Discrete Mathematics

- UNIT3
- Notes by Ms Nandini Ghosh
 Course Objectives:
Develop ability to
1. Understand concepts of Mathematical Logic, mechanisms of inference rules for propositional and predicatelogic and their
applications
2. Understand the concepts of Sets, Relations, Functions and their applications.
3. Learn the concepts of Algebraic Structures, basics of counting, Principles of inclusion/exclusion and thepigeonhole methodology.
4. Understand Generating Functions, Recurrence Relations and various ways of solving them.
5. Understand basic definitions and properties of graphs and their applications in computer science andengineering.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, student would be able to
1. Distinguish between Propositional Logic and Predicate Logic, deriving valid proofs of inference and checkingthe validity of
inferences.
2. Illustrate by examples the basic terminology of sets, relations, functions and algebraic structures along with their associated
operations.
3. Demonstrate basics of counting, principles of permutations, combinations, applying inclusion/exclusion principle and the
pigeonhole methodology in solving counting problems.
4. Demonstrate Generating functions, write recurrence relations and apply various techniques solving recurrence relations.
5. Transform a problem in computer science and engineering as a graph to solve it efficiently using concepts ofgraph theory.
UNIT-III
Elementary Combinatorics: Basis of counting, Combinations & Permutations, with
repetitions, Constrained repetitions, Binomial Coefficients, Binomial Multinomial
theorems, the principles of Inclusion – Exclusion. Pigeon hole principles and its
application
 ELEMENTARY COMBINATORICS
Basis of counting: If X is a set, let us use |X| to denote the number of elements in X.

Two Basic Counting Principles

Sum Rule: The principle of disjunctive counting:

If a set X is the union of disjoint nonempty subsets S1, ….., Sn, then | X | = | S1 | + | S2 | +….. +| Sn |.

