BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS

Aryan Rathod Notes

Religious Beliefs and Practices

A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs

The period under discussion is characterized by a diverse array of gods and goddesses represented in
both sculpture and texts. This reflects the ongoing and expanded worship of major deities such as
Vishnu, Shiva, and various goddesses, each depicted in multiple forms.

1.1 The Integration of Cults

Historians identify two main processes influencing these developments:

Dissemination of Brahmanical Ideas: This is illustrated by the creation and preservation of Puranic
texts in simple Sanskrit, aimed at making religious knowledge accessible to women and Shudras,
who were typically excluded from Vedic teachings.
Reworking of Beliefs: Brahmanas engaged in a dialogue with various social categories, integrating
and reshaping their beliefs and practices. This interaction between "great" Sanskritic Puranic
traditions and "little" local traditions was significant.

An example of this integration is found in Puri, Orissa, where by the twelfth century, the principal deity
Jagannatha (meaning "lord of the world") was recognized as a form of Vishnu. The representation of
Jagannatha differs from other depictions of Vishnu, showcasing local artistic traditions.

Similar integration is observed in goddess worship, where local deities, often represented as simple
stones, were incorporated into the Puranic framework, sometimes identified as the wives of major male
deities like Lakshmi (wife of Vishnu) or Parvati (wife of Shiva).

1.2 Difference and Conflict

Goddess worship often included Tantric practices, which were inclusive of both genders and disregarded
caste and class distinctions. These practices influenced Shaivism and Buddhism, particularly in eastern,
northern, and southern regions of the subcontinent.

Over the next millennium, these diverse beliefs and practices were categorized under Hinduism. The
contrast between Vedic and Puranic traditions is notable, as principal Vedic deities like Agni, Indra, and
Soma became less prominent, while Vishnu, Shiva, and goddesses gained visibility in Puranic texts.
Despite the differences, the Vedas maintained their status as authoritative texts.

Conflicts arose between proponents of the Vedic tradition, who criticized practices that extended
beyond regulated rituals, and those engaged in Tantric practices, who often dismissed Vedic authority.
Additionally, devotees frequently elevated their chosen deity, either Vishnu or Shiva, to a supreme status,
leading to tensions with other traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
Devotional Traditions

The traditions of devotion, or bhakti, must be understood within this complex context. Devotional worship
has a history spanning nearly a thousand years prior to this period, encompassing a range of practices
from routine temple worship to ecstatic adoration, where devotees experienced trance-like states.
Singing and chanting devotional compositions were integral to these worship practices, particularly
within the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.

Poems of Prayer and Early Traditions of Bhakti

Introduction to Bhakti Traditions

Bhakti traditions evolved as forms of worship led by poet-saints, creating communities of devotees.
These traditions recognized the role of Brahmanas as intermediaries but also included women and lower
castes, challenging orthodox Brahmanical norms. A key characteristic of bhakti was its diversity.

Classification of Bhakti Traditions

Historians categorize bhakti into two main types:

Saguna Bhakti: Worship of deities with attributes, such as Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi, often depicted in
anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna Bhakti: Worship of an abstract form of God, devoid of physical attributes.

The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

The Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) were pivotal in early bhakti movements
around the sixth century. They traveled and sang hymns in Tamil, praising their deities and identifying
shrines that later became significant pilgrimage sites. Their hymns became integral to temple rituals, and
images of these saints were worshipped.

Attitudes Towards Caste

Historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars protested against the caste system and Brahmanical
dominance. Their followers came from diverse backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, and even
"untouchable" castes. The significance of their compositions was highlighted by claims that they were as
important as the Vedas, with the Nalayira Divyaprabandham being referred to as the Tamil Veda.

Women Devotees in Bhakti

Women played a crucial role in bhakti traditions. Notable figures include:

Andal: A woman Alvar whose compositions express her love for Vishnu and are still sung today.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar: A devotee of Shiva who practiced extreme asceticism, her works are preserved
in the Nayanar tradition.

These women challenged patriarchal norms by renouncing social obligations without joining alternative
orders.

Relations with the State

During the early first millennium CE, Tamil Nadu saw the rise of chiefdoms and later states like the
Pallavas and Pandyas. While Buddhism and Jainism had earlier support, Tamil bhakti hymns often
opposed these religions, particularly in Nayanar compositions. This hostility may have stemmed from
competition for royal patronage.
The Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) notably supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions,
constructing temples and making land grants. They built magnificent Shiva temples, such as those at
Chidambaram and Thanjavur, and produced remarkable bronze sculptures of Shiva, inspired by the
visions of the Nayanars.
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants, and rulers sought their support. The
Chola kings claimed divine backing and enhanced their status by constructing temples adorned
with sculptures. They also organized Tamil Shaiva hymns into texts like the Tevaram and celebrated
the saints through processions during festivals

