European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

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European Journal of Integrative Medicine

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Research paper

Traditional medicinal plants used for treating emerging and re-emerging

viral diseases in northern Nigeria
Ibrahim Babangida Abubakar a, *, Sulaiman Sani Kankara b, Ibrahim Malami c,
Jamilu Bala Danjuma d, Yusuf Zaharadeen Muhammad e, Hafsat Yahaya c, Dharmendra Singh f,
Umar Jaji Usman a, Angela Nnenna Ukwuani-Kwaja a, Aliyu Muhammad g, Sanusi Jega Ahmed a,
Sulaimon Olayiwola Folami a, Mansurat Bolanle Falana e, Quadri Olaide Nurudeen e
a
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero PMB 1144, Kebbi State, Nigeria
b
Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, PMB 2218 Katsina State, Nigeria
c
Department of Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodio University Sokoto, Nigeria
d
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State, Nigeria
e
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria
f
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero PMB 1144, Kebbi State, Nigeria
g
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 810271, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Introduction: For decades, viral diseases have been treated using medicinal plants and herbal practices in the
Medicinal plants northern part of Nigeria. Though scarcely investigated, these medicinal plants could serve as potential sources for
COVID-19 novel antiviral drugs against emerging and remerging viral diseases. Therefore, this study is aimed at investi­
Meningitis
gating the medicinal practices and plants used to treat emerging and re-emerging viral diseases including hep­
Lassa fever
atitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19 in some northern
Virus, Nigeria
states; Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states.
Method: Administered questionnaires and oral interviews were used to collect information on medicinal plants,
method of preparation of herbal formulations, diagnosis, and treatment of viral diseases. Medicinal plants were
collected, botanically identified, and assigned voucher numbers. The plant names were verified using www.
theplantlist.org, www.worldfloraonline.org and the international plant names index.
Result: A total of 280 participating herbal medicine practitioners (HMPs) mentioned 131 plants belonging to 65
families. Plant parts such as roots, bark, leaf, seed, and fruit were prepared as a decoction, concoction, infusion,
or ointment for oral and topical treatment of viral diseases. Moringa oleifera (75.3%), Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
(80%), and Acacia nilotica (70%) were the most frequently mentioned plants in Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states,
respectively.
Conclusion: The study revealed scarcely investigated and uninvestigated medicinal plants used to treat hepatitis,
poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19. Future studies should
be conducted to determine the antiviral potency and isolate novel bioactive agents from these plants against viral
diseases.

1. Introduction lack of access to affordable healthcare, vaccination programs, and

apathy towards vaccination. Indeed, emerging viral diseases such as
Outbreaks of viral and infectious diseases have continuously affected COVID-19 pose serious health concerns to Nigeria and the global pop­
the global population causing a high rate of morbidity and mortality. In ulation. For instance, as of 27th June 2021, the Nigeria Center for Dis­
some instances, the high rate of morbidity and mortality occurs in ease Control (NCDC) reported a total of 167, 467 COVID-19 cases and
developing and underdeveloped countries. This can be attributed to a 2119 COVID-19 deaths in Nigeria [1]. Similarly, a total of 1031 Lassa

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (I.B. Abubakar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2021.102094
Received 17 September 2021; Received in revised form 22 November 2021; Accepted 25 November 2021
Available online 27 November 2021
1876-3820/© 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

fever cases with 214 deaths were recorded in 2020 [2]. Whereas, there 2.3. Frequency of citation
were 65 deaths and 110 confirmed cases of meningitis [3].
For decades, medicinal plants and herbal practices have been used to The frequency of citation (FC) for each plant was determined ac­
treat infectious and other non-infectious diseases through the traditional cording to the previously described protocol [9]. FC=NC/TI * 100.
practice of herbal medicine practitioners (HMPs) in Nigeria. In fact, Where NC is the total number of citations for each plant and TI is the
several studies have reported the ethnomedicinal application of plants in total number of informants.
treating diseases such as cancer, malaria, bacterial infections, etc. [4–7].
However, medicinal plants and practices used in treating viral diseases 2.4. Informant consensus factor
have been scarcely investigated especially in the northern part of
Nigeria. Hence, an ethnopharmacological study could reveal unin­ The informant consensus factor (ICF) was determined according to
vestigated plants from the northern part of Nigeria that could serve as the previously described protocol [10]. ICF=Nur-Nt/Nur-1. Where Nur
sources of novel antiviral drugs. Besides, natural products and natural is the reported number of taxa usage for a disease category whereas, Nt
products mimic and constitute a lot of drugs used or being investigated is the total number of taxa used for the disease category. This determines
in clinical trials [8]. the similarity in terms of medicinal plants used to treat any disease
Therefore, the present study was aimed at investigating and doc­ category by the herbal practitioners. An ICF value close to 1 or 0 is
umenting the herbal practices and medicinal plants used for treating indicative of the agreement or random choice of medicinal plants used to
emerging and re-emerging viral diseases including hepatitis, poliomy­ treat a disease category by traditional medicine practitioners,
elitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and respectively.
COVID-19 in some northern Nigerian states; Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and
Sokoto. The selection of the three northwestern states of Kebbi, Katsina,
3. Results
and Sokoto was strategic considering the strong skepticism towards
vaccination as evident during the polio vaccination and thus residents
3.1. Demographic profile and citation frequency of plants
would seek alternative medicine that would include herbal medicine for
treatment. Undoubtedly, the present study would be of interest to
A total of 208 herbal medicine practitioners across Katsina (50),
phytochemists, pharmacologists, and virologists and could contribute
Kebbi (73), Kwara (35), and Sokoto (50) states responded to the ques­
immensely towards the potential discovery of novel antiviral agents
tionnaires and oral interviews. Demographic data showed that 50% of
against viral diseases.
HMPs were women in Kwara state in contrast to 12%, 22%, and 12.4%
in Sokoto, Katsina, and Kebbi State, respectively (Table 1). An analysis
2. Methods
of the age distribution showed that 60%, 70%, 57.6%, and 20.4% of
HMPs in Sokoto, Katsina, Kebbi, and Kwara States, respectively were
2.1. Ethnobotanical survey
within the age range of 41 years and above. Medicinal plants used for
treating various viral diseases are listed in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 for
A structured questionnaire along with an oral interview was
Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara, and Sokoto states, respectively. The HMPs across
administered to willing and consented traditional medicine practitioners
all the states learned their trade mainly through inheritance or
to previously described protocols [9]. Ethical approval was granted by
apprenticeship. A total of 131 medicinal plants belonging to 65 families
Kebbi State University of Science and Technology
were identified across these states that are used for treating hepatitis,
(KSUSTA/FLS/UREC/20–02) and thereafter, leading herbal practi­
meningitis, yellow fever, Lassa fever, COVID-19, smallpox, and mon­
tioners in the study areas were contacted to provide links and contact of
keypox. A total of 10, 29, 44, and 18 plants were exclusively identified in
other known herbal practitioners. Oral consent was obtained from
Katsina (Table 2), Kebbi (Table 3), Kwara (Table 4), and Sokoto
willing herbalists who provided information relating to traditional me­
(Table 5) states. Whereas, a total of 41 medicinal plants were identified
dicinal practices against viral diseases including hepatitis, smallpox,
in two or more states. The plants Azadirachta indica A.Juss, Eucalyptus
monkeypox, COVID-19, meningitis, yellow fever, and Lassa fever.
globulus Labill, and Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry were the
The study was conducted in the three northwestern states namely
most frequently mentioned plants in Katsina state, each with a citation
Katsina (12.37970 N, 7.63060 E), Kebbi (11.49420 N, 4.333◦ E), Sokoto
frequency of 30% (Table 2). In Kebbi state, Moringa oleifera Lam.
(13.0533◦ N, 5.3223◦ E), and Kwara State located in the Northcentral
(75.3%) Mangifera indica (71.2%), and A. indica (68.5%) were the most
part of Nigeria (8.9669◦ N, 4.3874◦ E). A total of 50 and 35 herbal
frequently cited medicinal plants (Table 3). Whereas, Elaeis guineensis
practitioners were interviewed in the Sokoto metropolis in Sokoto state
Jacq. (80%), Nymphaea lotus L. (57.1), Piper guineense Schumach.
and the Ilorin metropolis of Kwara state, respectively. Similarly, 50
&Thonn. (57.1%) and Euphorbia hirta (51.4%) were the most frequently
herbal practitioners were interviewed in the Katsina metropolis in Kat­
mentioned plants in Kwara state (Table 4). Similarly, Acacia nilotica (L.)
sina State. Whereas, a total of 73 herbal practitioners were interviewed
Delile (70%), Combretum micranthum G. Don. (60%) and Piliostigma
from the Yauri and Zuru emirates of Kebbi state. The survey was con­
reticulatum (DC.) Hochst. (58%) were the frequently mentioned plants in
ducted from January to May 2021. Accordingly, the Nigerian center for
disease control (NCDC), COVID-19 safety guidelines that included the
Table 1
use of face masks, hand sanitizers, and social distancing were strictly
Demographic profile of respondents.
observed.
s/no Data Sokoto Katsina Kebbi Kwara
1 Age (years%)
2.2. Plant collection and identification
18–30 10 12.4 55.8
31–40 40 20 30.0 23.5
All plants listed in the questionnaires were collected and botanically 41 and above 60 70 57.6 20.4
identified assigned voucher numbers and deposited at the herbarium of
Umaru Musa Yaradua University Katsina and Kebbi State University of 2 Educational status (%)
No formal education 24 84 68.5 17.6
Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria. Furthermore, the plant names Formal education 76 16 31.5 82.4
were authenticated using www.theplantlist.org, www.worldfloraonline.
com, and international plant names index. 3 Gender distribution (%)
Male 88 78 87.6 50
Female 12 22 12.4 50

2
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 2
Medicinal plants used for treating viral diseases in Katsina state.
Scientific name Family name Local name Common name Voucher CF Diseases Part used Mode of Route
number (%) treated Preparation
1 Acacia Senegal (L.) Wild Fabaceae Dakwara Gum Arabic tree UMYUH 12 Smallpox Leaves Decoction Oral
988
2 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Meliaceae Darbejiya Neem UMYUH 30 COVID-19 Leaves Concoction Steaming
712
3 Boscia salicifolia Oliv. Capparaceae Zure Willow leaved UMYUH 16 COVID-19 Leaves Decoction Oral
shepherd tree 707
4 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Gwanda Pawpaw UMYUH 16 Hepatitis Leaves Decoction Oral
2263
5 Cassia occidentalis L Fabaceae Tafasar masar Coffee senna UMYUH 16 Yellow fever Whole Decoction Oral
2242 plant
6 Cassia tora L Fabaceae Tafasa Sickle senna UMYUH 14 Yellow fever Whole Decoction Oral
763 plant
7 Centaurea praecox Oliv. & Compositae Dayi Thistle UMYUH 16 COVID-19 Whole Maceration Oral
Hiern 645 plant
8 Combretum micranthum G. Combretaceae Geza UMYUH 16 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Don 2217
9 Diospyros mespiliformis Ebenaceae Kanya Jackalberry UMYUH 14 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Hochst. ex A.DC. 124
10 Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae Turare Blue gum UMYUH 30 Yellow fever Leaves Concoction Steaming
666
11 Ficus polita Vahl Moraceae Durumi Heart leaved fig UMYUH 8 COVID-19 Leaves Decoction Steaming
1890
12 Ficus sycomorus L. Moraceae Baure Fig mullberry UMYUH 8 Yellow fever Leaves/ Decoction Oral
1830 bark
13 Guiera senegalensis J.F. Combretaceae Sabara UMYUH 49 18 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Gmel
14 Lepidium sativum L Brassicaceae Zamantarore Garden cress UMYUH 8 Meningitis Leaves Decoction Oral
2075
15 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Onagraceae Shashatau Mexican primose UMYUH 8 Meningitis Leaves Decoction Topical
P.H. Raven willow 2536
16 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Mangwaro Mango UMYUH 14 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
1921
17 Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Zogale Drumstick tree UMYUH 12 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
1858
18 Musa sapientum L. Musaceae Ayaba Banana UMYUH 10 Hepatitis Leaves Decoction Oral
2293
19 Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Fabaceae Dorawa African locus UMYUH 10 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Don bean 1274
20 Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthaceae Geron Stone breaker UMYUH 8 Hepatitis Leaves Decoction Oral
Schumach. & Thonn. tsuntsaye 2524
21 Piliostigma thonningii Fabaceae Kalgo Wild bauhinia UMYUH 27 12 Hepatitis Leaves Decoction Oral
(Schum.) Milne-Redh.
22 Piper guineense Schumach. Piperaceae Masoro Black pepper UMYUH 10 COVID-19 Seed Concoction Oral
& Thonn. 2507
23 Prosopis africana (Guill. & Fabaceae Kirya Iron tree UMYUH 63 18 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Perr.) Taub.
24 Sapium grahamii (Stapf) Euphorbiaceae Yazawa UMYUH 12 Yellow fever Bark Decoction Oral
Prain
25 Sclerocarya birrea (A. Anacardiaceae Danya Marula UMYUH 10 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Rich.) Hochst. 2256
26 Stereospermum kunthianum Bignoniaceae Sansami Tulip tree UMYUH 8 Yellow fever Leaves Decoction Oral
Cham. 675
27 Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Myrtaceae Kananfari Clove UMYUH 30 COVID-19 Seeds Decoction Oral
Merr. & L.M.Perry 681
28 Tephrosia linearis Fabaceae Tsintsiyar UMYUH 10 Smallpox Leaves Maceration Topical
mahalba 1880
29 Terminalia avicennioides Combretaceae Baushe UMYUH 16 Yellow fever Bark Decoction Oral
Guill. & Perr 669
30 Trianthema pentandra L. Aizoaceae Gadon Maciji UMYUH 10 Yellow fever Leaves Maceration Oral
1916

Sokoto state (Table 5). diagnosed by HMPs through detection of high body fever, persistent
headache, and stiffness of muscles. Poliomyelitis referred to as ‘ciwon
3.2. Diagnosis of viral diseases by HMPs shaninna’ is diagnosed by HMPs through high body fever, persistent
headache and stiffness of muscles. Other infectious diseases such as
The diagnosis of the viral diseases is similar for the northwestern monkeypox ‘kazuwa’ and smallpox ‘karin bau’ are diagnosed using the
states of Sokoto, Kebbi, and Katsina. Hepatitis is referred to as ‘ciwon same method by HMPs which include detection of high body fever, skin
anta’ and the majority of patients know through voluntary screening for rashes, and general body itches. COVID-19 is referred to as ‘Korona’ and
blood donations before approaching HMPs for treatment or through is diagnosed by HMPs through observation of high body fever, persistent
observation of yellowish eyes. Yellow fever is referred to as ‘shawara’ cough, and running nose. However, it is important to note that there
and is often diagnosed by the yellowish coloration of the eye, palms, and may be an incidence of misdiagnosis considering that COVID-19 infec­
swelling of the stomach. Meningitis is referred to as ‘sankarau’ and is tion is better confirmed through laboratory tests than simply relying on

3
 Table 3

I.B. Abubakar et al.