We emphasize that the subsets S1, S2, …., Sn must have no elements in common. Moreover, since X = S1 U S2 U ……U Sn, each element
of X is in exactly one of the subsets Si. In other words, S1, S2, …., Sn is a partition of X. If the subsets S1, S2, …., Sn were allowed to
overlap, then a more profound principle will be needed--the principle of inclusion and exclusion.
Frequently, instead of asking for the number of elements in a set perse, some problems ask for how many ways a certain event can happen.
The difference is largely in semantics, for if A is an event, we can let X be the set of ways that A can happen and count the number of
elements in X. Nevertheless, let us state the sum rule for counting events.
If E1, .., En are mutually exclusive events, and E1 can happen e1 ways, E2 happen e2 ways,…. ,En can happen en ways, E1 or E2 or …. or
En can happen e1 + e2 + +en ways.
Again we emphasize that mutually exclusive events E1 and E2 mean that E1 or E2 can happen but both cannot happen simultaneously.
The sum rule can also be formulated in terms of choices: If an object can be selected from a reservoir in e1 ways and an object can be
selected from a separate reservoir in e2 ways, then the selection of one object from either one reservoir or the other can be made in e1 + e2
ways.
Product Rule: The principle of sequencing counting
If S1, , Sn are nonempty sets, then the number of elements in the Cartesian product
S1 x S2 x ….. x Sn is the product ∏in=1 |S i |. That is,
| S1 x S2 x x Sn | = ∏in=1| S i |.
Observe that there are 5 branches in the first stage corresponding to the 5 elements of S1 and to each of these branches there are 3 branches
in the second stage corresponding to the 3 elements of S2 giving a total of 15 branches altogether. Moreover, the Cartesian product S1 x S2
can be partitioned as (a1 x S2) U (a2 x S2) U (a3 x S2) U (a4 x S2) U (a5 x S2), where (ai x S2)= {( ai, b1), ( ai i, b2), ( ai, b3)}. Thus, for
example, (a3 x S2) corresponds to the third branch in the first stage followed by each of the 3 branches in the second stage.
More generally, if a1,….., an are the n distinct elements of S1 and b1,…., bm are the m distinct elements of S2, then S1 x S2
= Uin =1 (ai x S2). For if x is an arbitrary element of S1 x S2, then x = (a, b) where a Î S1 and b Î S2. Thus, a = ai for some i
and b = bj for some j. Thus, x = (ai, bj) Î(ai x S2) and therefore x Î Uni =1(ai x S2). Conversely, if x Î Uin =1(ai x S2), then x
Î (ai x S2) for some i and thus x = (ai, bj) where bj is some element of S2. Therefore, x Î S1 x S2. Next observe that (ai x S2)
and (aj x S2) are disjoint if i ≠ j since if x Î (ai x S2) ∩ (aj x S2) then x = ( ai, bk) for some k and x = (aj, b1) for some l. But
then (ai, bk) = (aj, bl) implies that ai = aj and bk = bl. But since i ≠ j , ai ≠ a j. Thus, we conclude that S1 x S2 is the disjoint
union of the sets (ai x S2). Furthermore |ai x S2| = |S2| since there is obviously a one-to-one correspondence between the sets
ai x S2 and S2, namely, (ai, bj) → bj. Then by the sum rule |S1 x S2| = ∑nni=1 | ai x S2| We can reformulate the product rule
in terms of events. If events E1, E2 , …., En can happen e1, e2,…., and en ways, respectively, then the sequence of events E1
first, followed by E2,…., followed by En can happen e1e2 …en ways. In terms of choices, the product rule is stated thus: If
a first object can be chosen e1 ways, a second e2 ways , …, and an nth object can be made in e1e2….en ways.
Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that studies the counting, arrangement, and combination of objects, typically
within a finite set. It deals with determining the number of ways objects can be arranged or selected under specific
constraints. Combinatorics includes various methods to count combinations, permutations, partitions, and the like.
