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Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and

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Albanian j. agric. sci. 2018; (Special edition – Proceedings of ICOALS, 2018) Agricultural University of Tirana

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and

controlling factors
SULEJMAN SULÇE1*, EVAN RROCO1, JAMARBËR MALLTEZI1, SEIT SHALLARI1, ZAMIR LIBOHOVA2, SOKRAT
SINAJ3, NIKOLLA P. QAFOKU4
1
Agriculture University of Tirana, Kodër -Kamëz, Agronomy Building no 7, 1019 Tirana, Albania.
2
USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Center, 100 Centennial Mall North, Federal Building, Room 152. Lincoln, NE USA
68508.
3
Agroscope, Institute for Plant Production Sciences (IPS), Route de Duillier 50, P.O. Box 1012, 1260 Nyon, Switzerland.
4
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA

*Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Albania is a country rich in freshwater resources, both surface and ground waters, but the water quality has
deteriorated significantly over the last several decades. The objective of this paper is to present a general
overview of the issues related to the surface and ground water quality in Albania and discuss about sources and
controlling processes. The sources of metal and organic contaminants are: i.) Many oil industry severely
contaminated, abandoned or operating sites; ii.) Cr, Ni and Cu mines, mainly in the north; and iii.) Old
processing factories. The sources that contribute to the high concentrations of N and P are: i.) A growing
number of fertilizer and pesticide storage facilities (ten of them are considered “hot spots” and significant
sources of N and P); ii.) Other identified point sources, industrial or urban; and iii.) Urban liquid and solid
waste; the vast majority of residential areas with more than 5,000 inhabitants have no wastewater treatment
plants, and the waste waters are directly discharged into rivers or the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. It is estimated
that these sources supply up to 20% of the N and P transported to water collection basins. Another important
contributing factor to pollution of waters in Albania is erosion. The erosion rate, varying from 1 to 30 t ha-1 yr-1,
is the highest in the southeast Europe. The high erosion rates are mainly due to the lack of soil vegetative cover
and poor natural resources management practices. Especially over the last two decades, the soil vegetative cover
has been removed due to massive uncontrolled deforestation, mainly the result of lack of enforcing forest
protection laws and policies. In addition, abandoned agricultural lands and overgrazed pastures at higher
elevations have rare vegetation and the agricultural land-use management practices are outdated. In conclusion,
we propose that systematic research efforts should be conducted to: i.) Document all sources of water
contamination and types of organic and inorganic contaminants; ii.) Quantify amounts and fluxes of
contaminants from sources to surface and ground waters; and, iii.) Determine the best research based remedial
strategies to remove contaminants from waters and decrease risks to humans and wild life. In addition, adequate
rigorous and continuous monitoring to determine potential risks to aquatic ecosystems should be established and
implemented throughout the Albanian territory. Monitoring plans for integrated transboundary waters should be
regularly updated and a comprehensive database on water pollution should be created and maintained.
Keywords: Water quality; water pollution; surface water; groundwater; Albania; erosion; erosion rate.

1. Introduction

Albania is a rich country in freshwater resources, but the quality of this water has deteriorated significantly
especially over the last several decades. The factors that have caused this deterioration are numerous and of
different nature. Probably, the most important one is that there have been significant social changes in Albania in
recent years, such as the change of the political regime from a one party communist system to a democratic
system, and the severe downturn in economy prior to the fall of communism. Other important natural and

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 Sulçe et al., 2018

anthropogenic factors are climate, hydrology, vegetation coverage, land use, geology, and topographical
characteristics, which have contributed in different ways to the deterioration of the water quality in Albania.
In Albania, there are approximately 150 streams and rivers flowing from east to west, including relatively big
rivers such as Drini, Shkumbini, Devolli, Osumi, Semani, Vjosa, and Bistrica (Kabo, 1990) (Figure 1). The water
of the rivers is used in urban areas, agriculture, aquaculture, recreation, hydropower, and industry. The upper
reaches of major rivers flow through steep terrain contributing significantly to erosion in the eastern highland
areas and alluvium deposits in the western flat areas.
There are a number of deltas, lagoons and wetlands in western Albania, which are critical because of both their
tremendous biodiversity and their function as wildlife habitats. For this reason, the wetlands have both national
and international protection status. However, the transport of contaminants and colloids from the eastern part of
the country has deleteriously affected these transitional bodies of water at the interface of rivers and seas.
Pollution from mobile aqueous species of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) is one of the most pressing
environmental issues associated with degrading of the water quality because it often results in eutrophication
(Viličić et al., 2010). Nitrogen and P are mostly associated with agricultural activities and are considered
nonpoint source pollutants. However, they can have impacts similar to those of other soluble substances
transported with colloid and sediment particles from point source pollutions, which are monitored in specific
areas and are relatively easy to manage.
Ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-) are the main inorganic ionic species of N in aquatic systems
(Wetzel, 2001; Kopáèek et al., 2004; Rabalais, 2010). These inorganic N aqueous species are transported via
surface runoff and subsurface groundwater. In addition, dissolution of N-rich geological deposits, soil erosion,
and biological mineralization of organic matter contribute to increasing concentration of N aqueous species in
surface waters and groundwater.
Anthropogenic N and P can enter in ecosystems via point and nonpoint sources. Phosphorus is found in all soils
in different forms: soluble, adsorbed, precipitated, and organic (Frossard et al., 2000). The mechanisms involved
in soluble P transport include initial desorption or dissolution of P bound to soil particles, followed by transport
to streams or rivers (Haygarthand Jarvis, 1999). The inorganic P in surface waters is in the form of PO43-, HPO42-
and H2PO4- (Pierzinski et al., 2000).