Medicinal plants used for treating viral diseases in Kebbi state.
s/no Plant name Family Local name Common Name Voucher no CF Disease treated Parts used Mode of preparation Route
(%)
1. Acacia nilotica (L.) Mimosaceae Bagaruwa Scented thorn Ksusta/psb/ 15.1 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Leaf/stem Decoction/ prepared with pap Orally
Delile h/voucher meningitis, smallpox,
no:284 poliomyelitis, COVID-19
2. Adansonia digitata L. Bombacaceae Kuka Baobab Ksusta/psb/ 38.4 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Stem bark Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: yellow fever, meningitis,
266 monkey pox, hepatitis
3. Aframomum melegueta Zingiberaceae Citta Alligator pepper/ Ksusta/psb/ 38.4 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Whole Decoction Orally
K. Schum. grains of paradise h/voucher no: COVID-19, poliomyelitis, plant
s.n yellow fever
4. Allium cepa Liliaceae Albasa Onion Ksusta/psb/ 12.3 Poliomyelitis meningitis, Bulb Poultice/ the bulb is cut into pieces Inhalation
h/voucher no: COVID-19 and added to a burning charcoal
s.n
5. Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Tafarnuwa garlic Ksusta/psb/ 36.9 Poliomyelitis, COVID-19, Whole Concoction/ crushed and mixed with Orally before
h/voucher no: monkey pox, meningitis, plant masoro the powder a half spoon of the breakfast
s.n hepatitis powder is added in raw milk and
6. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Liliaceae Aloe vera Aloe vera Ksusta/psb/ 1.36 Meningitis Whole Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: plant
356
7. Ananas comosus (L.) Bromeliaceae Abarba Pineapple Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Meningitis Bark peel Concoction/ boiled with banana Oral
Merr. h/voucher no:
s.n
8. Annona senegalensis Annonaceae Gwanda daji Wild custard apple Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Poliomyelitis Leaf and Concoction Orally
Pers. h/voucher no: stem
504
9. Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Marke African Birch Ksusta/psb/ 2.7 Monkey pox, poliomyelitis Stem bark Concoction/ boil with red potash and Orally
(DC.) Guill. & Perr. h/voucher no: the
4

s.n
10. Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Dogonyaro Neem Ksusta/psb/ 68.5 Smallpox, monkey pox, Leaf Decoction Orally
Juss. h/voucher no: COVID-19, poliomyelitis,
61 yellow fever, meningitis
11. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Balanitaceae Aduwa Desert date Ksusta/psb/ 41.1 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Stem bark Decoction Orally
Delile h/voucher no: meningitis, smallpox,
291 poliomyelitis
12. Boscia senegalensis Capparaceae Anza Aizen Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Monkey pox Root Ointment/ root powder is mixed with Topically
(Pers.) Lam. ex Pior. h/voucher no: salt and petroleum jelly (vasline)
s.n
13. Boswellia dalzielii Burseraceae Hanno Frankincense tree Ksusta/psb/ Poliomyelitis, smallpox Stem bark Decoction Orally
Hutch. h/voucher no:

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

s.n
14. Bridelia ferruginea Phyllanthaceae Kizni Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Poliomyelitis Leaf Decoction Orally
Benth h/voucher no:
s.n
15. Calotropis procera Apocynaceae Tunfafiya Sodom apple Ksusta/psb/ 17.8 Smallpox, COVID-19, leaf Concoction/ also mixed with Orally for one week
(Aiton) Dryand h/voucher no: monkey pox powdered stem bark of hanno and a portion of it is
s.n used in bathing.
16. Carica papaya L Caricaceae Gwanda Pawpaw Ksusta/psb/ 49.3 Hepatitis, meningitis, COVID- Leaf Concoction/ the leaf is mixed lemon Orally twice daily
h/voucher no: 19, poliomyelitis, smallpox, leaves, small portion of red potash and for ten days.
s.n yellow fever, monkey pox boil, concocted
17. Cassia occidentalis L Fabaceae Sanga sanga Coffee senna Ksusta/psb/ 41.1 Hepatitis, meningitis, COVID- Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: 19, yellow fever,
s.n poliomyelitis
18. Cassia singueana Delile Fabaceae Runhu Sticky pod Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Monkey pox Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no:
s.n
(continued on next page)
 Table 3 (continued )

I.B. Abubakar et al.

19. Cassia tora L Fabaceae Tafasa Sickle senna Ksusta/psb/ 4.1 Hepatitis, meningitis Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no:
s.n
20. Cissus populnea Guill. & Vitaceae Loda Ksusta/psb/ 8.2 Poliomyelitis, meningitis, Stem bark Decoction Orally
Perr. h/voucher no: monkey pox
307
21. Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae Lemun tsami Lemon Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Yellow fever, poliomyelitis Leaf Decoction Orally
(Christm.) Swingle h/voucher no:
285
22. Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae Kankana Water melon Ksusta/psb/ 20.5 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Seed Decoction Orally
(Thunb.) Matsum. & h/voucher no: COVID-19, yellow fever,
Nakai 285 a smallpox, poliomyelitis
23. Citrus sinensis Rutaceae Lemun zaki Orange Ksusta/psb/ 32.9 Hepatitis, COVID-19, yellow leaves Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: fever, poliomyelitis
284
24. Combretum glutinosum Combretaceae Tarauniya Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Meningitis Stem bark Decoction Orally
Perr. h/voucher no:
s.n
25. Combretum nigricans Combretaceae Tsiriri Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Hepatitis root Powder Orally
Lepr. Ex Guill. & Perr. h/voucher no:
s.n
26. Cucurbita maxima Cucurbitaceae Kabewa pumpkin Ksusta/psb/ 19.2 Monkey pox, smallpox Leaf and Decoction Orally
Duchesne h/voucher no: seed
s.n
27. Detarium senegalense J. Fabaceae Taura Tallow tree Ksusta/psb/ 10.9 Smallpox, yellow fever, Stem bark Decoction Orally
F. Gmel. h/voucher no: COVID-19, meningitis
s.n
28. Diospyros mespiliformis Ebenaceae Kanya Jackalberry Ksusta/psb/ 46.6 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Stem bark Concoction or powdered stem bark is Orally or ointment is
Hochst. ex A.DC. h/voucher no: meningitis, COVID-19, mixed with powder of tamarind and applied topically
5

182 yellow fever, smallpox, Adansonia digitata and shea butter to

poliomyelitis make as ointment
29. Evolvulus alsinoides Convolvulaceae Kahilikita Dwarf morning- Ksusta/psb/ 2.7 Poliomyelitis Leaf Decoction Orally
Linn. glory h/voucher no:
523
30. Ficus platyphylla Delile Moraceae Gamji Broad leaf Fig Ksusta/psb/ 20.5 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Stem bark Decoction/ powder can also be mixed Orally and or
h/voucher no: yellow fever, meningitis, powder with tamarida indica and ficus bathing
s.n monkey pox thoningi leafand used as poultice.
31. Ficus polita Vahl Moraceae Durumi Heart leaved fig Ksusta/psb/ 13.7 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: yellow fever, meningitis,
s.n monkey pox
32. Ficus sycomorus Moraceae Baure Fig mullberry Ksusta/psb/ 8.2 Poliomyelitis, meningitis Leaf and Decoction Orally

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

h/voucher no: stem bark
s.n
33. Ficus thonningii Blume Moraceae Chediya Common wild fig Ksusta/psb/ 2.7 Meningitis, smallpox Leaf/stem Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: bark
s.n
34. Gardenia erubescens Rubiaceae Gaude Ksusta/psb/ 2.7 Poliomyelitis Leaf and Decoction Orally
Stapf. & Hutch h/voucher no: stem
s.n
35. Guiera senegalensis J.F. Combretaceae Sabara Moshi medicine Ksusta/psb/ 42.5 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever, Leaf Decoction/ prepared with pap Orally
Gmel. h/voucher no: smallpox, COVID-19,
s.n meningitis, hepatitis, monkey
pox
36. Lannea microcarpa Anacardiaceae Faru African grape Ksusta/psb/ 15.1 COVID-19 Stem bark Decoction Orally for four days.
Engl. & K. Krause h/voucher no:
s.n
(continued on next page)
 Table 3 (continued )

I.B. Abubakar et al.

37. Lawsonia inermis L Lythraceae Lalle Henna Ksusta/psb/ 34.2 Monkey pox, meningitis, Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: COVID-19, yellow fever,
41
38. Leptadenia hastate Apocynaceae Yadiya Ksusta/psb/ 12.3 Hepatitis, COVID-19, yellow leaves Decoction Orally
Vatke h/voucher no: fever, smallpox,
s.n
39. Mangifera indica L Anacardiaceae Mangwaro Mango Ksusta/psb/ 71.2 Hepatitis, monkey pox, Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: meningitis, COVID-19,
63 yellow fever, poliomyelitis,
smallpox
40. Maytenus senegalensis Celastraceae Namijin Spike thorn Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Monkey pox Stem bark Ointment/ powder is mixed with shea Topically
(Lam.) Exell tsada h/voucher no: butter
s.n
41. Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Garahuni Balsam pear Ksusta/psb/ 34.2 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Leaf Concoction/ the powder is boiled with Orally
h/voucher no: yellow fever, meningitis, tea
s.n monkey pox, COVID-19,
hepatitis
42. Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Zogala Moringa Ksusta/psb/ 75.3 Hepatitis, meningitis, Root Concoction/ mixed with tafasa and Orally
h/voucher no: smallpox, monkey pox, boiled with red potash
s.n COVID-19, yellow fever,
poliomyelitis
43. Musa sapientum L Musaceae Ayaba Banana Ksusta/psb/ 31.5 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever, Leaf Can be boiled with pineapple bark peel Orally
h/voucher no: hepatitis
s.n
44. Nicotiana tabacum L Euphorbiaceae Tinya Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Meningitis Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no:
s.n
45. Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Habbatu Black cumin Ksusta/psb/ 6.8 Monkey pox, smallpox, Leaf/seed Decoction/ used to prepare pap Orally
sauda h/voucher no: COVID-19
6

s.n
46. Olea europea L Oleaceae Zaitun Olive Ksusta/psb/ 20.5 Smallpox, yellow fever, Leaves/ Decoction/ prepared with pap Orally
h/voucher no: COVID-19, monkey pox stem
s.n
47. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Mimosaceae Dorawa African locust Ksusta/psb/ 20.5 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Stem bark Powder and used to prepare Pap Orally (twice daily)
G.Don h/voucher no: yellow fever, meningitis
281
48. Parinari macrophylla Chrysobalanaceae Gawasa Ksusta/psb/ 5.5 Poliomyelitis, monkey pox Leaf Decoction Orally
Sabine h/voucher no:
230 a
49. Piliostigma thonningii Fabaceae Kalgo Wild bauhinia Ksusta/psb/ 19.2 Poliomyelitis, smallpox, Leaf and Decoction Orally
(Schum.) Milne-Redh. h/voucher no: meningitis stem

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

109
50. Piper guineense Piperaceae Masoro Ashanti pepper Ksusta/psb/ 20.5 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever, Seed Powder/ can be mixed with milk and Orally
Schumach. & Thonn. h/voucher no: COVID-19, monkey pox, garlic
s.n hepatitis
51. Prosopis Africana Fabaceae Kirya Iron tree Ksusta/psb/ 5.5 Hepatitis, meningitis, Leaf Decoction Orally
(Guill. & Perr.) Taub. h/voucher no: poliomyelitis
s.n
52. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Gwaiba Guava Ksusta/psb/ 53.4 Hepatitis, meningitis, COVID- Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher no: 19, poliomyelitis, smallpox,
67 yellow fever
53. Securidaca Polygalaceae Uwa Violet tree Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Meningitis Stem bark Concoction/ mixed with ginger, lemon Orally
longipedunculata Fresen magunguna h/voucher no: and honey
s.n
54. Sterculia setigera Delile Malvaceae Kukkuki Karaya gum tree Ksusta/psb/ 1.4 Monkey pox Stem bark Powder Orally twice daily
h/voucher no: for one week
s.n
(continued on next page)
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

symptoms.
On the other hand, in Kwara state, hepatitis is known as ‘Arun
Jedojedo or Aisan Jedojedo’ and is diagnosed by HMPs through obser­

Orally for three

vation of the yellowish nature of the eye which is mostly confirmed
through laboratory tests. Similar yellowish eye, physical appearance,
Orally

Orally

Orally

Orally

Orally

Orally
and laboratory tests are used for the diagnosis of yellow fever known as

days.
‘Ìba pupa or Iba ponju’. The symptoms for monkeypox known as ‘Pox
Obo’ and smallpox known as ‘Sopona or Shapona or Igbona’ are the same
which include the physical appearance of rashes/blisters all over the
body, high temperature, headache, and laboratory tests. Poliomyelitis is
known as ‘Arun Aromolapa romolese’ is diagnosed via paralysis of one
Decoction prepared with pap

side of the body mostly starting with the left leg and arm and hospital
diagnosis. Whereas, COVID-19 ‘Kofid 19′ and Lassa fever ‘Ìba Orèrè ‘ are
diagnosed by HMPs in Kwara state via hospital diagnosis.