The Virashaiva Tradition and Religious Changes in India

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

The twelfth century marked the rise of the Virashaiva movement in Karnataka, initiated by
Basavanna (1106-68), a Brahmana minister in the Kalachuri court. His followers, known as Virashaivas
or Lingayats, continue to be a significant community today.
Lingayats worship Shiva in the form of a linga, often wearing a small linga in a silver case over their
left shoulder. The jangama, or wandering monks, are highly revered within this tradition. A core
belief of the Lingayats is that upon death, devotees unite with Shiva and do not return to the earthly
realm, leading them to forgo traditional funerary rites like cremation in favor of ceremonial burial.
The Lingayats actively challenged the caste system and the concept of "pollution" associated with
certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth, attracting followers from
marginalized communities within the Brahmanical social structure. Additionally, they promoted
practices such as post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage, which were typically disapproved
of in the Dharmashastras. Our understanding of this tradition is largely based on vachanas, or
sayings, written in Kannada by both men and women involved in the movement.

Religious Ferment in North India

During the same period, North India saw the worship of deities like Vishnu and Shiva in temples,
often funded by rulers. However, there is a lack of evidence for compositions similar to the Alvars
and Nayanars until the fourteenth century, raising questions about this disparity.
Historians suggest that the emergence of several Rajput states during this time played a role.
Brahmanas held significant positions within these states, performing various secular and ritual
functions, and there was little direct challenge to their authority.
Simultaneously, other religious leaders outside the orthodox Brahmanical framework began to gain
influence. These included the Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas, many of whom came from artisanal
backgrounds, such as weavers, who became increasingly important due to the rise of organized
craft production and urban centers, as well as long-distance trade with Central and West Asia.
 These new religious leaders often questioned the authority of the Vedas and communicated in
vernacular languages, which evolved over time into the languages spoken today. Despite their
popularity, they struggled to gain support from ruling elites.
The arrival of the Turks and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the thirteenth century
significantly altered the power dynamics, undermining many Rajput states and the Brahmanas
associated with them. This period also saw notable cultural and religious changes, with the arrival
of Sufis playing a crucial role in these developments.

Islamic Traditions in the Subcontinent

Historical Context

The subcontinent has a long history of interaction with neighboring regions, including Arab merchants
who frequented western ports and Central Asian settlers in the north-west. From the seventh century
onward, with the rise of Islam, these areas became integrated into the Islamic world.

Faiths of Rulers and Subjects

The significance of religious connections is often analyzed through the lens of ruling elites. In 711, Arab
general Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, incorporating it into the Caliphate. This was followed by the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Turks and Afghans in the thirteenth century, and later the Mughal
Empire in the sixteenth century. Islam became a recognized religion among rulers in various regions.

Muslim rulers were expected to be guided by the ulama to rule according to shari‘a.
The concept of zimmi emerged, referring to non-Muslims (like Jews and Christians) under Muslim
rule, who paid a tax (jizya) for protection.
This status was extended to Hindus as well, with rulers like the Mughals considering themselves
emperors of all peoples.

Rulers often adopted flexible policies towards their subjects, granting land endowments and tax
exemptions to various religious institutions, including those of Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, and
Jews. Notable Mughal rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb exemplified this approach.

The Popular Practice of Islam

The influence of Islam extended beyond the ruling class, permeating various social strata, including
peasants, artisans, and merchants. All Muslims accepted the five pillars of Islam, which include:

1. Shahada: Declaration of faith in one God, Allah, and Muhammad as His messenger.
2. Namaz/Salat: Offering prayers five times a day.
3. Zakat: Giving alms to the needy.
4. Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramzan.
5. Hajj: Performing pilgrimage to Mecca.

However, practices varied due to sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a) and local customs. For instance, the
Khojahs, a Shi‘a sect, created new communication methods through indigenous literary genres, such as
ginan, which were devotional poems sung in various regional languages. Similarly, Arab traders in Kerala
adopted local customs and languages.

Architectural Influences

The blend of universal Islamic faith with local traditions is evident in mosque architecture. While certain
features, like the orientation towards Mecca, are consistent, variations exist in roofs and building
materials, reflecting local influences.

Community Labels

The terms "Hindu" and "Muslim" were not always used to define religious communities. Historical studies
of Sanskrit texts from the eighth to fourteenth centuries reveal that the term "Muslim" was rarely
employed. Instead, people were often identified by their regional origins, such as Turushka for Turks and
Tajika for people from Tajikistan.

New migrants were sometimes referred to by terms associated with other groups, like Shakas for
Turks and Afghans.
The term mlechchha was used for migrant communities that did not conform to caste norms and
spoke non-Sanskrit languages.