1. Disjunctive Counting (Sum Rule):
Disjunctive counting, also known as the Sum Rule or Addition Principle, is applied when we are counting the total number of
ways to perform one of several distinct actions. The rule states that if we can perform an action in mmm different ways and
another, disjoint action in nnn different ways, the total number of ways to perform either action is m+n.
Example: Suppose there are 5 ways to choose a red object and 7 ways to choose a blue object, and no object is both red and
blue. The total number of ways to choose either a red or blue object is:
5+7=12 . This is an application of disjunctive counting because we are counting the total possibilities for either choosing red
or blue.
2. Sequential Counting (Product Rule):
Sequential counting, also known as the Product Rule or Multiplication Principle, is used when multiple actions are performed
in sequence, and the total number of ways to perform the actions is the product of the number of ways each individual action
can be performed. The rule applies when the choices for each action do not depend on the previous choices.
Example: If you are getting dressed and have 4 options for shirts and 3 options for pants, the total number of outfits (one
shirt and one pair of pants) you can choose is:
4×3=12. This is sequential counting because we are counting the total number of possibilities for both choosing a shirt and a
pair of pants.
Summary:
•Disjunctive Counting (Sum Rule): Used when choices are mutually exclusive, and we are selecting one option from different
sets (add the possibilities).
•Sequential Counting (Product Rule): Used when actions are performed in sequence, and we are selecting one option from
each set (multiply the possibilities).
Practical Example of Disjunctive Counting in Computer Science:
Problem:
Suppose a company has two data centers, Data Center A and Data Center B, for storing files. Data Center A can store files
using either a HDD (Hard Disk Drive) or an SSD (Solid State Drive), while Data Center B can only store files using a Cloud
Storage system. You want to calculate how many different ways you can store a file in one of these two data centers.
Using Disjunctive Counting:
•Data Center A offers 2 options: storing the file on an HDD or an SSD.
•Data Center B offers 1 option: storing the file in Cloud Storage.
Since storing the file in Data Center A or Data Center B are mutually exclusive options (you can choose one or the other but
not both), we apply disjunctive counting (sum rule). The total number of ways to store the file is:
2 (Data Center A options)+1 (Data Center B option)=3 ways
In this example, disjunctive counting helps calculate the number of options for file storage when the options are distinct and
cannot overlap. It's particularly useful when managing distributed systems where resources are partitioned across different
locations or systems, and a choice must be made between them.
Using Conjunctive Counting (Product Rule):
•There are 2 encryption algorithms available: AES and RSA.
•For each encryption algorithm, there are 3 key lengths to choose from: 128-bit, 256-bit, or 512-bit.
Since these two choices (encryption algorithm and key length) must be made together (one after the other), we apply
conjunctive counting (product rule). The total number of ways to configure the secure communication channel is:
2 (algorithms)×3 (key lengths)=6 ways
This approach of Conjunctive Counting is widely used in computer science to calculate the number of possible configurations
in various scenarios, such as setting up hardware, configuring software parameters, or building network architectures where
multiple independent choices must be made sequentially.
Combinations & Permutations:
Definition.