3.3. Informant consensus factor

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

The informant consensus factor was determined for each disease in

each of the states studied as shown in Table 6. The ICF value for the
diseases ranged from 0.86 - 0.91, 0.66 - 0.78, 0.22 - 0.71 and 0.79 - 0.89
Stem bark

Stem bark

for Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara, and Sokoto States, respectively. Whereas,

leaves
Seed

Leaf

Leaf

Leaf

there were no ICF values for poliomyelitis, monkey pox, and Lassa fever
in Katsina state and Lassa fever in Kebbi state as no response was
recorded on potential medicinal plants used to treat these diseases.
Hepatitis, COVID-19, yellow

Poliomyelitis, yellow fever,

yellow fever, poliomyelitis

Poliomyelitis, meningitis,

Monkey pox, COVID-19,

yellow fever, meningitis
Poliomyelitis, smallpox,

Yellow fever, smallpox,

smallpox, poliomyelitis

Hepatitis, monkey pox,

COVID-19, meningitis,

COVID-19, meningitis,

meningitis, COVID-19,
monkey pox, hepatitis

4. Discussion

Medicinal plants serve as a huge reservoir for potential novel

monkey pox

monkey pox

bioactive agents against viral diseases and non-viral diseases. Therefore,

the ethnomedicinal study provides an opportunity to reveal new and
fever,

uninvestigated medicinal plants and herbal formulations as potential

sources for antiviral agents against old and emerging viral diseases.
10.9

12.3

23.3

16.4

27.4

21.9

34.2

Located in the northwestern part of Nigeria, the residents of Katsina,

Kebbi, and Sokoto states are predominantly Hausa and Fulani although,
there are other smaller tribes such as Dakarkari and Kambarawa
h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:

h/voucher no:
Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

amongst others and different dialects [11]. In contrast, Kwara state is

located in the North-central part of Nigeria with Yoruba as the pre­
315 b

258 a

dominant tribe [9]. Evidently, the present study revealed plants that
320

307
s.n

s.n

s.n

were common in all the states although in some instances these plants
were used to treat different diseases with different modes of preparation.
This could be attributed to the slight cultural differences among the
northwestern states as well as the different geographical, climatic, and
Black plum
Bitterleaf
Tobacco

cultural differences with the north-central Kwara state. Interestingly, the

Jujube
Clove

Shea

informant Consensus factor for northwestern states indicated the HMPs

agreed on the medicinal plants used to treat various categories of viral
diseases studies in contrast to ICF values for Kwara state that suggested
Kanumfari

HMPs didn’t fully agree or the choice of medicinal plants for certain
Shuwaka

Magarya
Tobacco

Baushe

Dunya

diseases such as COVID-19, smallpox, and monkeypox were random.

Kade

Nonetheless, the study revealed plants that could be used to combat

these viral diseases affect the populace with fatal consequences.
The hepatitis B and C virus frequently cause inflammation of the liver
Combretaceae

which can result in liver cirrhosis and cancer. Besides vaccination,

Verbenaceae

Rhamnaceae
Compositae

Sapotaceae
Solanaceae
Myrtaceae

Nigerians in rural areas have for decades used herbal plants to treat
hepatitis and other liver-related diseases. Herein, Carica papaya, Psidium
guajava, M. indica, and Ficus glumosa were the more frequently
mentioned plants used for treating hepatitis in Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara,
(L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.

Syzygium aromaticum

and Sokoto states, respectively. Similarly, C. papaya, Guiera senegalensis,

Terminalia avicenoides

Vernonia amygdalina

Vitex doniana Sweet

Ziziphus mauritiana

M. indica, Musa sapientum, P. guineense were reported by at least two or

Tamarindus indica

all of the states as plants used for treating hepatitis. Medicinal plants
Guill. & Perr.

cited for treatment of hepatitis in the present study including Phyllanthus

Table 3 (continued )

amarus Senna occidentalis and Garcinia kola have also been reportedly
Gaertn

Lam.
Del.

used to treat hepatitis and liver diseases in the southern part of Nigeria
[12–14]. Likewise, Acacia nilotica Guiera senegalesis and Leptadenia has­
tate among others cited herein for treatment of hepatitis are also used to
treat the same viral disease in Burkina Faso (Table 7) with pharmaco­
55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

logical study validating the anti-hepatitis C activity of A. nilotica [15].

7
 Table 4

I.B. Abubakar et al.

Medicinal plants used for treating viral diseases in Kwara state.
s/no Plant name Family Local name Common Name Voucher no CF Disease treated Parts Mode of preparation Route
(%) used
1. Aframomum melegueta K. Zingiberaceae Ewe atare alligator pepper Ksusta/psb/ 11.4 Monkey pox, smallpox Leaves Soaking in cold water Topically, water
Schum h/voucher extract is used to wash
no: sn the affected body
part.
2. Ageratum conyzoides (L.) Compositae Imi-esu billygoat weed, Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 Hepatitis, lassa fever, Stem Powder Two spoon daily
L. h/voucher poliomyelitis bark
no: sn
3. Alafia barteri Oliv. Apocynaceae Agbari-etu Ksusta/psb/ 8.6 Meningitis, lassa fever Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: sn
4. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Xanthorrhoeaceae Ewe erin Aloe vera Ksusta/psb/ 8.6 Meningitis, Leaf Concoction. Powder is mixed Topical
h/voucher Lassa fever with shea butter and used
no: 356 ointment
5. Aloe barteri (Baker) Xanthorrhoeaceae Eti irin Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 Yellow fever, lassa fever Leaf Powdered leaf is mixed with Orally
h/voucher little quantity of shear butter
no: sn
6. Alstonia boonei De Wild Apocynaceae Ahun Stool wood Ksusta/psb/ 37.1 Lassa fever, Yellow fever, Stem Concoction Orally
h/voucher monkey pox, smallpox bark
no: sn
7. Anacardium occidentale L Anacardiaceae ewe kasu Cashew Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Lassa fever, yellow fever Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: 63
8. Ananas comosus (L.) Bromeliaceae Ope oyinbo Pineapple Ksusta/psb/ 28.6 Lassa fever, yellow fever, Bark Decoction Orally
Merr. h/voucher COVID-19 peel
no: sn
9. Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Ayin Ksusta/psb/ 11.4 COVID-19 Roots Decoction Orally
8

(DC.) Guill. & Perr h/voucher

no: sn
10. Aristolochia ringens Aristolochiaceae Akogun Dutchman’s pipe Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Yellow fever, lassa fever Leaves Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: 61
11. Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Ewe dogayaro Neem tree Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Lassa fever, COVID-19 Leaf Concoction with guava leaf Orally
Juss. h/voucher
no: sn
12. Bidens pilosa L Compositae Abeere Black Jack seed Ksusta/psb/ 2.9 COVID-19 Seed Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: sn
13. Bridelia exaltata F. Phyllanthaceae Ira Scrub ironbark, Ksusta/psb/ 8.6 Lassa fever Stem Decoction Orally

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Muell. brush ironbark h/voucher bark
no: sn
14. Byrsocarpus coccineus Connaraceae Amuje wewe Huntsman’s Ksusta/psb/ 34.3 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Leaves Decoction Orally
Schumach & Thonn. pepper h/voucher fever, yellow fever, smallpox,
no: sn poliomyelitis
15. Calotropis procera Apocynaceae Bomubomu Sodom apple, Ksusta/psb/ 8.6 Poliomyelitis Leaf Decoction Orally
(Aiton) Dryand rubber bush h/voucher
no: 03
16. Carica papaya L Caricaceae Ewe ibepe Pawpaw Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Hepatitis Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: sn
17. Celastrus indica Celastraceae Ponju-owiwi Bittersweet Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Hepatitis, meningitis, yellow Root Decoction Orally twice daily.
h/voucher fever
no: sn
18. Chasmanthera Menispermaceae Atoo Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 Poliomyelitis, meningitis Leaves Decoction Orally
dependens Hochst. h/voucher
no: sn
(continued on next page)
 Table 4 (continued )

I.B. Abubakar et al.

19. Chenopodium Amaranthaceae Arunpale/ Mexican tea Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Poliomyelitis, Root Decoction Orally
ambrosioides L. meturusi/ h/voucher Meningitis
fininganmu no: sn
20. Chloris pilosa Schumach. Poaceae Ewe gbegi Goose grass Ksusta/psb/ 20 Poliomyelitis, lassa fever Roots To be soaked in water for 24 h Orally for three (3)
&Thonn. h/voucher days
no: sn
21. Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae Osan wewe Citrus lemon Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Yellow Fever Leaf Decoction Orally
(Christm.) Swingle h/voucher
no: 285
22. Cymbopogon citratus Poaceae Ewe tea Lemon grass Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Lassa fever, Yellow fever Leaves Concoction, mixed with leaf of Orally, three (3) times
(DC.) Stapf h/voucher ewuro and leaf of laali. daily.
no: sn
23. Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae Igi Ope African oil palm Ksusta/psb/ 80 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Roots Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, yellow fever,
no: sn poliomyelitis
24. Enantia chlorantha Annonaceae awopa/ Africa yellow Ksusta/psb/ 48.6 Poliomyelitis, meningitis, lassa Stem Decoction Orally
Oliv. dokitagbo/yari wood h/voucher fever, yellow fever bark
no: sn
25. Entandrophragma utile Meliaceae Epo jebo Sipo mahogany Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever Leaf/ Decoction Orally and use for
(Dawe & Sprague) h/voucher stem bathing
Sprague no: sn bark
26. Euphorbia hirta L Euphorbiaceae Oro alago Asthma weeds Ksusta/psb/ 51.4 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Stem Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, yellow fever, bark
no: sn poliomyelitis, monkey pox,
smallpox, COVID-19
27. Euphorbia lateriflora Euphorbiaceae Enuopiye 5.7 Smallpox Stem Decoction Orally and use for
Schumach. bark bathing
28. Euphorbia unispina NE Euphorbiaceae Oro adete Ksusta/psb/ 22.9 Hepatitis, meningitis, yellow Leaves Decoction One teaspoon to be
Br. h/voucher fever, poliomyelitis taken orally every
9

no: sn morning.
29. Garcinia kola Heckel Clusiaceae Orogbo Bitter kola Ksusta/psb/ 31.4 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Roots Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, yellow fever,
no: sn poliomyelitis
30. Harungana Hypericaceae Aroje Ksusta/psb/ 11.4 Hepatitis, meningitis, Leaves Decoction Orally
madagascariensis Lam. ex h/voucher poliomyelitis
Poir no: sn
31. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Lapalapa Fuel plant Ksusta/psb/ 8.6 Meningitis, lassa fever Leaf Decoction Orally, one cup daily
(jatropha) h/voucher
no: sn
32. Kigelia africana (Lam.) Bignoniaceae Ewe pandoro Sussage tree Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 Hepatitis, yellow fever, Leaves Decoction Orally, two (2) tea
Benth h/voucher poliomyelitis spoon to be taken

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

no: sn twice daily.
33. Lagenaria breviflora Cucurbitaceae Tagiri Wild colocynth Ksusta/psb/ 22.9 Monkey pox, smallpox Leaf Decoction Orally
(Benth.) Roberty h/voucher
no: sn
34. Lannea microcarpa Engl. Anacardiaceae Ekudan Ksusta/psb/ 11.4 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa fever root Decoction Orally
& K.Krause h/voucher
no: sn
35. Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Laali Henna, Egyptian Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Lassa fever Leaf Decoction Orally
privet, cypress, h/voucher
shrub no: 41
36. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Ewe mangoro Mango Ksusta/psb/ 31.4 Meningitis, Lassa fever, monkey Stem Concoction. It is mixed with Orally
h/voucher pox, smallpox, COVID-19, bark stem bark of awopa, ahun and
no: 63 hepatitis egbesi. The juice is used to
prepare pap
37. Momordica charantia L Cucurbitaceae Ewe ejirin Balsam pear Ksusta/psb/ 48.6 Meningitis, lassa fever, yellow Leaves Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, poliomyelitis
no: sn
(continued on next page)
 Table 4 (continued )

I.B. Abubakar et al.

