could hardly have been
interwoven into the acts of a real Brendan, if there had not been in
the events of his life a missionary adventure in which he sought to
extend the Christian Church to some distant island. There are not
wanting some indications that this was so; but be this as it may,
there seems no reason to refuse credit to the statement that, after
his return from this voyage, he went to Britain to visit St. Gildas,[154]
who, as we have seen, was one of those from whom the monastic
life passed to Ireland through the medium of Finnian of Clonard and
his twelve disciples, of whom Brendan was one. After leaving Gildas,
Brendan appears to have gone to the Western Islands, and to have
founded in one of the islands a monastery called Ailech, and a
church and its surrounding village in the land of Heth, and then
returned to Ireland.[155] This land of Heth we now know to have been
the island of Tyree,[156] but the precise situation of the other it is more
difficult to fix. It must, however, certainly be looked for in one of the
islands belonging to Britain.[157] The name of Brendan is connected
with more than one of the Western Isles. Fordun tells us that the
island of Bute bore the name of Rothesay ‘until, when the faith of our
Saviour had been diffused through all the ends of the earth, and the
islands which are afar off, Saint Brandan constructed thereon a
booth—in our idiom, bothe, that is, a shrine.’[158] But though the old
chronicler’s etymology of the name of Bute is bad, the name of
Brendan is preserved in the designation given to the people of Bute
of ‘the Brandanes,’ and in the Kilbrandan Sound, which separates
the island of Arran from Kintyre. The principal church in the island of
Seil, which lies off the coast of Lorn, is also dedicated to Brendan,
and one of the small islands forming the group called the Garveloch
Isles, bears the name of Culbrandan, or the retreat of Brendan. This
island is next to that called Eilean na Naoimh, or the Island of the
Saints, and as the latter appears to have borne the name of
Elachnave,[159] it is not impossible that here may have been the
monastery of Aileach. This visit to the Western Isles took place some
time before the foundation of his principal monastery in Ireland, that
of Clonfert, the date of which is known to have been 559; and we
shall probably not be far wrong if we fix the the year 545 as the
probable date.
Mission of Saint The mainland of Argyll, off the coast of which
Columba to these islands lay, was at this time in the
Britain. occupation of the Scots of Dalriada, who had now
possessed these districts for upwards of forty years. Their king was
Gabhran, grandson of that Feargus Mor mac Erc who had led the
colony from Ireland to Scotland in the beginning of the same century.
Ireland had become nominally Christian before they left its shores,
and they were, in name at least, a Christian people, and, during the
first sixty years of the colony, had extended themselves so far over
the western districts and islands, as to bear the name of kings of
Alban. Whether Tyree was at this time included in their possessions
may be doubted, but Seil certainly would be. They sustained,
however, a great reverse in the year 560. Brude, the son of Mailchu,
whom Bede terms a most powerful monarch, became king of the
northern Picts, and had his royal seat at Inverness. By him the
Dalriads were attacked, driven back, and their king Gabhran slain.
For the time their limits were restricted to the peninsula of Kintyre
and Knapdale and probably Cowal; but the islands were lost to them.
[160]
This great reverse called forth the mission of Columba,
commonly called Columcille, and led to the foundation of the
monastic church in Scotland.
In investigating the lives of these great fathers of the Church, and
endeavouring to estimate the true character of their mission, we
have to encounter a very considerable difficulty. They filled so large a
space in the mind of the people, and became in consequence the
subject of so much popular tradition, that the few authentic facts of
their history preserved to us became overlaid with spurious matter
stamped with the feelings and the prejudices of later periods; and
these popular conceptions of the character and history of the saint
and his work were interwoven by each of his successive biographers
into their narrative of his life, till we are left with a statement of their
career partly true and partly fictitious, and a false conception is thus
formed of their character and mission. So it was with Patrick, the
Apostle of Ireland; and Columba, the Apostle of Scotland, shared the
same fate. In both cases it is necessary to separate the older and
more authentic tradition from the later stratum of fable. For this
purpose we possess, in the case of Patrick, his own account of
himself as contained in his Confession and his epistle to Coroticus,
and can test the statements of his later biographers by their
consistency with these documents. In the case of Columba we have
no such record to appeal to, and can only bring the narratives of the
later biographers to the test of a comparison with the statements of
those who wrote more near to his own time. Fortunately for us, his
two earliest biographers, Cummene and Adamnan, were both his
successors in the abbacy of the monastery founded by himself, and
collected its traditions regarding its founder within so short a period
after his death that we may appeal to their statements of fact,
irrespective of the colouring given to them by the circumstances of
the time in which these biographers lived, with some confidence as
affording us the means of testing the later narratives. Cummene
became abbot just sixty years, and Adamnan eighty-two, after
Columba’s death. We are warranted therefore in concluding that
supposed facts in his life, which either are ignored by them or are
inconsistent with their narrative, are the fruit of later and spurious
tradition.