A combination of n objects taken r at a time (called an r-combination of n objects) is an Unordered selection of r of the
objects.
A permutation of n objects taken r at a time (also called an r-permutation of n objects) is an Ordered selection or
arrangement of r of the objects.

Note that we are simply defining the terms r-combinations and r-permutations here and have not mentioned anything
about the properties of the n objects.
For example, these definitions say nothing about whether or not a given element may appear more than once in the
list of n objects. In other words, it may be that the n objects do not constitute a set in the normal usage of the word.
The equation for the permutation of n things taken r at a time is given by:
P(n,r)=n!/(n−r)!

Explanation:
•Permutations refer to the different ways of arranging or ordering a certain number of objects.
•When we are asked to find the permutation of n objects taken r at a time, we are concerned with the number of different
ordered arrangements of r objects chosen from a set of n.
Derivation:
1.Choosing the first object:
1. You have n choices to select the first object.
2.Choosing the second object:
1. Once the first object is selected, you are left with n−1 objects. So, you have n−1 choices for the second object.
3.Choosing the third object:
1. After selecting two objects, you are left with n−2 objects. So, you have n−2 choices for the third object.
4.Continuing this process:
1. This process continues until you have chosen r objects. For the r-th object, you will have n−(r−1) choices left.
Thus, the total number of permutations (or ways to arrange r objects out of n) is the product of the first r terms:
P(n,r)=n×(n−1)×(n−2)×⋯×(n−r+1)
This expression can also be written as:
P(n,r)=n!/(n−r)!
Where:
•n! is the factorial of n which means the product of all positive integers from 1 to n.
•(n−r)!is the factorial of n-r, which removes the extra terms in n! that aren't needed for the permutation.
This formula gives the number of ways to arrange r objects out of n in a specific order.
Let's break down the expression P(n,r)=n!/(n−r)! to better understand how it Example:
works. Let’s take an example to make this clear:
Step-by-Step Breakdown:
Example 1: Find P(5,3) (i.e., the number of ways
1.Factorial (n!):
1. Definition: The factorial of a number n, denoted n!, is the product of all to arrange 3 objects out of 5).
positive integers from 1 to n. n!=n×(n−1)×(n−2)×⋯×1 Using the formula:
2. Example: 5!=5×4×3×2×1=120. •P(5,3)=5!/(5−3)!=5!/2!
2.Permutations involve choosing r objects out of n:
•Calculate 5!:
1. When we talk about permutations, we're interested in selecting and
arranging r objects from n total objects. •5!=5×4×3×2×1=120
2. The total number of ways to do this is P(n,r) , where both the selection •Calculate 2!:
and the order matter. •2!=2×1=2
3.Why divide by (n−r)!?
•Now calculate P(5,3):
1. If you expand the factorial expression for n! it includes all terms from n
down to 1: n!=n×(n−1)×(n−2)×⋯×(n−r+1)×⋯×1 •P(5,3)=120 / 2=60
2. But we only need the first r terms in the product to calculate the So, there are 60 different ways to arrange 3
permutations. That’s because, after selecting r items, we stop arranging. objects from a group of 5.
3. To remove the extra terms from n!, we divide by (n−r)!!, which represents
Why the Formula Works:
the factorial of the remaining unselected objects.
(n−r)!=(n−r)×(n−r−1)×⋯×1 •The formula accounts for ordering:
4. This effectively "cancels out" the terms beyond the first r in n!, leaving Permutations care about the order of selection.
only the relevant terms for permutation. •It chooses r objects from n, then counts the
Full Formula:
number of ways to arrange them.
The number of ways to arrange r objects out of n is:
P(n,r)=n×(n−1)×(n−2)×⋯×(n−r+1)) •Dividing by (n−r)!ensures we don't overcount by
​Or equivalently: removing the terms for objects we didn't choose.
P(n,r)=n!(n−r)!
The equation for the combination of n objects taken r at a time is given by: Example:
C(n,r)=n!/r!(n−r)!
Explanation: Let’s take an example to make this clear:
•Combinations refer to the different ways of selecting r objects from a set of n Example 1: Find C(5,3) (i.e., the number of
objects where the order of selection does not matter. ways to select 3 objects from a group of 5,
•In contrast to permutations, combinations do not take into account the order in where the order doesn’t matter).
which objects are selected. Hence, combinations deal with unordered selections.
Derivation: Using the formula:
1.Start with permutations: •C(5,3)=5!/3!(5−3!​)
1. First, think of how you would arrange r objects out of n. The number of •Calculate 5!:
such arrangements is given by the permutations formula: P(n,r)=n!/(n−r)! •5!=5×4×3×2×1=120
2. This represents the number of ways to select and arrange r objects.
2.Account for order irrelevance: •Calculate 3!:
1. In combinations, the order does not matter, meaning that different •3!=3×2×1=6 .
orders of the same selected objects should be considered as the same •Calculate 2!:
combination. •2!=2×1=2
2. For example, selecting A, B, and C in any order (e.g., ABC, BCA, etc.)
represents the same combination. •Now calculate C(5,3):
3. To account for this, we need to divide the total number of permutations •C(5,3)=120 /6×2 = 10
by the number of ways the r selected objects can be arranged among So, there are 10 different ways to select 3
themselves. objects from a group of 5, where the order does
1. The number of ways to arrange r objects is given by r! (the factorial
of r). not matter.
2. So, we divide the permutation formula by r!.
3.Final combination formula:
1. The total number of combinations is given by: C(n,r)=P(n,r)/r!=n!/(n−r)!r!
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example1. Suppose that the 5 objects from which selections are to be made are: a, a, a, b, c. then the 3-combinations of
these 5 objects are : aaa, aab, aac, abc. The permutations are: aaa, aab, aba, baa, aac, aca, caa, abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba.
Neither do these definitions say anything about any rules governing the selection of the r- objects: on one extreme, objects
could be chosen where all repetition is forbidden, or on the other extreme, each object may be chosen up to t times, or then
again may be some rule of selection between these extremes; for instance, the rule that would allow a given object to be
repeated up to a certain specified number of times. We will use expressions like {3 . a , 2. b ,5.c} to indicate either
(1) that we have 3 + 2 + 5 =10 objects including 3a‘s , 2b‘s and 5c‘s, or (2) that we have 3 objects a, b, c, where
selections are constrained by the conditions that a can be selected at most three times, b can be selected at most
twice, and c can be chosen up to five times. The numbers 3, 2 and 5 in this example will be called repetition
numbers.