38. Morinda lucida Benth. Rubiaceae Ewe oruwo Brimestone tree Ksusta/psb/ 25.7 Hepatitis, lassa fever, yellow Roots Concoction, mixed with dokita Juice to be taken
h/voucher fever igbo(stb),epo cocoa(stb) and twice daily.
no: sn amuje(stb)
39. Musa sapientum L. Musaceae Ogede wewe Banana Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Roots Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, poliomyelitis
no: sn
40. Nauclea latifolia Sm. Rubiaceae Koro Egbesi Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 Hepatitis, lassa fever, Roots Soaked in water for 24h Orally for three (3)
h/voucher poliomyelitis days.
no: sn
41. Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Taba juku Tobacco Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Hepatitis Leaf Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: sn
42. Nymphaea lotus L. Nymphaeaceae Ewe osibata White lotus Ksusta/psb/ 57.1 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Stem Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, yellow fever, bark
no: sn poliomyelitis
43. Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae Ewe Efirin Sweet Basil Ksusta/psb/ 22.9 Poliomyelitis, meningitis, Stem Decoction Orally
h/voucher hepatitis, meningitis, bark
no: sn poliomyelitis
44. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthaceae Eyin olobe Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 COVID-19, hepatitis Leaves Decoction Orally
Schumach. & Thonn h/voucher
no: sn
45. Piper guineense Piperaceae Koko Iyere Ashanti pepper Ksusta/psb/ 57.1 Hepatitis, meningitis, lassa Stem Decoction Orally
Schumach. &Thonn. h/voucher fever, yellow fever, bark
no: sn poliomyelitis, monkey pox,
smallpox, COVID-19
46. Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Ewe inabiri Ceylon leadwort Ksusta/psb/ 45.7 Meningitis, yellow fever, lassa Roots Decoction Orally
h/voucher fever, poliomyelitis
no: sn
47. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Gurofa Guava Ksusta/psb/ 14.3 COVID-19, lassa fever Leaf/ Decoction Orally
10

h/voucher stem
no: 67 bark
48. Pycnanthus angolensis Myristicaceae Akomu African nutmeg Ksusta/psb/ 17.1 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever Stem Decoction Orally
(Welw.) Warb h/voucher bark
no: sn
49. Ricinus communis L Euphorboraceae Ewe lara Castor oil plant Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Yellow fever, poliomyelitis Roots Decoction Orally
h/voucher
no: sn
50. Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae Ireke Sugar cane Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Yellow fever, poliomyelitis Whole Raw Orally
h/voucher plant
no: sn
51. Secamone afzelii (Roem. Apocynaceae Ewe Arilu Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Poliomyelitis, yellow fever Stem Decoction Orally

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

&Schult.) K.Schum. h/voucher bark
no: sn
52. Securidaca Polygalaceae Egbo ipeta Violet tree Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Poliomyelitis Leaf/ Decoction Orally
longipedunculata Fresen h/voucher stem
no: 287
53. Securinega virosa (Roxb. Phyllanthaceae Iranje Ksusta/psb/ 37.1 Hepatitis, lassa fever, yellow Seeds Decoction Orally
ex Willd.) Baill. h/voucher fever, poliomyelitis
no: sn
54. Spondias mombin L Anacardiaceae Iyeye Yellow mombin Ksusta/psb/ 2.9 Yellow fever
h/voucher
no: sn
55. Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Kanafuru Clove Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 COVID-19 Seed Decoction Orally
(L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry h/voucher
no: sn
56. Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Ajagbon Tamarind tree Ksusta/psb/ 5.7 Monkey pox, smallpox Stem/ Decoction Orally and use for
h/voucher leaf bathing
no: 66
(continued on next page)
 I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

An ethnomedicinal study identified M. indica, Aloe vera, Vernonia

amygdalina, Z. officinale as medicinal used by patients diagnosed with

three(3) times daily.

Orally, juice taken
viral and non-viral hepatitis in Uganda [16]. This is consistent with the
Orally twice daily

present study although herein, Z. officinale was only used to treat yellow
fever and COVID-19. Furthermore, O. basilicum and Bidens pilosa were

Topical
reportedly used to treat hepatitis in Taiwan although B. pilosa [17] was
Orally

Orally

Orally

Orally
used for the treatment of COVID-19 in the present study. Likewise,
C. papaya and Jatropha curcas were reportedly used to treat hepatitis and
hepatic disease in Peruvian Amazon [18].
Concoction with a tin of milk

Recent pharmacological studies have demonstrated the antiviral and

Decoction mixed with obi
(leaf),agaoun (stem bark) anti-hepatitis effects of these plants. For instance, extracts of

Prepared as ointment
G. senegalensis induced anti-hepatitis B virus activity with an IC50 value
of 10.65 - 7.67 μg/ml [19], and further isolation studies produced
myricetin-3- O-rhamnoside and quercetin that demonstrated
Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction
anti-hepatitis B virus activity [20]. Similarly, potent anti-hepatitis C
viral activity with over 70% inhibition at 100 μg/ml was reported for
A. nilotica, Syzygium aromaticum, and Zingiber officinale. Conversley,
weaker anti-hepatitis C virus activity was reported for Tamarindus indica
(15%) Adansonia digitata (36.5%), A. indica (42%), Balanites aegyptiaca
Leaves

Seeds
Seed

Seed
Leaf
leaf

(8.4%), Cymbopogon citratus (54.3%), Lepidium sativum (45.1%), Nauclea

Oil

latifolia (58.5%), Nigella sativa (42.7%), Ocimum basilicum (59.8%) [21].

In addition, anti-hepatitis virus activity of some of the plants cited
herein including Allium sativum (hepatitis A), Citrus limon (hepatitis A),
Poliomyelitis, lassa fever

Poliomyelitis, lassa fever

Moringa olifera (hepatitis B), Phyallanthus amarus (hepatitis C) and Com­

Meningitis, lassa fever,

bretum glutinosum (hepatitis B) have also been reported [13,22–24]

On the other hand, meningitis is an acute inflammation of protective
membranes in the brain that can be caused by bacteria or viruses. For
Poliomyelitis

poliomyelitis
Lassa fever

decades, medicinal plants have been used to treat meningitis, and

Smallpox

Smallpox

herein, A. digitata, A. vera, and A. nilotica were the most cited plants used
to treat meningitis in Kebbi, Kwara, and Sokoto States, respectively.
Whereas, L. sativum and Ludwigia octovalvis were used to treat meningitis
34.3
11.4

in Katsina state. An infusion of roots of Combretum micranthum and

5.7

8.6

5.7

8.6

5.7

Tamarindus indica were used to treat meningitis in Kano State located in

the Northwestern part of Nigeria [25]. Interestingly, C. micranthum
Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

Ksusta/psb/

(Sokoto and Kebbi state) and T. indica (Kebbi State) are also used to treat
h/voucher

h/voucher

h/voucher

h/voucher

h/voucher

h/voucher

h/voucher
no: 320

meningitis. Similarly, A. indica is used to treat meningitis in the North­

no: sn

no: sn

no: sn

no: sn

no: sn

no: sn

central Nasarawa state [26] which is in agreement with the present

study that cited A. indica for treatment of meningitis in Kebbi and Sokoto
state. Similarly, M. olifera was reportedly used to treat meningitis in
African pepper

Ayurveda in agreement with its use for the treatment of meningitis in

Shea butter

Kebbi State [27]. Contrarily, A. senegalensis was reportedly used to treat

Bitter leaf

Mistletoe

meningitis in Namibia [28] whereas, herein it is used to treat hepatitis,

yellow fever, and poliomyelitis.
The poliovirus had a significant negative impact in Nigeria especially
in the Northern part of Nigeria due to vaccine refusal. For instance,
rumors and skepticism led to the suspension of polio vaccination in the
Gbogbonise

Ewe ewuro

northwestern state of Kano in 2003 resulting in a 2006 outbreak in 20

Epo ori
Afomo
Orudu
Aidan

polio-free communities. Indeed, as an alternative to vaccination, the

Eru

majority of the population in the North relies on herbal medicine and

herbal medicinal practices for the treatment of polio. The present study
identified Terminalia avicenoides, M. indica, and C. micranthum and the
Santalaceae

most frequently used plants to treat poliomyelitis. Whereas, Anogeissus

Annonaceae

Annonaceae
Compositae

Sapotaceae
Meliaceae
Fabaceae

leiocarpus, Momordica charantia, Musa sapietum, Piliostigma thonningii,

and T. indica were cited by HMPs from at least two states as plants used
for treating poliomyelitis. As shown in Table 7, medicinal plants cited in
the present study for the treatment of poliomyelitis have already been
Uvaria afzelii G.F. Scott-
(Thonn.) J.J.de Wilde

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.

validated for antiviral activity against the polio virus. For instance,
Tetrapleura tetraptera
(Schum. & Thonn.)

Vernonia amygdalina
Trichilia monadelpha

Adansonia digitata, Azadiracha indica, Boswellia dalzielii, Garcina kola,

Xylopia aethiopica
(Dunnal)A.Rich.
Viscum album L

Guiera senegalensis have demonstrated potent activity against the polio

virus [29–32]. In contrast, although Annona senegalensis and Aframomum
Table 4 (continued )

melegueta are also cited for treatment against poliomyelitis, the plants
Gaertn.
Elliot
Taub

Del.

did not induce antiviral activity against the polio virus [31,33].
Furthermore, pharmacological studies have demonstrated the anti-polio
virus activity of medicinal plants including Anacardium occidentale,
Ananas comosus, Detarium senegalense, Lawsonia inermis, and Sterculia
57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

setigera that were cited for treatment of other viral diseases in the present

11
 Table 5

I.B. Abubakar et al.

Medicinal plants used for treating viral diseases in Sokoto state.
s/no Plant name Family Local name Common Name Voucher no CF Disease treated Parts used Mode of preparation Route
(%)
1. Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Mimosaceae Bagaruwa Scented thorn Ksusta/psb/h/ 70 Hepatitis, poliomyelitis, Leaf, bark Boil in water then sieve 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no:284 meningitis, monkey pox, 2–3 times daily
smallpox, yellow fever
2. Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Tafarnuwa Garlic Ksusta/psb/h/ 10 Meningitis, COVID-19 Seed Grind and pour into water 2 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: s.n then boil twice daily
3. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Liliaceae Aloe vera Aloe vera Ksusta/psb/h/ 6 Hepatitis Jell Slice aloe leave and 2- 3 spoonful to be taken orally
voucher no: remove the jell. Grind 2–3 times daily
356 until smooth
4. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Cashew Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 Smallpox Root Boil in water 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
L. voucher no: 63 2–3 times daily
5. Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Marke African birch Ksusta/psb/h/ 56 Meningitis, poliomyelitis, Bark, leaf, Boil in water and add red 2–3 cupful to be taken orally
(DC.) Guill. & Perr voucher no: s.n yellow fever, COVID-19 root potassium, boil together thrice daily
then sieve
6. Annona senegalensis Pers. Annonaceae Gwanda daji Wild custard apple Ksusta/psb/h/ 24 Hepatitis, yellow fever Leaf, seed Boil in water and add red 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: potassium, boil together twice daily
504 then sieve
7. Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Darbejiya Neem Ksusta/psb/h/ 24 Yellow fever, meningitis Leaf, bark Boil in water 2–3 cups to be taken orally 2–3
Juss. voucher no: 61 times daily
8. Boscia senegalensis Capparaceae Anza Aizen Ksusta/psb/h/ 36 Smallpox, lassa fever Root, leaf, Boil in water together 2–3 cups to be taken orally 2–3
(Pers.) Lam. ex Pior. voucher no: s.n bark with lime juice then sieve times daily
9. Cassia occidentalis L Fabaceae Tafasar Coffee senna Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 Meningitis Leaf Infusion To be applied to the affected
massar voucher no: 71 part of the body
10. Cassia singueana Delile Fabaceae Runhu Sticky pod Ksusta/psb/h/ 52 Hepatitis, meningitis Flower, Boil in water with some To be taken orally / to be
voucher no: s.n leaf, bark red potassium applied to the affected part of
the body
11. Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Gwanda Pawpaw Ksusta/psb/h/ 20 Hepatitis, yellow fever Seed, leaf Boil in hot water for 2–5 One cup full to be taken orally
12

voucher no: s.n min then sieve 2 times daily

12. Cinnamomum verum J. Lauraceae Cinnamon tree Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 Yellow fever Stem Boil in water To be taken orally
Presl voucher no: s.n
13. Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae Lemon Ksusta/psb/h/ 30 Meningitis, COVID-19 Fruit, Leaf Pour into water and allow 2–3 cups to be taken orally 2–3
voucher no: s.n to infuse times daily
14. Cochlospermum Bixaceae Rawaya Ksusta/psb/h/ 30 Yellow fever Hepatitis Root, bark, Boil in water To be taken orally
tinctorium Perrier ex A. voucher no: s.n leaf
Rich.
15. Combretum micranthum Combretaceae Geza Ksusta/psb/h/ 60 Hepatitis, poliomyelitis, Leaf, bark Boil in hot water for 2–5 To be applied to the affected
G. Don. voucher no: meningitis, monkey pox min then sieve part of the body/2 cup full to
311 be taken orally twice daily
16. Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae Ksusta/psb/h/ 52 Hepatitis, yellow fever Root, leaf, Boil in water To be taken orally

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

voucher no: s.n seed, bark
17. Cymbopogon citratus Poaceae Lemon grass Ksusta/psb/h/ 4 Hepatitis Leaf Boil in water 2 cup full to be taken orally
(DC.) Stapf voucher no: s.n twice daily
18. Detarium senegalense J.F. Fabaceae Taura Detar/tallow tree Ksusta/psb/h/ 4 Monkey pox, smallpox Root, leaf, Boil in water 2 cup full to be taken orally
Gmel voucher no: s.n bark twice daily
19. Eleusine coracana (L.) Poaceae Finger millet Ksusta/psb/h/ 40 Monkey pox Seed Grind seed then pour into 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
Gaertn. voucher no: s.n hot water and allow to 2–3 times daily
infuse
20. Erythrina senegalensis Fabaceae Coral tree Ksusta/psb/h/ 54 Poliomyelitis, lassa fever, Leaf, bark Boil in water 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
DC. voucher no: s.n yellow fever 2–3 times daily
21. Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae Blue gum Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 COVID-19 Leaf Boil in water 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: s.n 2–3 times daily
22. Ficus glumosa Delile Moraceae Kawari Rock fig Ksusta/psb/h/ 50 Hepatitis, smallpox Leaf, bark Place in lukewarm water 2 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: s.n for 2–5 min then sieve twice or thrice daily
23. Ficus sycomorus L Moraceae Baure Sycamore fig Ksusta/psb/h/ 16 Hepatitis, meningitis Leaf Boil in water 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: s.n 2–3 times daily
(continued on next page)
 Table 5 (continued )

I.B. Abubakar et al.