In the old Irish Life, which Dr. Reeves considers to be a
composition probably as old as the tenth century, and which was
originally compiled to be read as a discourse upon his festival, a few
statements are found which bear this character; but the grand
repertory of all these later and questionable additions to his
biography is the elaborate Life by Manus O’Donnell, chief of
Tyrconnell, compiled in the year 1532, which professes to be a
chronological digest of all the existing records concerning the patron
of his family.[161] The tale which it tells of the cause of Columba’s
mission to Scotland, and which is popularly accepted as true, is
shortly this:—In the year 561 a great battle was fought at a place
called Cuil-dremhne in Connaught, not far from the boundary
between that province and Ulster. The contending parties were
Diarmaid son of Cerbaill, head of the southern Hy Neill and king of
Ireland, on the one side, and, on the other, the northern Hy Neill
under the sons of Murcertach mac Erca, chiefs of the Cinel Eoghain,
Ainmere, son of Sedna chief of the Cinel Conaill, and the people of
Connaught under their king Aedh. The king of Ireland was defeated
with great slaughter, and the cause of the battle was twofold: First,
that King Diarmaid had taken Curnan, the son of the king of
Connaught, by force from under the protection of Columba; and
secondly, that he had given judgment against Columba in a dispute
between him and Finnian of Moyville regarding the possession of a
transcript of a copy of the Book of Psalms belonging to the latter,
which Columba had made without his permission, and which the king
had adjudged to belong to Finnian on the ground of the adage, To
every cow belongs its calf. Columba, who himself belonged to the
race of the northern Hy Neill, was said to have incited his tribe to
avenge him upon the king of Ireland, and to have by his prayers
contributed to their success. A synod of the saints of Ireland was
held, before whom Columba was arraigned as responsible for the
great slaughter caused by this battle; and they decided that he must
win from paganism as many souls as had been slain in this battle.
The mode in which it was to be fulfilled was referred to Laisren, or
Molaisse, of Inishmurry, who imposed as a penance upon Columba
perpetual exile from Ireland, whose shores his eyes were not again
to see and whose soil his feet were not again to tread. Columba
accordingly left Ireland for the Western Isles. He first landed on the
island of Colonsay and ascended the highest ground, when, finding
he could see the coast of Ireland from it, he dared not remain there;
and a cairn called Cairn Cul ri Erin marks the spot. Proceeding
farther east, he landed on the south end of the island of Iona; and,
ascending the nearest elevation, where a cairn, also called Cairn Cul
ri Erin marks the spot, he found that Ireland was no longer in sight;
upon which he remained there, and founded his church on the
island. Such is the popular account of Columba’s mission.
That he may have in some degree, either directly or indirectly,
been the cause of the battle of Culdremhne is not inconsistent with
the narrative of Adamnan. He not only twice mentions the battle of
Culdremhne, and on both occasions in connection with the date of
Columba’s departure for Scotland,[162] but he gives some
countenance to the tale when he tells us that Columba had been on
one occasion excommunicated by a synod held at Taillte in Meath;
but that when he came to this meeting, convened against him, St.