Example 2 The 3-combinations of {3. a, 2. b, 5. c} are: aaa, aab, aac, abb, abc, ccc, ccb, cca, cbb.

Example 3. The 3-combinations of {3 . a, 2. b, 2. c , 1. d} are: aaa, aab, aac, aad, bba, bbc, bbd,cca, ccb, ccd, abc,
abd, acd, bcd.
In order to include the case where there is no limit on the number of times an object can be repeated
in a selection (except that imposed by the size of the selection) we use the symbol ∞ as a repetition number to mean that an
object can occur an infinite number of times.
Example5 The combinations of a, b, c, d with unlimited repetitions are the 3-combinations
Of {∞. a, ∞. b, ∞. c, ∞. d}. These are 20 such 3-combinations, namely:

aaa, aab, aac, aad, bbb, bba, bbc, bbd, ccc, cca, ccb, ccd, ddd, dda, ddb, ddc, abc, abd, acd, bcd.
Moreover, there are 43 = 64 of 3-permutations with unlimited repetitions since the first position can be filled 4 ways
(with a, b, c, or d), the second position can be filled 4 ways, and likewise for the third position. The 2-permutations of
{∞. a, ∞. b, ∞. c, ∞. d} do not present such a formidable list and so we tabulate them in the following table.

We list some more examples just for concreteness.

We might, for example, consider selections of
{∞.a, ∞. b, ∞. c} where b can be chosen only even
number of times. Thus, 5- combinations with these
repetition numbers and this constraint would be
those 5- combinations with unlimited repetitions
and where b is chosen 0, 2, or 4 times.
Example 6 The 3-combinations of {∞ .a, ∞ .b, 1 .c,1 .d} where b can be chosen only an even number of times are
the 3-combinations of a, b, c, d where a can be chosen up 3 times, b can be chosen 0 or 2 times, and c and d can
be chosen at most once. The 3-cimbinations subject to these constraints are: aaa, aac, aad, bbc, bbd, acd.
As another example, we might be interested in, selections of {∞.a, 3.b, 1.c} where a can be chosen a prime
number of times. Thus, the 8-combinations subject to these constraints would be all those 8-combinations where
a can be chosen 2, 3, 5, or 7 times, b can chosen up to 3 times, and c can be chosen at most once.
While there may be an infinite variety of constraints, we are primarily interested in two major types: one we have
already described—combinations and permutations with unlimited repetitions, the other we now describe.
Combinations And Permutations With Repetitions:
General formulas for enumerating combinations and permutations will now be presented. At this time, we will
only list formulas for combinations and permutations without repetitions or with unlimited repetitions. We will
wait until later to use generating functions to give general techniques for enumerating combinations where other
rules govern the selections.
Let P (n, r) denote the number of r-permutations of n elements without repetitions.

Theorem 5.3.1.( Enumerating r-permutations without repetitions). P(n, r) = n(n-1)……. (n – r +

1) = n! / (n-r)!

Proof. Since there are n distinct objects, the first position of an r-permutation may be filled in n ways. This done,
the second position can be filled in n-1 ways since no repetitions are allowed and there are n – 1 objects left to
choose from. The third can be filled in n-2 ways. By applying the product rule, we conduct that
P (n, r) = n(n-1)(n-2)……. (n – r + 1). From the definition of factorials, it follows that P (n, r) = n! / (n-r)!
When r = n, this formula becomes P (n, n) = n! / 0! = n!
When we explicit reference to r is not made, we assume that all the objects are to be arranged; thus we talk about
the permutations of n objects we mean the case r=n. Corollary 1. There are n! Permutations of n distinct objects.
Example 1.
There are 3! = 6 permutations of {a, b, c}.

There are 4! = 24 permutations of (a, b, c, d). The number of 2-permutations {a, b, c, d, e} is P (5, 2) = 5! /(5 - 2)!
= 5 x 4 = 20.
The number of 5-letter words using the letters a, b, c, d, and e at most once is P (5, 5) = 120.
Example 2 There are P (10, 4) = 5,040 4-digit numbers that contain no repeated digits since each such number is
just an arrangement of four of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3 , …., 9 (leading zeroes are allowed). There are P (26, 3) P(10, 4)
license plates formed by 3 distinct letters followed by 4 distinct digits.
Example3. In how many ways can 7 women and 3 men be arranged in a row if the 3 men must always stand
next to each other?
There are 3! ways of arranging the 3 men. Since the 3 men always stand next to each other, we treat them as a
single entity, which we denote by X. Then if W1, W2, ….., W7 represents

the women, we next are interested in the number of ways of arranging {X, W1, W2, W3,……., W7}. There are 8!
Permutations these 8 objects. Hence there are (3!) (8!) Permutations altogether. (of course, if there has to be a
prescribed order of an arrangement on the 3 men then there are only 8! total permutations)..
Example4. In how many ways can the letters of the English alphabet be arranged so that there are exactly 5
letters between the letters a and b?
There are P (24, 5) ways to arrange the 5 letters between a and b, 2 ways to place a and b, and then 20! ways to
arrange any 7-letter word treated as one unit along with the remaining 19 letters. The total is P (24, 5) (20!) (2).
Permutations for the objects are being arranged in a line. If instead of arranging objects in a line, we arrange
them in a circle, then the number of permutations decreases.
Example 5. In how many ways can 5 children arrange themselves in a ring?
Solution. Here, the 5 children are not assigned to particular places but are only arranged relative to one another.
Thus, the arrangements (see Figure 2-3) are considered the same if the children are in the same order clockwise.
Hence, the position of child C1 is immaterial and it is only the position of the 4 other children relative to C1 that
counts. Therefore, keeping C1 fixed in position, there are 4! Arrangements of the remaining children
 Binomial Multinomial theorems:
Binomial theorem:
In elementary algebra, the binomial
theorem describes the algebraic
expansion of powers of a binomial.
According to the theorem, it is possible to
expand the power (x + y) into a sum b c
involving terms of the form ax y , where
the coefficient of each term is a positive
integer, and the sum of the exponents of x
and y in each term is n. For example,