These terms often carried derogatory connotations and did not distinctly categorize Muslims in
opposition to Hindus. The term "Hindu" itself was used in various contexts, not strictly as a religious
identifier

The Growth of Sufism

Introduction to Sufism

In the early centuries of Islam, a group known as sufis emerged, advocating for asceticism and mysticism
as a response to the increasing materialism of the Caliphate. They criticized the rigid interpretations of
the Qur’an and sunna by theologians, emphasizing personal experience and intense devotion to God.
Sufis viewed Prophet Muhammad as the ideal human and sought salvation through love and adherence
to his teachings.

Khanqahs and Silsilas

By the eleventh century, Sufism had developed into a structured movement with literature on Quranic
studies and practices. Sufis organized communities around hospices called khanqahs, led by a master
known as shaikh, pir, or murshid. These leaders enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed successors
(khalifa), establishing rules for spiritual conduct.

The term silsila means "chain," representing the spiritual lineage from the master to the disciple,
tracing back to Prophet Muhammad.
Rituals of initiation included oaths of allegiance, wearing patched garments, and shaving heads.
Upon a shaikh's death, their tomb (dargah) became a pilgrimage site, especially on their death
anniversary (urs), as followers sought blessings for material and spiritual benefits.
Outside the Khanqah

Some mystics rejected the khanqah system, adopting radical interpretations of Sufi ideals. They
practiced extreme asceticism and mendicancy, often referred to as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, and
Haidaris. These individuals were known as be-shari‘a, contrasting with ba-shari‘a sufis who adhered to
Islamic law.

The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

The Chishti order, which migrated to India in the late twelfth century, became the most influential Sufi
group due to their successful adaptation to local traditions.

Life in the Chishti Khanqah

The khanqah served as a social hub, exemplified by Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice in Ghiyaspur, near
Delhi. It included small rooms and a large hall (jama’at khana) for living and prayer. The Shaikh met
visitors in a small room on the roof, and the complex featured a boundary wall and an open kitchen
(langar) serving unasked-for charity.

Visitors included people from all walks of life, seeking discipleship, healing, and intercession from
the Shaikh.
Notable poets and historians, such as Amir Khusrau and Ziyauddin Barani, documented the Shaikh's
life and teachings.
Practices like bowing to the Shaikh and yogic exercises reflected the integration of local customs.

Chishti Devotionalism: Ziyarat and Qawwali

Pilgrimage (ziyarat) to the tombs of Sufi saints is a widespread practice, allowing devotees to seek
spiritual grace (barakat). The shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin, known as "Gharib Nawaz," is particularly
revered. The earliest references to his dargah date back to the fourteenth century, highlighting its
popularity due to the Shaikh's piety and royal patronage.

Notable visits included those by Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Akbar, who visited the shrine multiple
times for blessings and made generous offerings.
Music and dance, including qawwali, played a significant role in ziyarat, evoking divine ecstasy and
integrating indigenous devotional practices.

Sama‘, or mystical music, was essential to the Chishti tradition, facilitating a connection with God and
enhancing the spiritual experience of the devotees

Languages and Communication in Sufi Tradition

Adoption of Local Languages

The Chishtis were known for adopting local languages in their spiritual practices. In Delhi, members of
the Chishti silsila communicated in Hindavi, the vernacular language of the people. Notable Sufi figures,
such as Baba Farid, composed verses in local languages, which were later included in the Guru Granth
Sahib. Other Sufis created lengthy poems or masnavis that used human love as an allegory to express
divine love.

Examples of Poetic Compositions

One significant work is the prem-akhyan (love story) titled Padmavat, authored by Malik Muhammad
Jayasi. This narrative centers on the romance between Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor,
symbolizing the soul's journey towards the divine. Such poetic works were often recited in hospices
during sama‘ gatherings.

Dakhani Poetry in Bijapur

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a different genre of Sufi poetry emerged in Bijapur,
Karnataka. These were short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu, attributed to Chishti Sufis in the
region. It is believed that these poems were sung by women while performing daily household tasks, such
as grinding grain and spinning. Other forms of poetry included lullabies (lurinama) and wedding songs
(shadinama).

The Sufis in this area were likely influenced by the existing bhakti traditions, including the Kannada
vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants from Pandharpur. This cultural
exchange facilitated the gradual acceptance of Islam in the villages of the Deccan.

Sufis and Their Relationship with the State

Austerity and Political Engagement

While the Chishti tradition emphasized austerity and a degree of separation from worldly power, it did
not completely isolate itself from political authority. Sufis often accepted unsolicited donations and
grants from political elites. In return, Sultans established charitable trusts (auqaf) for hospices and
provided tax-free land (inam) to support these institutions.