Brendan of Birr, when he saw him approaching in the distance,
quickly rose, and with head bowed down reverently kissed him; and
when reproached by some of the seniors in the assembly for saluting
an excommunicated person, he narrated that he had seen certain
manifestations connected with his appearance, which convinced him
that he was ‘foreordained by God to be the leader of his people to
life. When he said this, they desisted, and so far from daring to hold
the saint any longer excommunicated, they even treated him with the
greatest respect and reverence.’[163] Adamnan does not connect this
synod with the battle of Culdremhne, and only states that he had
been excommunicated ‘for some pardonable and very trifling
reasons, and indeed unjustly, as it afterwards appeared at the end’;
but it is quite possible that these reasons may have been an
imputation of responsibility for the blood shed at this battle. One of
the causes given for the battle—that of the judgment given against
Columba with regard to the transcript of the Book of Psalms—is,
however, inconsistent with the terms of affection and respect which
appear from Adamnan to have subsisted between Bishop Finnian
and Columba, and bears the stamp of spurious tradition;[164] but the
other cause, the violation of the protection of Columba, touched one
of the most cherished privileges of the Irish monastic church at the
time—the right of sanctuary; and it was not unnatural that Columba
should have deeply felt the necessity of vindicating it, and his tribe,
the Cinel Conaill, as well as the whole race of the northern Hy Neill,
should have considered their honour involved in resenting its
violation.
The remainder of the tale is clearly at utter variance with the
narrative of Adamnan. So far from the excommunication by the
Synod of Taillte being followed by a sentence of exile from Ireland,
he expressly tells us that it was not persisted in. He repeatedly
alludes to Columba’s great affection for Ireland, and the yearning of
his heart towards his early home; but not a word as to any prohibition
against returning thither, or that his exile was otherwise than
voluntary. He presents him to us as exercising a constant and
vigilant superintendence over his Irish monasteries, and as
repeatedly visiting Ireland, without a hint as to there being any
reason for his refraining from doing so.[165] We must therefore entirely
reject this part of the story. Adamnan had no idea that Columba was
actuated by any other motive than that of a desire to carry the gospel
to a pagan nation, when he attributes his pilgrimage to a love of
Christ.[166] The old Irish Life knows no other reason than that ‘his
native country was left by the illustrious saint and illustrious sage and
son, chosen of God, for the love and favour of Christ.’ The author of
the prophecy of Saint Berchan admits that he was responsible for
the battle of Culdremhne:—

With the youth himself was the cause of

The great slaughter of the battle of Culdremhne;
but assigns as one reason of his going, the subjection of the Dalriads
to the Picts:—

Woe to the Cruithnigh to whom he will go eastward;

He knew the thing that is,
Nor was it happy with him that an Erinach
Should be king in the east under the Cruithnigh.[167]

His real motives for undertaking this mission seem therefore to

have been partly religious and partly political. He was one of the
twelve apostles of Ireland who had emerged from the school of
Finnian of Clonard; and he no doubt shared the missionary spirit
which so deeply characterised the Monastic Church of Ireland at this
period. He was also closely connected, through his grandmother,
with the line of the Dalriadic kings, and, as an Irishman, must have
been interested in the maintenance of the Irish colony in the west of
Scotland. Separated from him by the Irish Channel was the great
pagan nation of the northern Picts, who, under a powerful king, had
just inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Scots of Dalriada, and
threatened their expulsion from the country; and, while his
missionary zeal impelled him to attempt the conversion of the Picts,
he must have felt that, if he succeeded in winning a pagan people to
the religion of Christ, he would at the same time rescue the Irish
colony of Dalriada from a great danger, and render them an
important service, by establishing peaceable relations between them
and their greatly more numerous and powerful neighbours, and
replacing them in the more secure possession of the western
districts they had colonised.

80. They appear to have excluded not only women but laymen
generally from the monasteries. Jonas tells us, in his Life of
Columbanus, who belongs to this order of saints, that Theodoric,
king of Burgundy, came to Luxeuil and demanded of Columbanus
why he did not allow all Christians to have access to the more secret
enclosures of the monastery; to which he replied that it was not the
custom to open the habitations of God’s servants to secular men and
strangers to religion, and that he had fit and proper places for the
purpose of receiving guests.—Vit. S. Col. cxviii.
81. Omnes presbyteri, diaconi, cantores, lectores, ceterique
gradus ecclesiastici monachicam per omnia cum ipso episcopo
regulam servent.—Vit. S. Cuthberti, c. xvi.