Figure 1. Hydrologic map of Albania showing major rivers and permanent water monitoring stations
(represented by red squares and rectangles) (from Institute of Hydrometeorology, modified by Albanian
National Agency of Environment).

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 Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and controlling factors

Total concentrations of N > 50 mg NO3- N L-1 and P > 100 mg P L-1 may cause eutrophication. The main
anthropogenic sources of N and P are listed in Table 1 (Carpenter et al.,1998; Pierzinski et al., 2000; Howarth et
al., 2000; Smith, 2003;Galloway and Cowling, 2002).
As a candidate for the European Union (EU), Albania has redesigned the environmental protection laws. The
2011 environmental law and, especially, the standards for fresh waters are very similar to those of other EU
countries (Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EEC). The major goal is to attain the same water quality
indicators as EU by 2020 (Inter Sectorial Strategy for Environmental Protection, 2015-2020). However, major
challenges related to implementation and enforcement of the law still remain, and, unfortunately, water quality
issues do not currently constitute an emergency for the Albanian government.

Table 1. Major anthropogenic sources of inorganic N and P in aquatic ecosystems.

Point sources
 Liquid waste from cities near water flow (mainly rivers)
 Waste water from livestock and farming (cattle, pigs, and chickens)
 Industrial wastewater effluents
 Runoff and infiltration from waste disposal sites
 Runoff from operational mines, oilfields, and unsewered industrial sites
 Overflow from combined storm and sanitary sewers
Nonpoint sources
 Use of animal manure and inorganic N fertilizers and the subsequent runoff from agriculture
 Runoff from burned forests and grasslands
 Runoff from N-rich forests and grasslands
 Urban runoff from unsewered and sewered areas
 Septic leachate and runoff from failed septic systems
 Runoff from construction sites and abandoned mines
 N loadings to ground water and subsequently to receiving surface waters (rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal
zones)
 Emissions into the atmosphere of reduced (from volatilization of manure and fertilizers) and oxidized (from
combustion of fossil fuels) N compounds and the subsequent atmospheric (wet and dry) deposition over
surface waters
 Other activities that can mobilize nitrogen and phosphorus, such as wetland drainage

The objective of this paper is to present a general overview of surface and ground water quality in Albania and
analyze sources and related controlling processes. Specific objectives are to: (i) identify and assess contributions
of point and non-point sources to water pollution; (ii) determine the role of the transport of soluble and/or colloid
bound forms of contaminants (mainly macronutrients, such as N and P) in water pollution and quality; (iii) assess
the influence of macronutrients transported via streams and rivers on lagoon and coastal wetland ecosystems of
Albania; and (iv) identify adequate measures for the protection of these ecosystems.

2. General overview

2.1. Geology
Geology and parent material control to a considerable degree the physical and chemical properties of soils. The
adsorption and release of contaminants depend on the mineralogical composition of the parent material or rocks
from which the soil is formed. The geology of Albania is composed mainly of three rock formations: (i)
sedimentary rock in the south and western plains; (ii) conglomerates in central part of the country, and (iii)
magmatic rock in the east and north-east.
The major rock formations influencing the soil properties in the most important watersheds include: (i)
calcareous rock; (ii) ultra-basic and basic ophiolitic rocks (diabasic composition); (iii) flysch (including sand and
limestone); (iv) the Virgla Formation (limestone); and (v) sediment (“alluvions”).

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 Sulçe et al., 2018

There are no geological formations rich in N in Albania. However, in the south, phosphate minerals originating
from sedimentary rocks have a relatively high P concentration (up to 11% P in the apatite mineral). In the north-
central part of Albania, which is dominated by magmatic rocks, there are large areas with geochemically high
levels of potential contaminants such as Cu (>2000 mg/kg soils), Cr (>5000 mg kg-1 soil), and Ni (>8000 mg kg-1
soil), which serve as sources for these contaminants.

2.2 Physiographic Regions and Soils

One of the major factors determining physiographic divisions in Albania is the sharp orographic gradient that cuts
through diverse geology. This leads to a dense hydrographic network in which precipitation is quickly dispersed.
The major physiographic regions areshown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The main physiographic regions and stream network of Albania.