24. Guiera senegalensis J.F. Combretaceae Sabara Moshi Medicine Ksusta/psb/h/ 44 Hepatitis, poliomyelitis Leaf, bark, Boil in water then sieve 3 cup full to be taken orally
Gmel. voucher no: 48 root twice daily
25. Heeria insignis (Delile) Anacardiaceae Kasheshe Ksusta/psb/h/ 24 Hepatitis Leaf Boil in water then sieve 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
Kuntze voucher no: s.n out leaves twice daily
26. Hygrophila auriculata Acanthaceae Ksusta/psb/h/ 16 Hepatitis, yellow fever Leaf Pour into water and boil To be taken by mouth
(Schumach.) Heine voucher no: s.n for 5- 10 min, infusion
27. Lannea microcarpa Engl. Anacardiaceae Faru African grape Ksusta/psb/h/ 26 Hepatitis, poliomyelitis Bark, stem, Boil in water then sieve 2 cup full to be taken orally
& K.Krause voucher no: s.n leaf twice daily
28. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Mangwaro Mango Ksusta/psb/h/ 16 Hepatitis, meningitis Bark, leaf Boil in water then sieve 3 cup full to be taken orally 3
voucher no: 63 out leaves times daily
29. Mentha piperita L. Lamiaceae Peppermint Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 COVID-19 Leaf Boil in water then sieve 3 cup full to be taken orally 3
voucher no: s.n out leaves times daily
30. Mitragyna inermis Rubiaceae Ksusta/psb/h/ 24 Poliomyelitis, smallpox Bark, leaf Boil in water 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
(Wild.) Kuntze voucher no: s.n 2–3 times daily
31. Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Zogale Drumstick tree Ksusta/psb/h/ 10 Yellow fever Leaf Boil leaves in water and 3 cup full to be taken orally 3
voucher no: sieve out times daily. Leaves can also be
121 eaten
32. Nauclea diderrichii (De Rubiaceae Brimstone tree/ Ksusta/psb/h/ 30 Hepatitis, yellow fever Stem bark, Boil in water 2 cup full to be taken orally
Wild.) Merr. West African voucher no: s.n leaf twice daily
boxwood
33. Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Habbatu Black cumin Ksusta/psb/h/ 6 Meningitis, COVID-19 Leaf, seed Boil in water then sieve 2 cup full to be taken orally
sauda voucher no: s.n out twice daily. Oil can also be
used
34. Piliostigma reticulatum Fabaceae Camel’s foot 58 Hepatitis, poliomyelitis, Leaf Boil in water 2 cup full to be taken orally
(DC.) Hochst. smallpox twice daily
35. Pterocarpus erinaceus Fabaceae Madobiya African rosewood Ksusta/psb/h/ 4 Poliomyelitis Root Boil in water then sieve 2 cup full to be taken orally
Poir. voucher no: s.n twice daily
36. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Gwaiba Guava Ksusta/psb/h/ 10 Meningitis Leaf Boil in water then sieve 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: 67 2–3 times daily
13

37. Securidaca Polygalaceae Uwa Violet tree Ksusta/psb/h/ 12 Hepatitis, meningitis Leaf Boil in water then sieve To be applied to the affected
longipedunculata Fresen. magunguna voucher no: out part of the body/2 cup full to
287 be taken orally 2 times daily
38. Swartzia Fabaceae Snake bean Ksusta/psb/h/ 20 Smallpox Leaf, bark Pour into water and boil To be taken orally
madagascariensis Desv. voucher no: s.n for 5- 10 min
39. Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Kanumfari Clove Ksusta/psb/h/ 22 Yellow fever, COVID-19 Fruit, Seed Pour into water and boil To be taken orally
(L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry voucher no: s.n for 5- 10 min
40. Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae Tsamiya Tamarind Ksusta/psb/h/ 6 Poliomyelitis, monkey pox Root, Pour into water and boil To be taken orally
voucher no: 66 whole plant for 5- 10 min, infusion
41. Terminalia avicennioides Combretaceae Baushe Ksusta/psb/h/ 2 Yellow fever Leaf Pour into water and boil To be taken orally
Guill. & Perr. voucher no: for 5- 10 min
315 b

European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

42. Vernonia amygdalina Compositae Bitter leaf Ksusta/psb/h/ 28 Hepatitis, yellow fever, Leaf, seed, Boil in water and sieve 2–3 cup full To be taken orally
Del. voucher no: s.n meningitis bark 2–3 times daily
43. Viscum album L. Santalaceae Mistletoe Ksusta/psb/h/ 6 Monkey pox, hepatitis Seed, Boil in water 2 cup full To be taken by orally
voucher no: s.n whole plant twice daily
44. Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Garden ginger Ksusta/psb/h/ 20 Yellow fever, COVID-19 Seed, bark Grind then pour into 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
Roscoe voucher no: s.n water and boil, sieve out 2–3 times daily
and drink as tea
45. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Magarya Jujube Ksusta/psb/h/ 28 Poliomyelitis Root, leaf Boil in water and add 2–3 cup full to be taken orally
voucher no: some lime juice, sieve and 2–3 times daily
258 a drink as tea
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 6 high mortality since it was declared a pandemic by the World Health
Informant consensus factor (ICF). Organization. Besides, the conventional medicine used to combat
s/no Diseases ICF COVID-19, medicinal plants, and herbal medicine offer an alternative
Sokoto Katsina Kebbi Kwara and have been used to treat COVID-19. Herein, Aframomum melegueta ,
1 Hepatitis 0.85 0.86 0.78 0.71 A. leiocarpus, were the most frequently mentioned plants for the treat­
2 Meningitis 0.88 0.86 0.73 0.57
ment of COVID-19 in Kebbi and Kwara States, respectively. Whereas,
3 Lassa fever 0.89 NR NR 0.60
4 Yellow fever 0.85 0.87 0.78 0.59 S. aromaticum was the frequently mentioned plant for Katsina and
5 Polio 0.88 NR 0.66 0.50 Sokoto States. Interestingly, HMPs from all the states mentioned
6 Monkey pox 0.80 NR 0.68 0.33 S. aromaticum for the treatment of COVID-19.
7 Smallpox 0.89 0.90 0.77 0.49 Ethnomedicinal studies on the use of plants for COVID-19 treatment
8 COVID-19 0.79 0.91 0.78 0.22
are limited in comparison to other viral diseases. To the best of our
NR: No response was recorded for that disease category. knowledge, this is the first study investigating the use of medicinal
plants to treat COVID-19 in Nigeria. Nevertheless, a recent survey re­
study [31,34,35]. Although, L. inermis is reportedly used to treat polio­ ported S. aromaticum, Z. officinale, P. guajava, and A. indica, as medicinal
myelitis in southwestern Nigeria [36]. Indeed, this nonetheless dem­ plants used by Nepalese during COVID-19 all of which have been
onstrates the potential of Nigerian medicine against poliovirus. mentioned in the present study as a remedy for COVID-19 [44]. Inter­
Furthermore, the yellow fever virus causes acute viral hemorrhage estingly as shown in Table 7, most of the medicinal plants cited herein
that continues to cause morbidity and mortality in Africa. For over 21 for COVID-19 treatment have been reportedly used to at least treat cold,
years cases of yellow fever were not reported in Nigeria until its resur­ flu, whooping cough, bronchitis, and other respiratory diseases and
gent case was confirmed in Ifelodun Local Government Area, Kwara problems. For instance, P. guajava is used to treat cold and cough in
state in September 2017 [37]. Besides a successful vaccination African countries [45]. Whereas, Anogeissus leiocarpus is used to treat
campaign, Nigerians especially residents of rural areas also rely on cold, fever, and acute respiratory infection in Africa [46]. Unlike other
herbal medicine for the treatment of yellow fever. Herein, Eucalyptus viral diseases, in vitro pharmacological studies and ethnomedicinal
globulus, M. indica, and Cochlospermum tinctorium, and M. sapientum were studies on the potency of medicinal plants against COVID-19 have been
cited as the most frequently used plants used for the treatment of yellow scarcely conducted. However, an in silico study suggested that C. papaya
fever by HMPs in Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, and Kwara states. Previous mentioned herein for COVID-19 treatment in Kebbi state could induce
studies have reported the use of medicinal plants in Nigeria for the an in vitro antiviral effect against COVID-19 [47].
treatment of yellow fever and other fevers. For instance, an infusion of Over 40 years ago, the World health assembly accepted a report
fruit of M. sapientum was prepared with Citrus paradise to treat yellow concluding the eradication of smallpox disease [48]. Besides the vacci­
fever. Similarly, the leaf and bark of M. indica were prepared with other nation programs, rural areas also depended on herbal medicine for the
plants as infusion or decoction to treat yellow fever by HMPs in Ogun treatment of smallpox, and thus it is important to document and possibly
State of Nigeria [38]. Furthermore, several plants used for the treatment harness this knowledge. For instance, the ripe grapes of Vitis vulpine were
of yellow fever as mentioned in the present study including A. indica, C. reportedly used for the treatment of smallpox and other diseases [49]. In
papaya, Z. officinale, Citrus aurantifolia, Senna occidentalis, Alstonia boo­ the present study, Acacia senegal, Guiera senegalensis, Lagenaria brevi­
nei, Anacardium occidentale among others were also reportedly used to flora, P. reticulatum, were the most frequently mentioned plants used to
treat yellow fever in Ogun State in agreement with the present study treat smallpox in Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto state, respectively.
[38]. In addition, A. indica, Erythrina senegalensis, and A. senegalensis On the other hand, there has been a reemergence of monkeypox in
mentioned in the present study were also reportedly used to treat febrile Nigeria in 2017 since the last human monkeypox was reported in 1978
illnesses including yellow fever HCPs in Gboko and Kastina-Ala com­ with a total of 146 cases reported across 22 states [50]. In the present
munities in Benue state of Nigeria [39]. Pharmacological studies have study, L. breviflora B. aegyptiaca, and Eleusine coracana, were cited as the
also demonstrated the potent effect of different cultivars of Musa spp. most frequently used plants to treat monkey pox in Kwara, Kebbi, and
(banana) against yellow fever virus with EC50 of 6.27–46.2 μg/ml [40]. Sokoto States, respectively. Interestingly, L. breviflora was mentioned as
Interestingly, M. Sapietum was mentioned as the most frequently used the most frequently used plant to treat both smallpox and monkeypox by
plant to treat yellow fever in Kwara State. Furthermore, following 48 h HMPs in Kwara State. Whereas, no response was recorded for medicinal
treatment, M. indica, and Enantia chlorantha induced potent larvicidal plants used for treating the monkey virus in Katsina state. Ethno­
effects against Aedes aegypti, a primary vector for yellow fever [41]. medicinal studies have reported the use of medicinal plants cited herein
Similarly, Psidium guajava and A. nilotica induced a larvicidal effect for the treatment of smallpox, boils, itch, and other skin diseases. For
against A. aegypti [42]. instance, A. nilotica is reportedly used to treat smallpox in west African
On the other hand, Lassa fever was discovered in Nigeria in 1969 and countries [51]. Similarly, A. indica is used to treat chickenpox, smallpox
there have been regular episodes of outbreaks. A total of 963 confirmed in Ayurveda, and infectious diseases in Nigeria [52,53]. Furthermore,
laboratory cases of lass fever and 188 mortality were recorded as of April L. inemis is mentioned as a treatment for smallpox in Islamic medicine
2020 with the majority of the cases reported in Edo (32%), Ebonyi (8%), and treatment of measles in Nigeria in contrast to its reported use for the
and Ondo (32%) states of Nigeria [43]. However, in contrast to yellow treatment of monkeypox as shown in the present study [36,54]. Besides,
fever, studies on the treatment of Lassa fever by HMPs or the pharma­ medicinal plants cited herein for treatment of small and monkey pox
cological effect of medicinal plants on Lassa fever have not been re­ have also been reportedly used to treat other skin diseases. This includes
ported. The present study reported decoctions Plumbago zeylanica and C. procera and D. senegalense that are used for treating boils and skin
E. chlorantha as the most frequently used plants to treat Lassa fever by infections in Nigeria [31,55]. Likewise, S. setigera (measles and chick­
HMPs in Kwara State. Interestingly, no response was recorded for Lassa enpox), V. amygdalina (measles and boils), and V. paradoxa (chickenpox
fever treatment in Sokoto, Kebbi and Katsina states. This could be and skin diseases) are used for treating skin diseases in Nigeria (Table 7)
attributed to the fact that outbreaks are fewer in the northwestern states [15,56]. In contrast, Ageratum conyzoides and Ricinus communis are also
compared to the southern states of Nigeria. Although geographically, reportedly used to treat craw-craw in Africa although the plants were
Kwara state is in the Northcentral part of Nigeria, it is however a western not cited for treatment of smallpox or monkey pox in the present study
state with predominantly Yoruba tribe and other minority tribes such as [57–59].
Fulani, nupe, etc. However, the antiviral activities of the aforementioned plants
COVID-19 has negatively affected millions of people globally with against smallpox and monkeypox virus have not been reported in vitro.
Nonetheless, in vitro antiviral activity against the smallpox virus has