82. By the episcopal functions, as distinguished from diocesan
jurisdiction, are meant those ecclesiastical functions appropriated to
bishops in virtue of their orders, irrespective of any territorial
supervision, such as ordination, confirmation, and celebration of the
mass pontificali ritu.
83. The Bollandists take the same view, and quote the case of the
monastery of Fulda as an example. They say, ‘Presbyteriani obliti
distinctionis inter potestatem ordinis et jurisdictionis, dum abbatem
presbyterum vident primatem totius provinciæ cui et ipsi episcopi
subduntur, continuo eliminatam potestatem ordinis episcopalis
effinxere. Quasi vero, ut ratiocinationem exemplo illustremus,
Fuldenses monachi ad medium usque sæculum præterlapsum,
presbyterianismum sectati fuissent, habentes abbatem presbyterum,
jurisdictionem quasi episcopalem in vastum territorium exercentem,
qui unum ex subditis monachis habebat, episcopali charactere
insignitum, ad ea, quæ sunt pontificalis ordinis peragenda; qui rerum
status continuavit usque ad annum 1752, quo Benedictus XIV.
Fuldense territorium in episcopatum erexit bulla sua, data iii. Nonas
Octobris 1752. Erat igitur et Fuldæ ordo, ut Bedæ verbis utamur,
inusitatus; de quo tamen dicere licet, exceptionem firmare regulam,
nec quidquam decrescere dignitati et necessitati ordinis episcopalis,
si, propter speciales rerum et temporum circumstantias,
extraordinaria via, alicui presbytero amplior quædam jurisdictionis
potestas obtingat.’—Boll. A.SS., October, vol. viii. p. 165.
84. Eusebius bishop of Vercelli, and Augustine bishop of Hippo,
united with their clergy in adopting a strictly monastic life.
85. Habere autem solet ipsa insula rectorem semper abbatem
presbyterum, cujus juri et omnis provincia et ipsi etiam episcopi,
ordine inusitato, debeant esse subjecti.—Η. E., B. iii. c. iv.
86. Cujus monasterium in cunctis pene Septentrionalium
Scottorum et omnium Pictorum monasteriis non parvo tempore
arcem tenebat, regendisque eorum populis præerat.—Η. E., B. iii. c.
iii.
87. The following extracts from the Irish Annals will illustrate this:
—
624 S. Maodocc Epscop Ferna dec.
652 S. Dachua Luachra Abb. Ferna dec.
713 Cillene Epscop Abb. Ferna dec.
766 Aedgen Epscop agus Abb. Fobhair dec.
769 Forandan, Scribneoir agus Epscop Treoit dec.
791 Clothchu Epscop agus Angcoire Cluana Ioraird, Suibhne
Epscop Atha Truim decc.
88. The Monks of the West, by Montalembert, vol. i. pp. 452-460.
Dupuy, Histoire de Saint Martin, p. 50. His biographer, Sulpicius
Severus, says that he filled the high function of bishop without
abandoning the spirit and virtue of the monk.—C. 10.
89. Chron. Picts and Scots, p. 55.
90. Deinde beatus puer libertati restitutus S. Monenni disciplinis et
monitis in Rosnatensi monasterio quod alio nomine Alba vocatur.—In
Vit. S. Tighernac, Colgan, A.SS. p. 438.
Quos duos viros sanctus ac sapiens Nennio, qui Mancennus
dicitur, de Rosnacensi monasterio ... Post aliquot vero annos
Eugenius atque Tyghernachus cum præfati Manchenii ac fratrum
jussione et oratione ad Hiberniam navigauerunt.—In Vit. S. Eugenii,
ib.
91. Vade ad Britanniam at Rosnatum monasterium et esto humilis
discipulus Manceni magistri illius monasterii.—In Vit. S. Endei, ib.
92. Inter alias Dei famulas quædam Dei virgo, nomine Brignat cum
sancta virgine cohabitasse traditur: hujus enim futuræ sanctitatis
indicia considerans, eam in Britanniam insulam de Rostnatensi
monasterio, conversationis monasticæ regulas accepturam misisse
perhibetur.—Boll. A.SS. Julii, tom. ii. p. 294.