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 Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and controlling factors

According to the National Soil Classification System (NSCS), which is based on soil-forming factors (climate,
vegetation, geology, topography/relief) and physical and chemical soil properties, soils are divided into four
broad vertical regions (Veshi and Spaho, 1988). According to the FAO classification, there are six major soils
types/orders: (i) Cambisols (30.6%); (ii) Luvisols (25.3%);(iii) Regosols (13.2%); (iv) Phaeozems (10.5%);(v)
Leptosols (8.8%), and in the western coastal areas, (vi) Fluvisols (5.5%) (SSI, 2002, Figure 3).

Figure 3. Major soil types of Albania (from Soil Science Institute, 2002).
The Soil Science Institute of Albania conducted an assessment in 1988 of the potential capability and suitability
classes of soils (based on soil fertility indicators such as macronutrients and soil organic carbon) and grouped
soils into 10 major classes. The presence of macronutrients in arable lands (Table 2) indicates that soils are
moderately rich in N (63% of the total surface layer) and P (67%) and rich in potassium (K). The arable lands are
dominated by loamy soils (50%), followed by clayey soils (30%) and sandy soils (20%).

Table 2. Concentration of humus, N, P, and K in arable soil (Soils Science Institute, 1988).

No. Level Humus (%) Total-N Available-P Available-K

-1 -1
(g kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg-1)
Arable Range Arable Range Arable Range Arable Range
land land land land
(%) (%) (%) (%)
1 Low 44.6 <1.5 36.9 <1.0 33.0 <10 8.2 <80
2 Medium 45.6 1.5-3 41.9 1-1.5 41.6 10-20 43.7 80-
3 High 9.8 >3.0 21.2 >1.5 25.4 >20 48.1 150
>150

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 Sulçe et al., 2018

2.3. Land Use and Environment Impacts

Albania has a surface area of 2,874,800 hectares; 24.4% of the total surface area is agricultural land (699,500 ha);
36.9% is covered by forests (1,062,770 ha); 14.4% is used as pastures and meadows (414,517 ha); and 24.3% of
total area is comprised by urban areas, lakes, and reservoirs (699,013 ha).
Importantly, the land use in Albania has changed drastically since the beginning of 90’when the political regime
changed. Arable land has decreased by 34%, from 630,000 ha in the 1990to approximately 420,000 ha in 2012.
A large part of the remaining agricultural land, however, has been abandoned (approximately 15%) and thus has
become susceptible to significant and, in some areas, dramatic erosion.
Currently, the main crops grown in Albania are forage (approximately 40%), cereals (approximately 35%), and
fruit trees and vegetables (approximately 25%) (INSTAT, 2013). Before the 1990s, approximately 50% of all
agriculture land was used for grazing or was part of forests or wetlands. The rest almost 25% was cultivated with
cereals, 10% with forage crops, 7% with industrial crops and almost 8% with fruits and vegetables. Steep lands
(>15% slopes) once used for grazing and later cultivated, regardless of their poor fertility and limited economic
returns, are currently abandoned and prone to degradation and high rate and extent of erosion.
The root-cause for the environmental concerns associated with soils and land use in Albania, specifically with
regard to soluble and/or solid-phase associated forms of plant macronutrients (i.e., N and P) and their subsequent
transport from the upstream watersheds to coastal areas, can be related to: (i) severe erosion from steep sloping
areas that leads to the removal of solid-phase associated N and P via colloidal transport in surface waters, streams
and rivers, (ii)leaching and percolation of soluble forms of N and P via surface water and groundwater and their
subsequent transport to streams, rivers and lakes; (iii) increasing uncultivated fallow areas of abandoned
agricultural lands that significantly and/or dramatically contribute to surface runoff, erosion, and transport of N
and P to streams, and (iv) current cultivation and management practices (e.g. fertilization and irrigation)for forage
and cereals, e.g., alfalfa, maize and wheat are outdated and substantially contribute to the release of N and P into
the aqueous phase and subsequent removal.

2.4. Climate and Vegetation

The climate of Albania is Mediterranean on the coast (with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers), while it
becomes slightly more continental in the interior, with mild summers (owing to the high elevations) and cold
winters. The rainfall varies from 1300 mm/year in the south to 2000 mm/year in the north and increases from
west to east. Rainfall distribution during the year is irregular: 5-10% in summer, ~40% in winter and ~32% in
spring. High-intensity, short-duration rainfall events account for more than 15% of the total rainfall. The mean
winter temperature is about 7° C in the western coastal areas. The mean summer temperature is about 24 °C but
can reach 30° C in south (Albanian Academy of Sciences 1988).
The Albanian vegetation is different in the two climatic zones; in the western and southern part of the country the
vegetation is predominated by Mediterranean maquis, whereas in the eastern and northern part is characterized by
the presence of coniferous and beech forests. Due to the high elevation [almost 70% of the territory is more than
200 meters above sea level (asl), while the average altitude is about 708 m asl, or almost double the European
altitude] and relatively steep slopes, Albania has very diverse micro-zones with different climates, which enable a
rich biodiversity (Miho et al., 2013). The terrestrial ecosystems, in addition to the Mediterranean evergreen and
deciduous shrubs and pine forests, include alpine and sub-alpine pastures and meadows. Forests and pastures
cover approximately 36% and 15%, respectively, of the terrestrial ecosystem, and most of them are alpine or sub-
alpine in character.