14
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 7
Ethnomedicinal uses, antiviral activity and toxicity of medicinal plants used for treating viral diseases in northern Nigeria.
Plant name Ethnomedicinal uses in literature Antiviral activity Toxicity/poisonous effect Disease treated in
present study
Acacia nilotica (L.) Woods are used to treat smallpox in west Antiviral activity against HIV-1 protease No significant in vivo and in vitro Hepatitis, monkey pox,
Delile Africa [51] Bark decoction is used to [63], hepatitis C [64] toxicity on rat and Vero cell lines [65] meningitis, smallpox,
treat hepatitis in Burkina Faso [15] poliomyelitis, COVID-
19, Yellow fever
Acacia Senegal (L.) Leaves used to treat typhoid fever in No toxicity was observed in vivo on Smallpox
Wild west Africa [66] F344 rats [67]
Adansonia digitata L. Leaves are used to treat fever in Africa Antiviral effect against polio virus, Nontoxic in acute toxicity study [69] Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
[68]. Bark is used to treat hepatitis in hepatitis C and Herpes simplex virus yellow fever, meningitis,
Burkina Faso [15] [21,29] monkey pox, hepatitis
Aframomum Used to treat body pain, rheumatism, Inhibited measles and yellow fever Included in FDA of botanicals Hepatitis, monkey pox,
melegueta K. diarrhea, catarrh, congestion in Nigeria virus. No activity against polio virus-1 considered safe [71]. smallpox, COVID-19,
Schum. [70] [33,70] poliomyelitis, yellow
fever
Ageratum conyzoides Used to treat fever in Togo and HIV in No mortality or severe toxicity in acute Hepatitis, lassa fever,
(L.) L. Nigeria. Used to treat infectious and 28 days sub-chronic study [57] poliomyelitis
diseases, headache, febrifuge, craw-
craw, pneumonia, and burns in African
countries [57,58]
Alafia barteri Oliv. Used to treat malaria, fever and Induced moderate toxicity on Meningitis, lassa fever
rheumatic pain in southwest Nigeria crustacean A. salina larvae [72]
[72]
Allium cepa Used to treat cold and fever in Asia, Patent for the use of the extract for High dose of 500 mg/kg induced Poliomyelitis
hypertension in Nigeria and flu, cough treatment of AIDS [74] histological changes with 25% meningitis, COVID-19
and cold in Europe and south/north mortality rate [73]
America [73]
Allium sativum L. Used to treat fevers and cold in India, Virucidal effect against HSV, vaccina, Generally poses little safety concerns Poliomyelitis, COVID-
Pakistan and middle east and as influenza, HIV and hepatitis A virus [22] [75] 19, monkey pox,
antibiotic in Africa [75] meningitis, hepatitis
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Used by Arabs to treat fever and burns in Induced antiviral activity against HSV1, No report of adverse effect from Meningitis, Hepatitis,
Africa, hepatitis in Uganda [16,76] HSV2, varicella- zoster virus, influenza clinical trials [76] lassa fever
virus, and pseudorabies virus, [77]
Alstonia boonei De Used to treat malaria and fever in The LD50 of ethanol leaf extract is > Lassa fever, Yellow
Wild Nigeria and West Africa [78] 5000 mg/kg [79] fever, monkey pox,
smallpox
Anacardium Used to treat infectious and enteric Induced total inhibition of poliovirus, Higher doses of hexane leaf extract at Smallpox, Lassa fever,
occidentale L. conditions such as typhoid in Nigeria astrovirus, HSV1 [31] 6 g/kg caused anorexia, diarrhea, and yellow fever
[80], and yellow fever in Benin and syncope with LD50 at 16 g/kg [82].
Malaysia [81] Ingestion of seeds can cause
burns/death [62]
Ananas comosus (L.) Used to treat intestinal worm, Antiviral activity against polio virus-1 The leaf extract is not toxic [84]. Meningitis, Lassa fever,
Merr. contraceptive, diuretic, jaundice, [34] Consumption of the peel can cause yellow fever, COVID-19
diarrhea, diabetes and bronchitis. Used itching [62]
to treat typhoid fever in southwest
Nigeria [83]
Annona senegalensis The leaf is used to treat cough, yellow No antiviral activity detected against Oral LD50 of 1296 g/kg [85] Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis,
Pers. fever, tuberculosis, chicken pox and poliovirus, astrovirus, HSV1 [31] yellow fever
smallpox in Nigeria [85,86]. Used to
treat chicken pox, measles, fever,
malaria and headache in Benin [87].
Leaf is used to treat hepatitis in Burkina
Faso [15]. Used to treat meningitis in
Namibia [28]
Anogeissus leiocarpus Used to treat hepatitis, fever, jaundice, LD50 was 1400 mg/kg in rats [46] Monkey pox,
(DC.) Guill. & Perr. cold, typhoid, yellow fever, poliomyelitis,
tuberculosis, cough, acute respiratory Meningitis, yellow fever,
infection in Africa [46]. Used to treat COVID-19
hepatitis in Burkina Faso [15]
Aristolochia ringens Used to treat typhoid and fever in The LD50 of the aqueous root extract is Yellow fever, lassa fever
Nigeria and south America, respectively greater than 10 g/kg [89]
[88]
Azadirachta indica A. Leaves are used in Ayurveda to treat Isolated polysaccharides induced The LD50 of oil was 31.95 g/kg [90] Smallpox, monkey pox,
Juss. viral infections, cold, influenza, herpes, antiviral effect against poliovirus, anti- whereas, 50–300 mg/kg of stem bark COVID-19,
chicken pox and fever [52], Used as hepatitis C activity [21,30] extract induced alteration in poliomyelitis, yellow
deterrent for small pox and infectious biochemical parameters [91] fever,
diseases in India. Malaria and Meningitis, Lassa fever
meningitis treatment in Nigeria [26,53]
Balanites aegyptiaca Root is used to treat malaria whereas, Antiviral activity against hepatitis C The seed oil did not induce any toxicity Hepatitis, monkey pox,
(L.) Delile seed oil is used to treat jaundice, yellow [21] and antiviral activity against HIV in male Wister rats [94] meningitis, smallpox,
fever and syphilis in Nigeria [92] [93] poliomyelitis
Bidens pilosa L Used to treat fever, malaria in South Induced antiflavivirus, anti-HIV, An oral dose of 10 g/kg did not cause COVID-19
Africa, all types of infection in Brazil, antiherpes, anti-influenza, antisendai, any mortality or changes in rats [96]
cold, flu and hepatitis in India [95], antisindbis and anti-RSV activities [97]
Yellow fever, influenza in Uganda,
(continued on next page)