93. Cum eodem repatriante navigavit et in ejus sede quæ
Magnum vocatur Monasterium regulas et institutiones monasticæ
vitæ aliquot annis probus monachus didicit.—Colgan, A.SS. p. 438.
94. Modo factum est quod magister suus Mugentius nomine, que
in civitate quæ dicitur Candida liberales disciplinas eum docuerat.—
Colg. A.SS., p. 634.
 95. Liber Hymnorum, Part i. p. 97, with notes by the Rev. J. H.
Todd.
96. Tri cocait descipul la Manchan magister, hos omnes invoco.
97. Dupuy, Histoire de Saint Martin, pp. 215, 217. Haddan and
Stubbs’ Councils, vol. ii. pp. 86, 87, 91.
98. Gildas the historian is said in his Life to have gone to Ireland in
the reign of King Anmericus or Ainmire, ‘qui et ipse misit ad beatum
Gildam, rogans ut ad se veniret; promittens se ipsius doctrinis in
omnibus obediturum, si veniens ecclesiasticum ordinem in suo regno
restauraret; quia pœne Catholicam fidem in ipsa insula omnes
reliquerant.’—Colg. A.SS. p. 183.
Columbanus, who was alive and in Ireland at the time, refers to
him in his epistle to Pope Gregory, in these terms,—‘Cæterum de
episcopis illis quid judicas, interrogo, qui contra canones ordinantur,
id est, quæstu: simoniacos et Giltas auctor pestes scripsistis.’—Ep.
ad S. Greg. Pap. Migne, Patrologia, vol. 37, col. 262.
99. Cathmael was the baptismal name of Cadoc of Nantgarvan.
See Vita S. Cadoci in Lives of Cambro-British Saints, pp. 25-27.
100. Vita S. Finniani, apud Colgan, A.SS., p. 393.
101. Dr. Todd’s Life of Saint Patrick, p. 101.
102. Tandem Romam meditans, in Hiberniam reditum angelus
Domini suasit, ad fidem post B. Patrici obitum neglectam
restaurandam, etc.—Colgan, A.SS., p. 401. See also Dr. Todd’s
remarks upon this subject in his Life of Saint Patrick, p. 101.
103. Martyrology of Donegal, p. 335. A list of these twelve
apostles is given in the Life of St. Finnian.
104. The year is fixed by calculation from Adamnan’s data; see
Reeves’s Adamnan, ed. 1874, p. 225. The summary of Saint
Columba’s life in the introduction to this edition, and the notes, may
be consulted for all the events of Saint Columba’s life. The subject is
most exhaustively treated in Dr. Reeves’s great work.
105. See Dr. Reeves’s Note, p. 225. Adamnan alludes to his
having been under the care of Cruithnechan, a priest, in B. iii. c. 3.
106. Adamnan alludes to this, B. ii. c. 1.
107. Adamnan alludes to his being under Gemman, B. ii. c. 26;
see also Reeves’s Adamnan, p. 274.
 108. The story of how S. Columba obtained his priest’s orders
appears only in the Scholia or Annotations on the Feliré of Angus the
Culdee. It is thus translated by Dr. Todd:—‘Bishop Etchen is
venerated in Cluainfota-Boetain in Fera-Bile in the south of Meath,
and it was to him Columcille went to have the order of a bishop
conferred upon him. Columcille sat under the tree which is on the
west side of the church, and asked where the cleric was; “There he
is,” said a certain man, “in the field where they are ploughing below.”
“I think,” said Columcille, “that it is not meet for us that a ploughman
should confer orders on us; but let us test him.”... Then Columcille
went up to the cleric, after having thus tested him, and told him what
he came for. “It shall be done,” said the cleric. The order of a priest
was then conferred upon Columcille, although it was the order of a
bishop he wished to have conferred upon him,’ etc. Dr. Todd’s Life of
Saint Patrick, p. 71. This tale does not appear in the old Irish Life,
and is probably a mere attempt to explain why so great a saint was
merely a presbyter; but his master, Finnian of Clonard, was a
presbyter-abbot, and his disciples would naturally follow his example
in what indeed was the main characteristic of this second order of
the saints.