2.5. Water Resources

The Albanian territory covers approximately 65% (43,905 km2) of the total watershed area of the rivers that
drains to the west coast (Cullaj et al., 2005), the rest 35% is part of the territory of Republic of Kosovo and
FYROM. The mean annual rate of discharge by all rivers in Albania combined is approximately1308 m3 s-1and
varies from 649 to 2164 m3 s-1 during the year. Rivers contribute to approximately 70% of the total water
discharge whereas groundwater contributes the remaining 30%. The annual groundwater volume is about 13,000

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 Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and controlling factors

m3 capita-1 year-1 (Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995). There are approximately 247 natural lakes throughout the
country, and most of them are karstic or glacial in origin andvery small (~1 ha).

2.6. Erosion
Soil colloids with substantial amounts of sorbed N, P, trace metals, and organic matter of different types, may be
transported to rivers, lakes and seas. Usually, the surface soil A and AB horizons, which are rich in
macronutrients and organic matter, are eroded the most. Erosion is influenced by several factors, such as climate,
rainfall intensity and distribution, geology, morphology, land cover, and slope characteristics (Wischmeier and
Smith, 1978; Nearing et al., 1999). The calculated slope length and LS factor derived from the NASA Shuttle
Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) elevation data (Jarvis et al., 2008) is as high as 160, especially for the hills
and foothills, mountains foothills, and mountains physiographic regions (Figure 4).This indicates a high potential
for soil loss through erosion. The long-term evidence on erosion rates during the last two decades in Albania is
based on limited surveys and is sporadic and fragmented (MOEF, 2012-2014). Erosion data from other sources
for the Mediterranean regions are often incomplete and contradictory. The lack of vegetative cover is identified
as one of the major drivers for the higher erosion rates (Kosmas et al., 1997).

Figure 4. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) LS factor for Albania calculated based on SRTM elevation
data (Grazhdani and Shumka 2007).
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 Sulçe et al., 2018

The erosion rates in Albania are expected to be much higher than in other European countries due to the higher
degree of deforestation, overgrazing, high-intensity use of biomass, and cultivation of steeply sloping areas. The
reported erosion rates in different studies conducted in Albania are inconsistent. On one hand, according to the
study by Grazhdani and Shumka (2007), the average erosion rate is greater than 10 t ha-1 y-1; in some areas in
south, the rate can reach 100 t ha-1y-1. On the other hand, as stated in the monitoring reports of the Albanian
Ministry of the Environment (MOEF, 2010-2012), the erosion rate in Albania varies from 3.6 t ha-1 y-1in pastures
to 18.3 t ha-1y-1in corn cultivated areas (AKM report, 2012). These rates are similar to those reported by Cerdan et
al.(2010), which were determined in experiments conducted in 81 sites (a total of 2741 plots) located in 19
European countries. It should be emphasized, however, that in areas prone to high erosion, as described by
Grazhdani and Shumka (2007), there was no vegetative cover for10 to 20% of the time during the year and the
intensity of rainfall was twice as high as that in the central part of the country.
Earlier studies have estimated the nutrient losses due to erosion in Albania to 100,000 t y-1 for N, 60,000 t y-1 for
P and 16,000 ty-1 for K (Kovaci et al., 1996). Other authors (Gjoka and Cara,1996) estimated that annual losses
are approximately 70,000 ty-1, 40,000 ty-1, and 6,400 ty-1 for N, P, and K, respectively. In a more recent study,
Binaj et al., (2014), found that the N and P losses were respectively around 40 000 and 24 000 tons. Although the
data provided by Binaj et al. (2014) were significantly smaller than those presented in previous studies, they also
stated that erosion is the main factor of soil degradation which contributes to the removal of substantial amounts
of plant macronutrients. Practically, 90% of the N added into arable lands with fertilizers is used to replace N
losses from erosion, whereas the amounts of P added with fertilizers are much lower than the losses through
erosion.