The coefficients appearing in the binomial expansion are

known as binomial coefficients.
They are the same as the entries of Pascal's triangle, and
can be determined by a simple formula n−k k
Involving factorials. These numbers also arise in
combinatorics, where the coefficient of xy is equal
to the number of different combinations of k
elements that can be chosen from an n- element
set.
Example

Simplify (x+v(x2-1)) + (x- v(x2-1))6

Solution: let vx2-1 = a, so we have:
(x=a)6 + (x-a)6 =
[x6+6C1x5.a+6C2.x4.a2 +
6C3x3a3 + 6C4x2a4 +
6C5xa5 +6C6a6] [x6-
6C1x5a+6C2.x4.a2 – 6C3x3a3 +
6C4x2a4 – 6C5xa5 +6C6a6]
x6+6C2x4a2+6C4x2a4+6C6a6]
x6+15x4(x2-1)+15x2(x2-1)2+(x2-1)3]
x6+15x6-15x4+15x6+15x2-30x4+x6-1-3x4+3x3] 32x6-
48x4+18x2-1]
Lets look at the following video on Binomial Theorem

https://youtu.be/m8TsPMfcasI?si=DI9AufkALvjVuGPe
Pigeonhole Principle
The Pigeonhole Principle is a fundamental concept in combinatorics that states:
If n items are placed into mmm containers (or pigeonholes), and n>m, then at least one container must contain more than
one item.
In simpler terms, if you have more items than containers, at least one container will have to hold more than one item. This
principle can seem obvious but has powerful implications in mathematics, computer science, and real-world applications.
Mathematical Expression
The principle can be mathematically expressed as: If n items are placed in m containers and n>m, then at least one container I
will have:
Number of items >= n/m x= n/m denotes the ceiling function, or the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
Applications of the Pigeonhole Principle :The Pigeonhole Principle is used across various fields due to its logical simplicity and
powerful implications.
Example Problem
Prove that in any group of 10 distinct integers, there are at least two integers with the same remainder when divided by 9.
1. When we divide any integer by 9, the possible remainders (the "pigeonholes") are 0,1,2,…,8 Therefore, there are 9 possible
remainders when dividing by 9.(We have 10 integers in the group, and each integer will have a remainder when divided by
9).
2. Since there are only 9 possible remainders (pigeonholes) but 10 integers (pigeons), the Pigeonhole Principle guarantees
that at least two of these integers must share the same remainder when divided by 9.
3. For each integer x in our group of 10 integers, the remainder when x is divided by 9 is one of 0,1,2,…,8 These 9 values
represent the only possible outcomes of the division.
4. We have 10 distinct integers, but only 9 distinct remainders. According to the Pigeonhole Principle, when 10 "pigeons"
(integers) are placed in only 9 "pigeonholes" (remainders), at least one of these pigeonholes will contain at least two
pigeons.
 Unit-3: Short Questions
1 Compare the terms Permutations and Combinations. [2] CO3 BTL4
2 In how many ways can a hand of 5 deck cards be selected from a deck of 52 [2] CO3 BTL3
cards?
3 How many anagrams (arrangements of letters) are there of { [2] CO3 BTL3
7.a,5.c,1.d,5.e,1.g,1.h,7.i,3.m,9.n, 4.0,5.t}?
4 Compare the terms Permutations with repetition and Combinations with [2] CO3 BTL4
repetition
5 In a group of 6 boys and four girls, four children are to be selected. In how [2] CO3 BTL5
many different ways can they be selected such that at least one boy should
be there.
a) 6 State Principle of inclusion-exclusion [2] CO3 BTL1