109. Monasterium nobile in Hibernia, quod a copia roborum
Dearmach lingua Scottorum, hoc est, campus roborum
cognominatur.—B. iii. c. 10. It is termed by Adamnan ‘Roboreti
Campus. Roboris Campus. Roboreus Campus.’
110. See Dr. Reeves’s Adamnan, ed. 1874, p. xlix., for a complete
list of his Irish foundations.
111. Constituitque magnum monasterium, quod vocatur Bennchor,
in regione, quæ dicitur Altitudo Ultorum (Ards) juxta mare orientale;
et maxima multitudo monachorum illuc venit ad S. Comgallum ut non
potuissent esse in uno loco, et inde plurimas cellas et multa
monasteria non solum in regione Ultorum sed per alias Hiberniæ
provincias; et in diversis cellis et monasteriis tria millia monachorum
sub cura sancti patris Comgelli erant; sed maior et nominatior
cæteris locis prædictum monasterium Benchor est.—Boll. A.SS. in
Vit. S. Comgalli, cap. 13.
112. Ipsum quoque locum Benchor tradidit ei princeps, ut
ædificaret ibi monasterium, vel potius reædificaret. Nempe
nobilissimum extiterat ante sub primo patre Congello, multa millia
monachorum generans, multorum monasteriorum caput. Locus vere
sanctus fœcundusque sanctorum, copiosissime fructificans Deo, ita
ut unus ex filiis sanctæ illius congregationis, nomine Luanus, centum
solus monasteriorum fundator extitisse feratur. Hiberniam
Scotiamque repleverunt genimina ejus. Nec modo in præfatas, sed
in exteras etiam regiones, quasi inundatione facta, illa se sanctorum
examina effuderunt; e quibus ad has nostras Gallicanas partes
sanctus Columbanus ascendens Lexoviense construxit
monasterium, factus ibi in gentem magnam. Hæc de antiqua dicta
sint Benchorensis monasterii gloria.—Vit. S. Malachiæ, cap. 5.
113. xl. mili manach co rath De fo mam Chomgaill Benchuir, hos
omnes invoco.
114. Martyr. Donegal, p. 177.
115. Aper statim in conspectu viri Dei virgas et fenum ad materiem
cellæ construendæ dentibus suis fortiter abscidit.—Colgan, A.SS., p.
458.
116. Boll. A.SS., Jun. 1, 316.
117. Ecclesia in monasterio sanctæ Monennæ cum supradicta
abbatissa construitur tabulis dedolatis, juxta morem Scotticarum
gentium, eo quod macerias Scotti non solent facere, nec factas
habere.—Vit. S. Mon.
118. Durthech .i. dairtech .i. tech darach no deirthech .i. tech .i.
telgter dera. ‘Durthech, i.e. dairtech, i.e. a house of oak, or deirtech,
i.e. a house in which tears are shed.’—Petrie’s Round Towers, p.
342.
119. Dr. Petrie has made the history and use of these buildings
perfectly plain in his great work on the Round Towers of Ireland.
120. It is thus explained in the old glossaries:—Daimliag .i. tegais
cloch. ‘Daimliag, i.e. an edifice of stone.’—Petrie’s Round Towers,
pp. 141, 142.
121. Petrie’s Round Towers, pp. 343, 344.
122. In Cormac’s Glossary it is thus explained:—Aurdom, i.e.
urdom, i.e. side house, or against a house externally.
123. See Petrie’s Round Towers, pp. 425, 426.
124. Ib., p. 442. See description of Inis macsaint, an island in
Lough Erne, where Saint Ninnidh, one of the twelve apostles of
Ireland, founded a monastery. ‘To the west and north of the church
extend mounds of earth, which indicate the forms and positions of
the ancient community dwellings. There was a rampart of mixed
earth and stones, and this probably formed a rath, or cashel.’—
O’Hanlon’s Lives of the Saints, vol. i. p. 322. The following is a good
description of a small monastery:—Erat enim habitatio eorum
sparsa. Tamen unanimiter illorum conversatio in spe, fide et charitate
fundata erat. Una refectio, ad opus Dei perficiendum una ecclesia
est. Nihil aliud cibi ministrabatur illis, nisi poma et nuces atque
radices et cetera genera herbarum. Fratres, post completorium, in
singulis cellulis usque ad gallorum cantus seu campanæ pulsum
pernoctabant.—Acta S. Brendani, p. 86.