3. Status and characteristics of major water bodies

3.1 Nutrient load and sources and transportation of solids

Supplemental amounts of plant nutrients are usually added to soils through inorganic and organic (mainly animal
manure) fertilizers to achieve high yields for most of the crops. The rate of N and P fertilizers application in
Albania (122 and 66 kg ha-1y-1, respectively) is comparable to that of other European countries (INSTAT, 2013;
EUROSTAT, 2014). The rate of fertilizer application has changed over the last two decades. For example,
approximately 121 kg ha-1N, 21 kg ha-1P, and 1.5 kg ha-1of K (a total of 125.5 kg ha-1 N,P,K) was used in 2012,
as opposed to a total of 150.4 kg ha-1 in 1990 (INSTAT, 1990 and 2013). Of particular interest is the high ratio of
N: P (6:1), which affects water quality. The total amount of animal manure applied in arable land in 2012 was
about 6 million tons, or 8.9 t ha-1 y-1 (INSTAT, 2013). However, not all nutrients added into soils with organic
and inorganic fertilizers are taken up by crops. For example, it is estimated that only 40 to 60% of the amount of
N applied is taken up by crops, and this depends on the plant type, soil properties, management practices,
temperature and rainfall (Soil Science Institute, 1996).
Data from long-term experiments conducted in Albania in different soil types and under various management
practices showed that the nitrogen rate of uptake (NRU) by plants was, in average, not higher than 55% for
different crops. Thus, at least 45% (or more) of applied N is subject to leaching, volatilization, denitrification, and
sorption (when is applied as NH4+). Studies have shown that almost 10% of the applied N was found in the soil
after harvesting (Baumgärtel et al., 1989), most likely due to root exudation, which for wheat has been quantified
to be 29 kg ha-1 (Rroço and Mengel, 2000).
Long-term measurements of the amount of nutrients leached at the field and country scale are lacking in Albania
because of the difficulties associated with such large scale measurements (Sulce, 1996). In the regions around the
Mediterranean Sea, N leaching is in the range between 99 and 289 kg N ha-1 y-1 (Ramos et al., 2002; De Paz et
al., 2009), although other authors have reported moderate, such as 50 kg N ha-1 y-1, or even lower amounts
(Romic et al., 2003; Costandin et al., 2010; Sanchez-Martin et al., 2010). Recent preliminary data from a study
conducted in Albania showed that N leaching can reach 50 kg N ha-1 y-1 (Beqaj et al. 2016).
Phosphorus leaching and accumulation in the groundwater have rarely been considered important due to the
relatively low P mobility in soils. However, a few studies have shown an environmentally significant export of P
in some agricultural drainage (e.g., deep sandy soils, soils high in organic matter, and soils with high P
concentrations from long-term over-fertilization and/or excessive use of organic waste) (Sims et al., 1998). The
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 Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and controlling factors

amount of P leached from irrigated soils, mainly sandy soils, is reported to be approximately 2-3 kg ha-1
(Erickson et al., 2005; Sinaj et al., 2002), whereas it does not exceed 1 kg ha-1in soils with lower sand content
(Aronsson et al.,2011; Sinaj et al.,2002). Recent ongoing lysimeter studies in two Albanian soils with different
sand contents under irrigation showed P leaching of less than 0.1 kg ha-1year-1 (Rroço, 2016, personal
communication), demonstrating again low P mobility.
The release of P from soils to surface waters is controlled by a variety of factors, such as soil properties, crop
type, management practices, surface runoff, erosion, and preferential flow in the subsurface (McDowell et al.,
2001). In areas with soils that have been degraded as a result of significant erosion and/or poor management
practices, P removal via runoff is significant. Studies in Albania have shown that the <2m size fraction
separated from soils was the main sink of water-soluble P (as phosphate), and the P released and transported into
surrounding rivers and lakes increased significantly when soil aggregates became unstable (Sinaj et al., 1997).
The most common method of calculating the losses of nutrients via erosion is based on the amount of the soil
particles transported with surface waters and the average contents of nutrients in these particles; however, this
method provides only estimates of nutrient losses, which may or may not be accurate (Joneset al., 2003).
According to the World Bank estimates (WB, 2007) approximately 350,000 ha, or close to 60% of the
agricultural land in Albania are subject to significant erosion, with a loss of soil estimated at approximately 25
million t y-1. Studies conducted in recent years, have demonstrated that the annual amount of soil and nutrient
loss from the most important watersheds in Albania are considerable and highly variable (Table 3). Pano (2008)
reported that the rivers of Albania deposit, on average, approximately 53.2 × 106 t y-1into the sea.

Table 3.Hydrographic data (Kabo, 1990–91), average solids and nutrient values of the principal Albanian
rivers (AKM, 2010-2011; Abazi [Ishmi River], 2014 Malltezi and Sulce [Mati River], 2013-2014; Pano, 2008;
Cullaj et al., 2005).