15
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 7 (continued )
cough in China and hepatitis in Hong
Kong [96]
Boscia salicifolia Oliv. Used to treat typhoid in Kenya, Toxicity studies on brine shrimp and COVID-19
tuberculosis in Tanzania, HIV/AIDS in Vero cells revealed LC50 of 22.8 µg/ml
Zambia, cough in Sudan and fever/ and CC50 of 304.9 µg/ml [98]
malaria in Nigeria, Kenya and Sudan
[98]
Boswellia dalzielii Used to treat diarrhea and fever [31]. Induced total inhibition of poliovirus, The LD50 of aqueous stem bark extract Poliomyelitis, yellow
Hutch. Bark is used to treat malaria and yellow astrovirus and 75% inhibition of HSV1 was > 3000 mg/kg [100] fever
fever in Africa [99] and equine HSV [31]
Bridelia ferruginea Used to treat diarrhea, fever, headache, Acute and sub-chronic toxicity study at Poliomyelitis
Benth stiffness and boils in Africa [101,102] 5000 mg/kg did not induce any death
or significant alteration of biochemical
and histological parameters [101]
Byrsocarpus coccineus Used to treat measles, jaundice, anemia, Ethanol root extract acute toxicity at Hepatitis, meningitis,
Schumach & and skin disorders [103] 5000 mg/kg and subchronic toxicity at lassa fever, yellow fever,
Thonn. 800 mg/kg did not cause mortality or smallpox, poliomyelitis
biochemical and hematological
abnormalities [104]
Calotropis procera Used to treat boils, malaria, fever, pain, Induced antiviral effect against HIV, It is a toxic plant and induced dose Smallpox, COVID-19,
(Aiton) Dryand respiratory disease, cough, skin white spot syndrome virus and foot and dependent toxicity and nephrotoxicity monkey pox,
infection, cold and pneumonia, eczema mouth disease virus [55] in vivo [55]. Consumption of leaf can poliomyelitis
in Ghana, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, India, cause death [62]
Yemen and Saudi Arabia [55]
Carica papaya Used as part of herbal mixture to treat Induced inhibitory activity against Subchronic toxicity including Hepatitis, meningitis,
malaria, fungal and helminthic infection dengue virus [105,106] hypoglycemia, hypolipidemia COVID-19,
in Nigeria, and as antimalarial in hepatotoxicity, hyperuricemia have poliomyelitis, smallpox,
Cameroun [105]. Fruits are used to treat been reported for aqueous and ethanol yellow fever, monkey
hepatitis in Burkina Faso [15] leaf extract [107] pox
Cassia occidentals L Used to treat infection, jaundice, LD50 is higher than 5 g/kg [85]. Seed Hepatitis, meningitis,
hepatitis, cirrhosis in Nigeria [85] and extract induced subacute toxicity COVID-19, yellow fever,
fever in Jamaica as well as whooping including hepatotoxicity in mice poliomyelitis
cough and skin diseases [108]. Leaves [109].
are used to treat hepatitis in Burkina Raw pod and seed caused poisoning in
Faso. Asthma, bronchitis, cough, mental children in India affecting the hepatic,
disorders, fever, flu, febrifuge, skin skeletal, brain system and resulting in
disease, tuberculosis and hypertension fatal coma [14]
China, Brazil, India. Malaria, fever and
hepatitis in Nigeria [14,15]
Cassia tora Leaves and seeds are used as a liver Dried seed extract inhibited replication The ethanol seed extracts did not Hepatitis, meningitis,
tonic, antimicrobial, skin diseases, SARS-CoV replication [112] induce subchronic toxicity effect on yellow fever
fever, and cardiotonic in Ayurveda biochemical parameters of rat [113]
[110,111]
Chasmanthera Used to treat infectious diseases, pain, Aqueous and methanol extract of leaf, Poliomyelitis,
dependens Hochst. malaria, epilepsy, convulsions and root and stem did not exhibit any meningitis
fractures in Nigeria and West Africa chronic toxicity on rats [115]
[114]
Chenopodium Used to treat fever in Morocco and as Induced antiviral activity against HSV-1 High doses of 12.31–31.89 g/kg caused Poliomyelitis,
ambrosioides L. treatment for lung and fungal infection [118] lung congestion and necrosis of the Meningitis
in West Africa [116,117] kidney tubules [117]
Cordia africana Lam. Leaf powder is used to treat malaria, Seed extract did not cause toxicity to Hepatitis, yellow fever
cough, skin rash, chest pain, jaundice, mice at 2000 mg/kg [121]
toothache and stomachache in Ethiopia
[119,120]
Cinnamomum verum Used for treating indigestion, aching Essential oil induced antiviral activity No significant subchronic toxicity with Yellow fever
joints and respiratory and urinary against influenza, H1N1, HSV1 [123, LD50 greater than 1600 mg/kg in
troubles in India and Sri Lanka [122] 124] rabbits [125]
Cissus populnea Guill. Root bark is used to manage pain in Mali Long term effect of aqueous stem bark Poliomyelitis,
& Perr. and infected wound and boils in Cote extract at 600 g/kg did not induced any meningitis, monkey pox
d’ivoire [126] [127] significant changes in biochemical
parameters [128]
Citrus limon (L.) Used to treat cold, scurvy, fever, chest Essential oil significantly reduced titer Juice did not induce any acute and sub- Meningitis, COVID-19
Osbeck pain in Romania, and used to treat fever, of hepatitis A virus on soft fruits surfaces acute toxicity in rats [130]
cough and high blood pressure in [23], inhibition of HSV,
Trinidad [129] anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and
effect on the nervous, cardiovascular
and respiratory system [129]
Citrullus lanatus Fruits are used to treat diarrhea and Juice inhibited the entry and Ethanol seed extract did was not toxic Hepatitis, monkey pox,
(Thunb.) Matsum. gonorrhea in Nigeria. Used to treat propagation of influenza virus in vitro at 1000 mg/kg [134] COVID-19, yellow fever,
& Nakai fever, yellowish urine, nephritis and and in vivo [133] smallpox, poliomyelitis
diabetes in Islamic text and medicine
[131,132]
Citrus aurantifolia Used to treat fever, jaundice, headache, Water extract did not show sign of Yellow fever,
(Christm.) Swingle cough and malaria in Nigeria [135]. toxicity however, 3.5 g/kg dose of fruit poliomyelitis
Fruit infusion is used to treat hepatitis in showed toxicity in rats [135]
Burkina Faso [15]
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16
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Table 7 (continued )
Citrus sinensis Used to treat cold, cough, and No adverse effect from consumption of Hepatitis, COVID-19,
respiratory disorder in Chinese orange juice [136] yellow fever,
medicine, tuberculosis in Mexican poliomyelitis
medicine and angina, hypertension and
diarrhea in France [136]
Cochlospermum Used to treat malaria in Mali. Used to Acute oral administration of root Yellow fever
tinctorium Perrier treat liver disease, syphilis, measles, extract at 500 mg/kg did not induce Hepatitis
ex A.Rich. yellow fever, boils, fever and abdominal toxic effect [137]
pain [137]. Decoction and powder of
root are used to treat hepatitis in
Burkina Faso [15]
Combretum Used to treat hepatic disease in Africa Aqueous extract inhibited ACE and Oral dose of aqueous leaf extract at Meningitis
glutinosum Perr. [24] and malaria in Senegal [138]. Hepatitis B surface antigen [24] 2000 mg/kg did not induce acute
Whole plant powder is used to treat toxicity [139]
hepatitis in Burkina Faso [15]
Combretum Used for diuretic, digestion and Extract induced antiviral activity against LD50 for oral dose of hydroalcoholic Hepatitis, poliomyelitis,
micranthum G. gastrointestinal problem in Senegal and HSV-1 and HSV-2 [143] leaf extract is above 5000 mg/kg and meningitis, monkey pox,
Don. west Africa. The fresh leaves are also administration of 1000 mg/kg did not yellow fever
used to treat malaria in Burkina Faso induce toxicity in rats [144]
and Cote d’Ivoire [140] [141] [142].
Powdered root is used to treat hepatitis
in Burkina Faso [15]. Used to treat
meningitis in Kano state, Northwestern
Nigeria [25]
Cymbopogon citratus Used to treat fever, analgesic and Anti-HIV activity, anti-hepatitis C The plant has reportedly low toxicity Hepatitis, lassa fever,
(DC.) Stapf antiplasmodic and antiinflammatory in activity [21,148] [148] yellow fever
Africa, Asia and south America. Used to
treat stomachache, toothache, bacterial
and fungal infection in Algeria [145],
headache and fever in India [146],
malaria in Nigeria and Ghana [147]
Detarium senegalense Used to treat boils, fever, skin disease Induced 75% of poliovirus, astrovirus The seed oil did not induce toxicity on Smallpox, yellow fever,
J.F. Gmel. and dysentery in Nigeria [31] and HSV [31] liver and kidney of rats [149] COVID-19, meningitis,
Monkey pox
Diospyros Bark infusion and powder are used to LD50 of crude methanol leaf and bark Hepatitis, monkey pox,
mespiliformis treat hepatitis in Burkina Faso [15]. extract was > 5 g/kg [152] meningitis, COVID-19,
Hochst. ex A.DC. Used to treat syphilis, pneumonia, yellow fever, smallpox,
malaria and skin infections in Namibia poliomyelitis
[150]. Used to treat stomach problem,
vomiting and diarrhea in South Africa
[151]
Elaeis guineensis Used to treat headache, pain, malaria, Methanol leaf extract did not induce Hepatitis, meningitis,
Jacq. cancer, boils, diarrhea, convulsion and acute oral toxicity at 5 g/kg [154]. lassa fever, yellow fever,
gastrointestinal disorder in southern Consumption of leaf can cause poliomyelitis
Nigeria. Used to treat gonnorhea, skin discomfort [62]
infection, bronchitis, and wound
healing in Cameroun and Ghana [153]
Eleusine coracana (L.) Used to treat diabetes, ulcer, Isolated probiotic strains did at 5000 Monkey pox
Gaertn. osteoporosis and anemia [155] mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg did not induce
acute or subchronic toxicity in rats
[156]
Enantia chlorantha Used to treat malaria, boils, yellow Induced antiviral and larvicidal effect Ethanol stem bark extract induced Poliomyelitis,
Oliv. fever, hepatitis, jaundice, typhoid fever, against yellow fever virus and vector, toxicity at high dose [159] meningitis, lassa fever,
tuberculosis in Africa [157] anticonvulsion and antimicrobial yellow fever
activity [41,157,158]
Erythrina senegalensis Used to treat malaria, fever, infections, Anti-HIV activity [160] The LD50 of chloroform stem bark Poliomyelitis, lassa
DC. pneumonia, neuralgic malaria, extract is 526 mg/kg with significant fever, yellow fever
jaundice, pain, diarrhea and typhoid histopathological changes [162]
fever in Mali [160]. Used to treat fever
and malaria in middle belt and northern
Nigeria [161]
Eucalyptus globulus Used to treat wound, fever and fungal Antiviral activity against HSV-1 and The essential oil is not toxic at lower COVID-19, Yellow fever
Labill infection by abroginal Australians. Used HSV-2 [165] dose [166]
to treat bronchitis, congestion of
airways, sinus, asthma, toothache and
headache [163,164]
Euphorbia hirta L Used to treat gastrointestinal disorder, Aqueous and ethanol extract are Hepatitis, meningitis,
fever, skin diseases, bronchial and slightly toxic with 500 mg/kg as the lassa fever, yellow fever,
respiratory diseases in South Africa maximum oral dose [170]. Ingestion of poliomyelitis, monkey
[167,168], cough, gonorrhea and sap can cause vomiting [62] pox, smallpox, COVID-
tuberculosis [169] 19
Euphorbia lateriflora Used to treat parasitic infection, blood LD50 of whole plant ethanol extract > Smallpox
Schumach. disorder and urinary tract infection 5000 mg/kg [172]. Consumption of
[171] the sap and root may cause death [62]
Poliomyelitis
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17
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Table 7 (continued )
Evolvulus alsinoides Used to treat dysentery, fever, Higher doses were not lethal or toxic in
Linn. strengthen the brain and memory, rats [175]
bronchitis, asthma and hemorrhages.
Used to treat mental problems, epilepsy,
insanity and nervous debility in India.
Used to treat bronchitis, stomach ache
and asthma in Nigeria, as love potion in
Ghana and antimalaria, fever in India
[173–175]
Ficus platyphylla Used to treat insomnia, psychosis, Induced antimalarial activity, Intraperitoneal and oral LD50 were Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
Delile depression, epilepsy, pain and as an behavioral and anticonvulsant effect, greater than 2000 mg/kg and 5000 yellow fever, meningitis,
analgesic in Northern Nigeria [176]. sedative effect, decreased cerebral mg/kg, respectively [176] monkey pox
Used to treat malaria and tuberculosis in ischemia, antimalarial and anti-
Africa [177] inflammatory [177–180]
Ficus polita Vahl Used to treat infectious diseases, LD50 of aqueous stem bark > 5000 mg/ Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
abdominal pain, dyspepsia and diarrhea kg [182] yellow fever, meningitis,
[181] monkey pox, COVID-19
Ficus sycomorus L. Used to treat cough, skin infection, liver The LD50 of aqueous root extract was Poliomyelitis,
disease, diarrhea tuberculosis and 3.20 ± 0.60 g/kg characterized by liver meningitis, hepatitis,
stomach problem in Oman. Used to treat toxicity [184] yellow fever
jaundice, ulcers, inflammation and
respiratory and chest disease [183,184]
Ficus thonningii Used to treat diarrhea, gonorrhea and The LD50 of oral aqueous leaf extract Meningitis, smallpox
Blume diabetes mellitus, bronchitis, urinary was > 3000 mg/kg [185]
tract infection in Angola. Used to treat
stomach pains, gastritis, gastric ulcers in
Nigeria. Used also to treat influenza,
sore throat, colds, liver disorders, skin
disease, pneumonia, fever and
toothache in African countries. Used in
combination with other plants to treat
polio in Mali [185]
Garcinia kola Heckel Used to treat headache, cure cough, Extract and fractions induced antiviral The LD50 for seeds is > 5000 mg/kg Hepatitis, meningitis,
dysentery, chest colds, liver disorders, activity against measles virus, polio [186] lassa fever, yellow fever,
diarrhea, laryngitis, bronchitis, and virus, yellow fever virus and HSV-1 [32] poliomyelitis
gonorrhea, fever, malaria in southern
Nigeria [12]
Gardenia erubescens Used to treat headache, sore nerve, The LD50 of methanol extract is 550 Poliomyelitis
Stapf. & Hutch navel pain, muscle ache in Burkina Faso. mg/kg [190]
Used to treat malaria, anemia in Benin
[187–189]
Guiera senegalensis J. Used to treat enteric problems and Induced 75% inhibition of poliovirus, Plant is nontoxic at moderate doses but Poliomyelitis, yellow
F. Gmel. worms in Nigeria [31]. Powdered astrovirus and HSV [31] could be toxic at high dose over fever, smallpox, COVID-
infusion of root is used to treat hepatitis prolonged time [191] 19, meningitis, hepatitis,
in Burkina Faso [15] monkey pox
Harungana Used to treat typhoid, diarrhea, anemia Induced anti-HIV activity [194] The LD50 of fruits was > 5000 mg/kg Hepatitis, meningitis,
madagascariensis in Cameroun, skin diseases in Ghana, and long term use at high dose could poliomyelitis
Lam. ex Poir analgesic and treatment of toothache in induce toxicity [195]
Guinea, Chronic diarrhea in Tanzania
and Rwanda. Used to treat asthma,
tuberculosis and fever [192,193]
Hygrophila auriculata Used to treat jaundice and other hepatic The plant does not pose any toxic or Hepatitis, yellow fever
(Schumach.) obstruction, malaria. Inflammation, side effects [196]
gout, rheumatism, anemia, cough and
pain. Used to treat diabetes in Sri
Lankan, tuberculosis in Ghana
[196–198]
Jatropha curcas L. Used to treat diabetes in Nigeria, fever, Antiviral activity against HIV [199] Exhibited toxicity to different species Meningitis, lassa fever
malaria and convulsion in west Africa, including human, animals and
headache and jaundice in India, and microorganisms [199]
skin infection in Mali [199]
Kigelia africana Used to treat cancer, inflammation, skin The aqueous stem bark is safe up to 5 Hepatitis, yellow fever,
(Lam.) Benth infections, and diarrhea in Nigeria, g/kg [200] poliomyelitis
boils, malaria, measles and STDs in
Africa [200]
Lagenaria breviflora Used as an abortifacient and to treat LD50 of ethanol fruit extract is > 5000 Monkey pox, smallpox
(Benth.) Roberty appendicitis, cancer and rheumatism in mg/kg with hepatotoxicity at higher
southern Nigeria [201–203] dose [204]
Lannea microcarpa Bark decoction used to treat hepatitis in LD50 of aqueous trunk bark extract was COVID-19, hepatitis,
Engl. & K. Krause Burkina Faso, wound healing and 5000 mg/kg with no significant poliomyelitis
schizophrenia spectrum disorder in Mali subchronic toxicity in rats [207]
[15,205,206]
Lawsonia inermis L Used to treat ring worm, infection and Induced antiviral activity against LD50 greater than 1600 mg/kg [85] Monkey pox, meningitis,
skin disease in South India. Mentioned Sindbis virus, HSV and polio virus [35] COVID-19, yellow fever,
as medicine for smallpox, chicken pox, lassa fever
ulcer, tumors in Islamic medical text.
Used to treat fever, jaundice, cough,
bronchitis and inflammation. Used to
treat poliomyelitis and measles in
southwest Nigeria [36,54]
18 (continued on next page)
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 7 (continued )
Leptadenia hastate Leaf ad root decoction are used to treat Stem and aqueous leaf extract was Hepatitis, COVID-19,
Vatke hepatitis in Burkina Faso. Used to treat considered safe at 2000 mg/kg [208] yellow fever, smallpox,
catarrh, hypertension and skin disease
in Nigeria [15,208]
Ludwigia octovalvis Used to treat nervous diseases, edema, Extract at 800 mg/kg did not induce Meningitis
(Jacq.) P.H. Raven dysentery, nephritis, diarrhea, headache toxic effect on BALB/c mice for 28 days
and orchitis [209] [209]
Mangifera indica Leaf decoction is used to treat hepatitis Mangiferin induced antiviral activity Aqueous stem bark extract induced Hepatitis, monkey pox,
in Burkina Faso and Uganda. Used to and controlled HSV replication, adverse effect and decreased the meningitis, COVID-19,
treat gastrointestinal, respiratory and Larvicidal effect against yellow fever survival rate and emergence of yellow fever,
genitourinary diseases, burn, itch, fever, vector [41,211] younger flies of drosophila poliomyelitis, small pox,
cough, scurvy and throat/mouth melanogaster [210] lassa fever
infection [15,16,210,211]
Maytenus senegalensis Used to treat opportunistic infections in Stem bark extract inhibited HIV-1 The plant was toxic to mice at 1200 Monkey pox
(Lam.) Exell PLHIV, wound, chest pain, rheumatism. replication and HIV-1 protease [63] mg/kg [212]
Used to treat tuberculosis, dysentery,
pneumonia in Africa and malaria in
Tanzania [212–214]
Mentha piperita L. Used to treat nausea, stomach disorders Can deprive the human body iron and COVID-19
and indigestion, cough, cold in India cause anemia when consumed
[215] excessively in combination with
spearmint [216]
Mitragyna inermis Used to treat infectious diseases, The LD50 of hydroethanol leaf extract Poliomyelitis, smallpox
(Wild.) Kuntze jaundice, arthritis, contagious diseases, was > 3000 mg/kg [217].
schistosomiasis in Mali and Cote d’
ivoire. Used to treat malaria and
recommended for recovering HIV
patients [217]
Momordica charantia Used to treat childhood viral disease, Induced antiviral activity against Herpes Induced hepatotoxic effect in animals Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
L. malaria, skin disease, fevers, Virus-3, Influenza A and HIV-1 and seed constituent (vicine) may yellow fever, meningitis,
gastrointestinal and gynecological replication [220–222] induce favism [219]. Consumption of monkey pox, COVID-19,
problems in Togo, itch, hepatitis, flu, seed and root can cause hepatitis, lassa fever
and fever in Brazil [218,219] gastrointestinal discomfort [62]
Morinda lucida Used to treat malaria, fever, typhoid LD50 of oral stem bark extract is > Hepatitis, Lassa fever,
Benth. fever, diabetes, hypertension and 5000 mg/kg [223] yellow fever
diarrhea in Northern and southern part
of Nigeria [223]
Moringa oleifera Lam. Used to treat Flu, malaria, headaches, Inhibited Epstein Barr Virus, foot and Aqueous leaf extract did not cause Hepatitis, meningitis,
skin diseases, bronchitis, asthma, herpes mouth disease virus, Newcastle disease mortality at 6400 mg/kg [225] smallpox, monkey pox,
simplex arthritis, liver problem, fevers, virus, hepatitis B virus, herpes simplex COVID-19, yellow fever,
typhoid fever and inflammation. Used to virus, influenza virus A and HIV [226, poliomyelitis
treat meningitis in Ayurveda [27,224, 227]
225]
Musa sapientum L. Used as a memory enhancer and to treat Induced anti-yellow fever virus activity The LD50 for aqueous extract of unripe Hepatitis, meningitis,
mental illness in west Africa, diarrhea, [40] fruit is > 5000 mg/kg [230] lassa fever, poliomyelitis
inflammation, eczema, burns, diabetes,
cholera, dysentery and pain [228,229]
Nauclea diderrichii Used to treat skin disease, cough, Ethanol leaf extract at 500 mg/kg Hepatitis, yellow fever
(De Wild.) Merr. diuretic and diabetes in Cameroun. induced toxic effect on gestational rat
[231] models [231]
Nauclea latifolia Sm. Used to treat fever, jaundice, malaria, Induced anti-hepatitis C activity [21] LD50 of aqueous extract was > 18 g/kg Hepatitis, lassa fever,
diarrhea, stomach ache, chicken pox [231] poliomyelitis
and tuberculosis in Nigeria [232]
Nicotiana tabacum L Used as a mild stimulant, sedative and Induced anti-HIV1 and anti-TMV Tobacco leaf extract affected lipid Meningitis, hepatitis
emetic agent in China. Used to treat skin activity [233] profile and tissue of the liver [236]
diseases and tooth ache. Used as a
stimulant, sedative and treatment of
convulsions in Nigeria [233–235]
Nigella sativa L. Used to treat inflammation, jaundice, Anti-hepatitis C activity [237] The acute toxicity of the major Monkey pox, smallpox,
tertian fever, paralysis, headaches, constituent thymoquinone is very low COVID-19
cough and asthma in Unani medicine. and well tolerated [237]
Useful agaist Polio, leprosy, skin
diseases such as boils, eczema, skin
infection, and pain relief [237]
Nymphaea lotus L. Used to treat guinea worm and The LD50 of aqueous leaf extract is > Hepatitis, meningitis,
rheumatic pain and tumor in northern 5000 mg/kg [239] lassa fever, yellow fever,
and southern part of Nigeria. Used as poliomyelitis
sedative on nervous system,
stomachache and heart disease [238,
239]
Ocimum basilicum L Used to treat diabetes and Anti-hepatitis C activity [21] Hydroalcoholic extract did not cause Poliomyelitis,
cardiovascular diseases in Turkey, any death or toxicity at 2 g/kg [241] meningitis,
pimples in India, ache and pain in hepatitis, meningitis,
Bulgaria and sedative in Spain. Used to poliomyelitis
treat headache, cough and diarrhea
[240]
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19
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