125. This is stated in their acts. The Martyrology of Donegal has
under Enda, abbot of Ara, ‘Thrice fifty was his congregation;’ and
under Ruadhan, son of Ferghus, abbot of Lothra, ‘There were one
hundred and fifty in his congregation, and they used to obtain
sufficiency always without human labour to sustain them, by
continually praying to, and praising, the Lord of the elements.’—Mart.
Don., pp. 83, 103.
126. It is used by Tighernac in this sense. He has at 718, ‘Tonsura
corona super familiam Iae datur’ (Chron. Picts and Scots, p. 74);
while Bede in his account of the same event says, ‘Nec multo post illi
quoque qui insulam Hii incolebant monachi Scotticæ nationis, cum
his quæ sibi erant subdita monasteriis, ad ritum paschæ ac tonsuræ
canonicum Domino procurante perducti sunt.’—B. v. c. 22.
127. Mart. Donegal, p. 216. See also Adam. Vit. S. Col., B. iii. c. 4.
128. Auditoque ejus accessu, universi undique ab agellulis
monasterio vicinis cum his qui ibidem inventi sunt congregati, etc.—
Adam. Vit. S. Col., B. i. c. 3.
129. Ib. B. iii. c. 22.
130. Colgan, A.SS., p. 707.
131. Accepitque Sanctus Brendanus cum esset sacerdos habitum
monasticum sanctum. Et multi relinquentes sæculum hinc inde
venerunt ad eum et fecit eos Sanctus Brendanus monachos. Deinde
cellas et monasteria fundavit in sua propria regione et multa
monasteria et cellas per diversas regiones Hyberniæ fundavit in
quibus tria millia monachorum ut perhibetur a senioribus sub eo
erant.—Acta S. Brendani, p. 10.
132. Adam. Vit. Col., B. ii. c. 26.
133. Annals of the Four Masters, p. 193.
134. Petrie’s Antiquities of Tara Hill, pp. 125, 127.
135. Thus Bede, after narrating the foundation of Iona and
Dearmagh by Columba, adds—‘Ex quo utroque monasterio plurima
exinde monasteria per discipulos ejus et in Britannia et in Hibernia
propagata sunt: in quibus omnibus idem monasterium insulanum, in
quo ipse requiescit corpore, principatum teneret.’—B. iii. c. 4.
136. See the very able paper by Dr. Reeves on this subject in the
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. vi. p. 447.
137. Ancient Laws of Ireland, vol. iii. p. 75.
138. Ancient Laws of Ireland, vol. iii. p. 75. The translation of these
passages has been made a little more literal, but the meaning of the
last sentence is not very apparent.
139. Annoit—andoit .i. eclais do et in aile as cenn agas is tuiside;
that is, a church which precedes another is a head and is earlier—a
parent church.—O’Don. sup.
140. From Dalta, a pupil, a disciple.
141. Pairche, a parochia.—Cormac’s Glossary. Compairche is
conparochia.
142. Conchad went to Armagh, and Fland Feblae gave his Cell
(Cheill) to him, and he himself took the abbacy (Abbaith).—Book of
Armagh.
Deinde cellas et monasteria fundavit in sua propria regione.—Act.
S. Brendani, c. ii.
143. This expression is translated in the Ancient Laws ‘a pilgrim,’
but the pilgrim in the true sense of the term is expressed in Irish by
the word ‘ailithir.’ Deoraid, advena.—O’Don. sup.
144. Ancient Laws of Ireland, vol. iii. p. 79.
145. The explanation given in the commentary of this obscure
expression is, if ten sons are born after the first, then ‘to set aside
the three worst sons, and to cast lots between the seven best sons
to see which of them should be due to the church.’
146. Ancient Laws, vol. iii. pp. 39, 40, 41.
147. Ancient Laws, vol. iii. p. 31.