Mean value Total solids Mean Mean

Length Drainage Average
River of sediments transported per NO3 PO43-
(km) basin (km2) flow (m3 s-1)
(g m-3) year (103 Mg y-1) (mg l-1) (µg l-1)
Drini 285 11756 352 1250 13860 0.95 17
Buna 1.5 5187 320 Nd Nd 0.77 32
Mati 115 2441 103 590 2020 1.21 114
Ishmi 74 673 20.9 3070 2020 20.4 1316
Erzeni 109 760 18.1 5640 3180 0.56 58
Shkumbini 181 2444 61.5 3040 5790 18.2 914
Devolli 196 3130 49.5 5580 8690 2.9 327
Osumi 161 2073 32.5 3510 3590 3.3 144
Semani 281 5649 95.7 2340 13200 14.6 1090
Vjosa 272 6706 195 1000 6710 0.41 27
The monitoring of the water quality of rivers in Albania is conducted by the National Environment Agency,
which has different stations located throughout Albania. Due to the limited amounts of NH4+and NO3- and very
large seasonal variations, nitrate concentrations are reported based on the annual average calculated from data
collected in multiple years. The water quality based on average concentrations of N (as nitrate) and P for the
Drini, Buna, Vjosa, Osum, Devolli, and Erzeni Rivers is classified in the classes I and II pursuant WFD, and poor
to bad for the Ishmi, Shkumbini, and Semani Rivers (classes III, IV,and V). Based on the EU guidelines (EU:
78/659/EEC & FWD, 2008) for water quality (limit of 50 mg l-1 for nitrates and 0.5 mg l-1 for orthophosphates),
only the Drini, Buna, and Vjosa Rivers are classified as “high-quality” waters.
The rivers with poor or bad water quality flow through major urban centers, that contribute even more to the
increase of the concentration of N and P through their wastewater releases. Various industries, untreated solid
urban waste and waste waters play a major role in deteriorating water quality. The Drini and Mati Rivers have
hydropower dams and reservoirs where solid and total suspended particles (TSS) are deposited, and hence, their

287
 Sulçe et al., 2018

downstream flows are cleaner. Meanwhile, the Devolli, Erzeni, and Ishmi Rivers flow, in large part, through
sandy soils that are easily erodible contributing to the poor water quality of these rivers.

3.2. Anthropogenic sources

Solid urban waste, wastewaters and land industrial discharges are a growing concern in Albania. There are
approximately 30 degraded industrial sites with high potential risk for pollution. These industries include oil,
metallurgy, metal processing, and mining for Cr, Ni, and Cu as well as enrichment factories and pesticide storage
units located throughout the country. Ten of the sites are considered “hot spots.” These sources contaminate
waters with trace metal elements and pesticides with high toxicity as persistent organic polyphenols (POPs), Hg,
Cr, and other heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Ni, and Pb). Wastewaters are major contributors to nutrient leaching. To
date, there are six wastewater treatment plants operating in the country, namely in Vlorë, Korcë, Pogradec,
Sarandë, Kavajë, and Shirokë. In addition, there is currently a plan to build wastewater treatment plants in all
other major urban centers in the country that currently discharge their wastewaters directly into the rivers.
Effluent discharges have the potential to significantly alter many different aspects of aquatic systems, including
nutrient uptake efficiency (Haggard et al., 2001; Marti et al., 2004), organic carbon content (McConnell, 1980),
and bacterial levels (Petersen et al., 2005). The contamination of rivers is directly linked to human activities,
including the discharge of domestic and industrial waste water (Richard et al., 2009). Albania has only recently
been building adequate wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) for the major cities. Although approximately 55%
of the Albanian population lives in urban areas, only approximately 20% lives in major cities being served by
WWTPs (Figure 5).

Figure 5. The watershed most impacted by direct wastewater discharge (from Abazi, 2003).
In general, streams in agricultural areas are polluted predominantly by nonpoint sources of nutrients (Carpenter et
al., 1998). In urban areas, in particular, point sources of pollution, such as municipal and industrial wastewaters,
contribute significant nutrient loads (Haggard et al., 2005).
Table 4 provides estimates of N and P concentrations in the main rivers in Albania, based on the average N and P
concentrations in wastewaters, (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003). In the central part of the country, the Ishmi River
watershed includes the City of Tirana and its suburbs wiith a population of approximately 1 million inhabitants,
which is the major contributor to N and P pollution, with 876 and 153 tons per year, respectively. These data are
also suggested by previous surveys. According to Abazi (2003), for example, the point sources generally account
for 80% of nutrient inputs to the Ishmi River in central Albania, where population density is higher. The point
sources account for 10%, 15%, and 23% of N and P inputs in other rivers such as Buna, Semani, and Shkumbini.

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The contribution of nonpoint and point sources varies according to the size of the watershed, population, and
agricultural activities. Not well documented point source pollution areas are also very important in Albania due to
the fact that housing units have been illegally built in agricultural lands. Official municipality data indicate that
approximately 480,000 private housing units have been built outside urban or rural areas. Because these units
have no or failing septic systems, they all serve as important sources of N and P. Their contributions, however,
remain unquantified or unaccounted for. In a study conducted in Devolli River, samples were taken before and
after the irrigation season at three different points of the river to assess the impact of a population of almost
22,000 and that of the agricultural activities conducted at the area (Beqaj et al., 2015). The results indicated a
clear increase in the N and P concentrations in the river water as it flowed through the populated area clearly
demonstrating the deteriorating impact of human activity although the concentrations of both N and P were still
low enough that the water could be used for irrigation (Beqaj et al., 2015).