a) for 3 sets
b) for 4 sets
7 How many 3-digit even numbers can be formed? [2] CO3 BTL3
8 State multinomial theorem. and define binomial coefficients. [2] CO3 BTL1
9 State Pigeonhole principle? [2] CO3 BTL1
10 A committee of 5 persons is to be formed from 6 men and 4 women in how [2] CO3 BTL5
many ways can this be done when: At least two women are included? At
most two women are included ?
 Long Questions
11 How many integers between 1 to 250 are divisible by 2 or 3 or 5 or 7? [6] CO3 BTL5
12 State and prove Binomial Theorem? [4] CO3 BTL5
14 Define combinatorics. Explain the term 1.Disjunctive counting and ii) Sequential Counting? [6] CO3 BTL2
15 Find the number of positive integers less than or equal to 2076 and divisible by 3 or 4 or 5 [6] CO3 BTL5
16 Among the integers 1 to 300 find how many are not divisible by 3 , not by 5. Find also how [6] CO3 BTL5
many are divisible by 3 but not by 7?
i) 17 i) Using binomial theorem expand (2x-3y)^10 [6] CO3 BTL5
18 A committee of 5 persons is to be formed from 6 men and 4 women in how many ways can [6] CO3 BTL5
this be done when : At least two women are included ? At most two women are included ?
i) 19 Find the binomial coefficient of x101 y99 in the expansion [6] CO3 BTL5
i) (2x-3y)^200 2. (5x-4y)^200 3. (2x+-4y)^200
20 i) Prove that if 8 cars carry 26 passengers at least one car has 4 or more passengers? [6] CO3 BTL5
ii) Find the number of arrangements of the letters MISSISSIPPI
21 Define cardinality of sets [6] CO3 BTL2
Explain the principle of inclusion-exclusion for 2, 3and 4 sets
Case 1: All three letters are distinct.
We choose 3 distinct letters from the set {a, b, c, d}, which contains 4 distinct letters. The number of ways to choose 3 distinct
letters is:
Number of ways to choose 3 distinct letters= P(4, 3) = frac{4!}{(4-3)!} =24
Case 2: Two letters are the same, and the third is different.
In this case, we choose 1 repeated letter and 1 distinct letter. There are two possibilities:
1.The repeated letter is 'a' or 'b'. There are 2 choices (since 'a' and 'b' are repeated).
2.For the third distinct letter, choose from {a, b, c, d} minus the repeated letter.
For 'a' repeated:
•The third letter can be chosen from {b, c, d}, i.e., 3 options.
For 'b' repeated:
•The third letter can be chosen from {a, c, d}, i.e., 3 options.
Thus, there are:
2×3=6 ways to choose two same letters and one distinct letter..Each of these choices can be permuted in frac{3!}{2!} = (since 2
letters are identical).
Thus, the total number of permutations for this case is: 6×3=18
3: All three letters are the same. In this case, the only possible permutation is 'aaa', since 'a' is the only letter that appears 3
times. There is only 1 such permutation.
Total Number of Permutations: Now, sum up all the possibilities:
•Case 1 (all distinct): 24 permutations; Case 2 (two same, one different): 18 permutations
•Case 3 (all the same): 1 permutation ; Thus, the total number of 3-letter permutations is: 24+18+1=43
Final Answer:
There are 43 different 3-letter permutations that can be made from the set "aaabbcd".
Here are the 43 possible 3-
21. bbd
letter permutations that can be
22. bca
made from the set "aaabbcd":
23. bcb
24. bcd
1. aaa
25. bda
2. aab
26. bdb
3. aac
27. bdc
4. aad
28. caa
5. aba
29. cab
6. abb
30. cad
7. abc
31. cba
8. abd
32. cbb
9. aca
33. cbd
10. acb
34. cda
11. acd
35. cdb
12. ada
36. daa
13. adb
37. dab
14. adc
38. dac
15. baa
39. dba
16. bab
40. dbb
17. bac
41. dbc
18. bad
42. dca
19. bba
43. dcb
20. bbc