Utilization of Donations

The Chishtis preferred to utilize donations immediately for essential needs such as food, clothing, living
quarters, and ritual necessities like sama‘, rather than accumulating wealth. This practice enhanced the
moral authority of the shaikhs, attracting followers from diverse backgrounds. Their piety, scholarship,
and perceived miraculous abilities contributed to their popularity among the masses, which kings sought
to secure.

Legitimacy and Authority

Kings needed to demonstrate their association with Sufis to gain legitimacy. During the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanate, the Turks resisted the ulama's push to impose shari‘a as state law due to the
anticipated opposition from their predominantly non-Muslim subjects. Instead, they sought the support of
Sufis, who derived their authority directly from God and were not reliant on jurists for shari‘a
interpretation.
Intercession and Tomb Proximity

Sufis were believed to have the ability to intercede with God to improve the material and spiritual
conditions of ordinary people. This belief led kings to desire their tombs to be located near Sufi shrines
and hospices, seeking blessings and favor.

Conflicts Between Sultans and Sufis

Despite their mutual benefits, conflicts occasionally arose between Sultans and Sufis. Both parties
expected certain rituals to be performed, such as prostration and the kissing of feet. Sufi shaikhs were
often addressed with grand titles, exemplified by the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya referring to him as
sultan-ul-mashaikh, meaning "Sultan among shaikhs

New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India

Introduction

This section explores the influence of poet-saints in Northern India, focusing on their dialogues with
emerging social situations, ideas, and institutions. Three prominent figures are highlighted: Kabir, Baba
Guru Nanak, and Mirabai.

Kabir: Weaving a Divine Fabric

Kabir (c. 14th-15th centuries) is a significant poet-saint whose life and works have been reconstructed
through various compositions and hagiographies. His verses are compiled in three main traditions:

Kabir Bijak: Preserved by the Kabirpanth sect in Varanasi and Uttar Pradesh.
Kabir Granthavali: Associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
Adi Granth Sahib: Contains many of his compositions.

These compilations emerged long after Kabir's death, with printed anthologies circulating by the 19th
century across regions like Bengal, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

Kabir's poems exist in various languages and dialects, including the sant bhasha of nirguna poets. His
unique style includes ulatbansi, where everyday meanings are inverted, reflecting the challenges of
articulating Ultimate Reality. His expressions, such as "the lotus which blooms without flower," illustrate
his mystical experiences.

Kabir drew from diverse traditions, incorporating Islamic terms like Allah and Khuda, as well as Vedantic
concepts such as alakh (the unseen) and nirakar (formless). His poems often present conflicting ideas,
using Islamic monotheism to critique Hindu idol worship while also embracing Sufi concepts of love and
remembrance.

Scholars debate the authenticity of verses attributed to Kabir, analyzing language and style to identify
his contributions. Regardless, Kabir remains a source of inspiration for those challenging established
religious and social norms. His legacy has been claimed by various groups, leading to discussions about
his religious identity, with hagiographies suggesting he was born a Hindu but raised by a Muslim family.
Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word

Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born into a Hindu merchant family in Punjab. He trained as an
accountant and studied Persian, but spent much of his life among Sufis and bhaktas. His teachings
advocate for nirguna bhakti, rejecting external religious practices such as sacrifices and idol
worship.
For Guru Nanak, the Divine (rab) is formless and genderless. He emphasized connecting with the
Divine through the repetition of the Divine Name, expressed in his hymns called "shabad." He
organized his followers into a community, establishing rules for congregational worship and
appointing a successor, Angad, to continue his teachings.
Although Guru Nanak did not intend to create a new religion, his followers eventually distinguished
themselves from Hindus and Muslims. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled Guru Nanak's hymns
and those of other poets in the Adi Granth Sahib, which later evolved into the Guru Granth Sahib
under Guru Gobind Singh, who also established the Khalsa Panth.

Mirabai: The Devotee Princess

Mirabai (c. 15th-16th centuries) is a renowned woman poet in the bhakti tradition. Her life is
reconstructed from bhajans that were orally transmitted. A Rajput princess from Merta, she defied
her marriage to a prince, choosing to devote herself to Krishna instead. Her refusal to conform to
traditional roles led her to escape her palace and live as a wandering saint.
Mirabai's songs express deep emotions and challenge societal norms, particularly regarding caste.
Although she did not establish a sect, her legacy continues to inspire many, especially among the
poor and low-caste communities in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions

Historians utilize various sources to reconstruct the histories of religious traditions, including
sculpture, architecture, and textual compositions. Understanding these sources requires knowledge
of the context in which they were created, as well as familiarity with different languages and styles.
Textual traditions vary widely, from the straightforward vachanas of Basavanna to the ornate Persian
of Mughal farmans. Each type of text demands specific analytical skills, highlighting the complexity
of religious histories and the diverse expressions of spirituality in Northern India.