Table 4. The average total concentrations of N and P of the typical composition of untreated domestic waste
water and respective inhabitants for each watershed that discharges waste water directly into a river.

Average Dissolved Inorganic Average Phosphorus Total N Total P

Watersheds Population
Nitrogen (total N) (total P) (t y-1) (t y-1)
Ishem 1000000 40* 7* 876 153
Seman 220000 40 7 192 33
Vjose 45500 40 7 39 6
Buna 272000 40 7 238 41
Shkumbin 188000 40 7 164 28
Total 1511 264

* The values are the typical composition of untreated wastewater in Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse,
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 4th ed., revised by George Tchobanoglous et al., 2003)

PA

Figure 6. The most important lagoons and lakes of Albania (from Shallari, 2013)

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3.3. Lagoon characteristics

A large portion of soil particles, especially suspended solids and colloids, have been and still are deposited in
transitional waters (wetlands and lagoons) (Figure 6). The mountainous and hilly areas of Albania to the east and
the relatively flat areas to the west resemble a natural amphitheater. The western parts of Albania have very high
values of the topographic wetness index (Beven and Kirkby, 1979) indicating areas of accumulating water, while
the eastern part has low values indicating areas of water runoff due to steep slopes (Figure 7).
The lagoons in the western part of the country are located near the river deltas (Butrinti Lagoon is near the Pavllo
River; Narta Lagoon is near the Vjosa River; Karavsta Lagoon is near the Shkumbini River delta in the north and
Semani River delta in the south; Patok Lagoon is near the Mati River delta in the north and Ishmi River delta in
the south; Kune-Vain Lagoon is near the Drini River delta in the north and Mati River delta in the south).
Currently, the rivers have deviated from lagoons either naturally (e.g., the Vjosa, Shkumbini, and Semani
Rivers), or because of the construction of hydropower plants, which trapped sediment (the Drini Rover),or other
land reclamation activities. The soil particles deposited in the lagoons are similar to the suspended colloids
carried out by rivers (Pano, 2008). The solids of organic origin are subject to biochemical changes, including
mineralization and the release of high amounts of soluble N and P in the water column (Jonsson, 1997; Selig,
2003) which then increases the risk of eutrophication.

Figure 7. Topographic wetness index showing high values for the wet areas to the west, where the majority of
wetlands and lagoons are located.
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 Water quality in Albania: An overview of sources of contamination and controlling factors

The data included in Table 5 shows that the four lagoons that were subject of recent studies have soluble N and P
at levels that are moderate and comparable with other Mediterranean lagoons. The status of the Butrint and Narta
Lagoons is mainly oligotrophic most of the year, and that of the Patok and Narta Lagoons is transitory.
Lagoons, together with wetlands, are part of coastal areas and important for the economy and tourism industry.
They serve as a buffer zone between the sea and the agricultural areas. One of the most important, although
“invisible,” functions of lagoons and wetlands is the biological filtering of nutrients and heavy metal overloads
through the vegetation.

Table 5. Data on nutrients, chlorophyll and trophic states for transitional waters.
Transitional Protection Surface Dissolved N Dissolved P Chlorophyll Status based References
waters (km2) (mol l-1) (mol l-1) (gram dm-3) on N and P
concentration
Sulce and
3.51±2.7 0.055±0.04 1.8±0.47 Mostly
Butrinti a 16.0 Bani (2011)
(n=14) oligotrophic
Bino et al.
3.3±4.5 0.06±0.084 2.38±5.62 Mesotrophic-
Narta c 29.90 (2004),
oligotrophic
(n=7) Cako et al.
(2014)
Oligotrophic Babani et
4.8±6.6 0,079±0.03 0.33±0.35
Karavasta a 43.3 – mesotrophic al. (2012)
(n=9)
Avdolli
Mostly (2012),
Patok b, c 7.10 2.4 ± 7.7 0.043±0.09 2.1 -9.6
mesotrophic KociKalfa
(n=18)
et al.
(2014)
Koci Kalfa
Kune Vain b, c 11.45 6.4±2.2 0.088±0.06 4.3±3.6 Mostly et al.
Lagoons (n=12) 2 mesotrophic- (2014),
Kokali
(2014)

The protection actions are classified as a = Ramsar site; b = Nature 2000 site; c = Local protection plans
(classification by Barbone et al., 2012).
The protection status of the lagoons is based on their international, national, or local importance. For example,
the Butrinti and Karavasta Lagoons have the highest status (category “a” or Ramsar site), while the Patok and
Narta Lagoons have a lower status. The status is also related to the pressure exercised on the lagoons and their
surroundings by different natural and anthropogenic factors. The overall pressure varies according to the different
functions and activities of a lagoon (Table 6).