Table 7 (continued )
Olea europea L Used to treat malaria, febrifuge, Induced antiviral activity against The LD50 for methanol leaf extract is Smallpox, yellow fever,
bronchial asthma, inflammation, parainfluenza type 3 virus, 3475 mg/kg [244] COVID-19, monkey pox
hypertension, diarrhea, respiratory, and haemorrhagic septicaemia rhabdovirus,
urinary tract infection [242] hepatitis virus, rotavirus and herpes
mononucleosis [243]
Parkia biglobosa Bark infusion is used to treat hepatitis in The LD50 for methanol and water and Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
(Jacq.) G.Don Burkina Faso, malaria, headache, cough, methanol extract is > 5000 mg/kg yellow fever, meningitis
pain, skin infection, hepatitis, [246]
hypertension and skin diseases in
Nigeria and other West African
countries [15,245]
Parinari macrophylla Used to treat asthma, skin infections, The LD50 of aqueous stem bark is more Poliomyelitis, monkey
Sabine dysentery, diarrhea in northern Nigeria than 5000 mg/kg [248] pox
[247]
Phyllanthus amarus Decoction and powder of whole plants Antiviral activity against HIV-1, Has potential toxic effect and contains Hepatitis, COVID-19
Schumach. & are used to treat hepatitis in Burkina hepatitis C virus [13] geraniin that has negative
Thonn Faso. Used to treat malaria, chronic chronotropic, inotropic, hypotensive
stomach pain, alcoholic and liver and ACE inhibitory effect [13].
disease in Nigeria. Used to treat cough, Contact with the leaf and stem can
bronchitis, hepatitis, tuberculosis, cause itching [62]
jaundice and fevers in India [13,15]
Piliostigma thonningii Used to treat cough, inflammation and Anti-tuberculosis and antilipidemic The LD50 of ethanol leaf extract is > Poliomyelitis, smallpox,
(Schum.) Milne- as an analgesic in Tanzania and effect and anti HSV-1 activity 5000 mg/kg [253] meningitis, hepatitis
Redh. Zimbabwe. Used to treat malaria, [250–252]
wound, ulcer, cough, bronchitis,
leprosy, skin disease and fever in African
countries [249]
Piper guineense Used for treating neurodegenerative Oral dose of leaf extract ≤ 8000 mg/kg Poliomyelitis, yellow
Schumach. & disease in West Africa. Used to treat did not cause any death in rats [256]. fever, COVID-19,
Thonn. malaria, convulsion, epilepsy, cough, Consumption of the root can cause monkey pox, hepatitis,
boils, catarrh, bronchitis, and intestinal stomachache and ulcer [62] meningitis, lassa fever,
disease [254,255] smallpox
Plumbago zeylanica L. Used to treat diarrhea, skin disease, The root is reportedly a poison when Meningitis, yellow fever,
pain, intestinal parasite and administered orally to ostium uteri, lassa fever, poliomyelitis
inflammation, chronic cough/cold, although limited toxicity was observed
itchy skin and chronic disease of the in rabbits [257]
nervous system in India [257]
Prosopis africana Used to treat hepatitis, infectious The LD50 of I.p. methanol stem bark Hepatitis, meningitis,
(Guill. & Perr.) diarrhea, dermatosis, ulcer and extract is 774 mg/kg [259]. poliomyelitis, yellow
Taub. gonorrhea in Burkina Faso. Used for Consumption of seed can cause death fever
wound healing and relive sore throat in [62]
southeast Nigeria [15,258]
Psidium guajava L. Used to treat febrifuge, cold, cough, Inhibited the H1N1 viruses, larvicidal The LD50 of leaf extract is > 5 g/kg Hepatitis, meningitis,
itchy rashes sores, boils, cholera, effect against yellow fever vector [41, [45] COVID-19,
diarrhea, respiratory problem, fever and 260] poliomyelitis, smallpox,
skin problem in African, Latin America yellow fever, lassa fever
and southeast Asian countries [45]
Pterocarpus erinaceus Used to treat fever, headache, skin The LD50 of hydroethanolic stem bark Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis,
Poir. infection, typhoid fever, malaria, extract is > 5 g/kg [263] meningitis
measles, cough, leprosy and anemia in
Benin republic. Used as abortifacient in
Northern Nigeria and for fever in Ghana
[261,262]
Ricinus communis L Used as mosquito repellant, relieve Contains toxic compounds such as ricin Yellow fever,
stomachache, jaundice and toothache, and ricinine and has shown toxicity at poliomyelitis
convulsions, cold, catarrh, boils itching 3 g/kg of oral administration [264]
skin disease such as craw-craw [59]
Saccharum Used to treat liver related diseases, Contains some polycyclic aromatic Yellow fever,
officinarum L. jaundice, hemorrhoid and dysentery in hydrocarbons (PAHs) [266] poliomyelitis
Nigeria [265]
Sclerocarya birrea (A. Bark decoction is used to treat hepatitis The LD50 of peel extract is > 3000 mg/ Yellow fever
Rich.) Hochst. in Burkina Faso. Used to treat malaria, kg [268]
fever, headaches diarrhea, stomach
ache, diabetes, cough and tuberculosis
in Benin republic [15,267]
Securidaca Used to treat epilepsy and convulsions in The LD50 of aqueous root bark extract Meningitis,
longipedunculata tropical Africa. Used to headache, skin is 3.16 g/kg [270] poliomyelitis
Fresen infection, cough, fever, pneumonia,
tuberculosis, malaria, typhoid,
stomachache, nervous and circulatory
system infection in Nigeria [269,270]
Securinega virosa Used to treat rheumatoid, arthritis, Anti-HIV, anticonvulsant activity [271] The LD50 of n-butanol root bark is Hepatitis, lassa fever,
(Roxb. ex Willd.) eczema and crusted tetter in China, 1257 mg/kg [272] yellow fever,
Baill. epilepsy and mental illness in West poliomyelitis
Africa. Used to treat malaria, liver
disease, pain and inflammation [271]
Monkey pox
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20
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Table 7 (continued )
Sterculia setigera Used to treat fever and STDs, boils, Induced total inhibition of poliovirus, Relatively safe in vivo except at high
Delile whitlow, chickenpox, measles, jaundice, astrovirus and HSV [31] dose such as 600 mg/kg over
malaria and dysentry in Nigeria [31]. prolonged time of 28 days [273]
Leaves are used to treat hepatitis in
Burkina Faso [15]
Syzygium Used to treat burns, wound. Used to Anti-HSV-1, anti-hepatitis C activity Recognized as safe at 1500 mg/kg Hepatitis, COVID-19,
aromaticum (L.) treat liver, bowel, and stomach [21,275] [275] yellow fever,
Merr. & L.M. Perry disorders in India and China. Used to
treat cholera, malaria and scabies [274]
Tamarindus indica Roots are used to treat hepatitis in Antiviral activity against hepatitis C [21, There was side effect on animals fed Poliomyelitis, Smallpox,
Burkina Faso. Used to treat respiratory 276] with seed extract in a two year study yellow fever, meningitis,
problems, malaria, fever, parasitic [276] monkey pox
infection, abdominal infection, diarrhea
and wound healing in African countries.
Used to treat meningitis in Kano state,
Northwestern Nigeria [15,25,276]
Terminalia Bark decoction and infusion are used to The LD50 of stem bark fraction is > Poliomyelitis,
avicenoides Guill. treat hepatitis in Burkina Faso, 5000 mg/kg [278] meningitis, monkey pox,
& Perr. gastrointestinal disorder, syphilis, yellow fever
bloody sputum, cough and skin diseases
in Nigeria [15,277]
Tetrapleura tetraptera Used to treat leprosy, convulsion, The LC50 of aqueous stem bark extract Smallpox
(Schum. & inflammation, rheumatic pains, malaria, on brine shrimp is 438 µg/ml [280]
Thonn.) Taub asthma [279]
Trianthema Used to treat fevers, skin diseases, Yellow fever
pentandra L wound and toothache is Africa [281]
Vernonia amygdalina Used to treat malaria, yellow fever, Aqueous leaf extract was non-lethal to Yellow fever, smallpox,
hypertension, measles, boils, burns, mice at 5000 mg/kg [56]. COVID-19, meningitis,
stomach ache and vaginal itching in Consumption of root can cause itching monkey pox, hepatitis,
Nigeria, hepatitis in Uganda [16,56] on the tongue [62] lassa fever
Viscum album L. Used to treat hypertension, epilepsy, Antiviral activity against parainfluenza The LD50 of leaf extract (i.p) is 420.70 Monkey pox, hepatitis,
and asthma [282] virus 2 [282] mg/kg [283] poliomyelitis
Vitellaria paradoxa C. Leaves are used to treat hepatitis, The LD50 of aqueous leaf extract is 12 Poliomyelitis, yellow
F. Gaertn malaria, fever, lung disorders, and g/kg [284] fever, COVID-19,
mental disorders in Burkina Faso, skin meningitis, monkey pox,
disease, typhoid fever, rheumatism and hepatitis, smallpox
microfilaria in Cameroun, chicken pox,
tuberculosis, cough, skin diseases, rash,
rheumatism and headache in Nigeria
[15,284,285]
Xylopia aethiopica Used to treat diarrhea, cancer in Nigeria, Did not inhibit poliovirus, astrovirus and The LD50 of ethanol fruit extract is Meningitis, lassa fever,
(Dunnal)A.Rich as an emetic in Gabon, Used to treat HSV, antiviral activity against measles 3464 mg/kg [288] poliomyelitis
bronchitis, asthma, stomachache, virus [31,287]
headache, neuralagia, malaria, cough,
epilepsy, anemia and dysentery [31,
286]
Zingiber officinale Used to treat nervous diseases, asthma, Antiviral activity against hepatitis C, It is generally considered a safe herbal Yellow fever, COVID-19
Roscoe catarrh, stroke and airways infection in human respiratory syncytial virus and medicine [289]
Chinese medicine, hepatitis in Uganda chikungunya virus [21,290,291]
[16,289]
Ziziphus mauritiana Used to treat tumor in India, used to Anti-dengue virus activity [293,294] Administration of 2000 mg/kg of Hepatitis, monkey pox,
Lam. treat fever, respiratory diseases, ethanol fruit extract did not cause meningitis, COVID-19,
diarrhea, liver disease and epilepsy. toxicity [295] yellow fever,
Used to treat diarrhea in northern poliomyelitis
Nigeria [292]

been reported for the medicinal plant Sarracenia purpurea and botanical 4.1. Limitation of the research
preparations from the plant were proclaimed as a successful therapy
against smallpox in the nineteenth century [60,61]. Undoubtedly, this The study did not test (in vitro and in vivo) to validate the claims on
demonstrated the significant role of medicinal plants in treating the potency of the plants mentioned against the respective viruses which
smallpox. underline the limitation of the present study
Plants and natural products are generally considered safe although
some plants may be toxic or poisonous. The sap of Euphorbia unispina 5. Conclusion
cited herein for treatment of hepatitis, meningitis, yellow fever, and
poliomyelitis is poisonous and may cause death. Whereas, ingesting the The present study revealed a total of 131 medicinal plants used to
seed of A. occidentale may cause burn and death [62]. However, the treat emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in northern Nigerian
majority of the plants is nontoxic or may cause mild toxicity. For states of Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara, and Sokoto. Pharmacological studies
instance, the consumption of leaf of E. guineensis and A. conyzoides may suggested the antiviral activity of some of the plants mentioned herein
cause gastrointestinal discomfort and stomach upset respectively [62]. for specific viral diseases studied. However, the majority of the plants

21
I.B. Abubakar et al. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 49 (2022) 102094

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