Table 6. The pressure evaluation on the list of the transitional water ecosystems considered. The intensity of
every pressure type was evaluated using a scale of values ranging from 0 to 4 (0 = absent; 1 = very low; 2 =
low; 3 = moderate; and 4 = high) according to an expert evaluation based on existing knowledge as reported in
a TW Reference Net report. A = organic load; B = nutrient load; C = hazard substances; D = fishing; E = alien
species; F = navigation; G = physical modification; H = average pressure; Ia = net pressure. The data and
evaluation in this table are from Barbone et al. (2012), except for the data and evaluation of the Butrinti and
Kune Vain Lagoons.
Lagoons Pressures References

A B C D E F G H Ia

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 Sulçe et al., 2018

Bino et al. (2004),

Butrinti 2 2 - 4 1 - 2 1.4 1.1
Bego et al. (2009),
Sulce and Bani
(2011)
Cullaj et al. (2005),
Narta 2 2 - 3 - - 4 2.7 2.6 Xhullaj and Miho
(2008), Cako et al.
(2014)
Cullaj et al. (2005),
Karavasta 1 1 - 4 1 1 3 1.8 1.4 Xhullaj and Miho
(2008), Bani (2014)
Cullaj et al. (2005),
Patok - - - 2 1 - 1 1.3 1.0 Xhullaj and Miho
(2008), Avdolli
(2012)
KociKalfa et al.
Kune Vain - - - 3 2 - 1 3.0 2.8
(2014)
The Butrint and Patok Lagoons have an overall pressure close to 1, which is considered low, whereas Karavsta
has a pressure level close to 1.4, which is mainly caused by physical modifications of the lagoon and other factors
in the surrounding area, such as the contributions from deltas of the Shkumbini and Seman Rivers. The Narta
Lagoon has a higher pressure level than other lagoons due to the physical influences and presence of hazardous
chemical substances in the vicinity (industrial “hot spots”).

4. Conclusions

 Surface waters in Albania are heavily influenced by N and P through nonpoint and point source pollution.
Rivers transport considerable amounts of macronutrients that impact water quality. The Semani, Shkumbini,
and Ishem Rivers are the most polluted with macronutrients and are classified as category IV or V. These
rivers flow through the central regions of Albania, where agricultural activities and untreated waste water
from urban areas increase considerably the concentration of macronutrients and the microbial activity.
Similar patterns of deterioration of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of the waters lagoons and
on the seashore are also observed. Their waters show a clear tendency toward degradation, and their
functions are restricted due to direct human pressure. The lagoons considered in this study are characterized
as having:(i) oligotrophic water quality and low human pressure (Butrinti Lagoon); (ii) oligotrophic-
mesotrophic water quality and medium human pressure (Karavasta Lagoon);(iii) mesotrophic-oligotrophic
water quality and high human pressure (Narta Lagoon); and (iv) mostly mesotrophic water quality and very
high human pressure (Patok and Kune-Vain Lagoons). The lagoons with high human pressure risk the
deterioration of their trophic status. In addition, the quality of coastal waters is deteriorated, especially in
estuaries and in the waters connected with lagoons.
 In Albania, the amount of N and P transported through rivers to the sea is very high. Apart from serious
economic loss, erosion causes pollution of surface and transitional waters and, in particular, affects the
quality of surface water and drinking water by leading to reduced filtration or purification.
 The soil erosion rates in Albania are much higher than other countries in the region. There are two main
causes for these high rates: (i) lack of a vegetative cover and (ii) inappropriate natural resource management
practices. In the last two decades, vegetation in Albania has decreased drastically because of massive
deforestation, the result of lack of targeted policies and protection from illegal logging.
 Vegetation is highly degraded on abandoned land, while most pastures are overgrazed. Agricultural practices
are outdated and associated with the misuse of natural resources, particularlywater and soil. They have
resulted in groundwater pollution, especially with N.
 Pollution from identified sources, industrial or urban, contributes to the degradation of water quality in rivers
and lagoons. These pollution sources comprise up to 20% of the contribution of N and P to water collection
basins. For the vast majority of residential areas with more than 5,000 inhabitants, there are no wastewater

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treatment plants and wastewater is disposed directly into rivers or the sea. A lack of investment and
inappropriate policies have resulted in serious pollution problems and increased threats to all water bodies,
transitional waters, and coastal waters, including those with protective status.
 Short - and mid-term investments need to be focused on building wastewater treatment plants in urban
centers with populations greater than 10,000, especially those near coastal areas and major rivers. In addition,
watershed management plans and best management agricultural practices are some short-term measurements
that could reduce the negative impacts on water quality.
 A national monitoring network should be established, and adequate monitoring plans that identify pollutant
sources and quantitative transport of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems should be enacted. Monitoring plans
for integrated transboundary water, which are compiled pursuant to bilateral or multilateral agreements,
should be funded to establish a solid database for water pollution.

5. Acknowledgements

This study was funded by Agriculture University of Tirana, Albania.

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