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Nursing the acutely ill adult Page Digital Instant
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Author(s): Page, Karen; McKinney, AidÃ​n
ISBN(s): 9780335243105, 033524310X
Edition: New ed
File Details: PDF, 2.57 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
 Projective differential geometry old and new:
from Schwarzian derivative to cohomology of
diffeomorphism groups

V. Ovsienko1 S. Tabachnikov2

1
CNRS, Institut Girard Desargues Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 21 Avenue
Claude Bernard, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, FRANCE; [email protected]
2
Department of Mathematics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
PA 16802, USA; [email protected]
ii
Contents

Preface: why projective ? vii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Projective space and projective duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Discrete invariants and configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Introducing Schwarzian derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Further example of differential invariants: projective curvature 14
1.5 Schwarzian derivative as a cocycle of Diff(RP 1 ) . . . . . . . . 19
1.6 Virasoro algebra: the coadjoint representation . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Geometry of projective line 29

2.1 Invariant differential operators on RP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Curves in RPn and linear differential operators . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Homotopy classes of non-degenerate curves . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 Two differential invariants of curves: projective curvature and
cubic form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 Projectively equivariant symbol calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 Algebra of projective line and cohomology of Diff(S 1 ) 51

3.1 Transvectants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 First cohomology of Diff(S 1 ) with coefficients in differential
operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Application: geometry of differential operators on RP 1 . . . . 61
3.4 Algebra of tensor densities on S 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5 Extensions of Vect(S 1 ) by the modules Fλ (S 1 ) . . . . . . . . 70

4 Vertices of projective curves 75

4.1 Classic 4-vertex and 6-vertex theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Ghys’ theorem on zeroes of the Schwarzian derivative and
geometry of Lorentzian curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

iii
iv CONTENTS

4.3 Barner theorem on inflections of projective curves . . . . . . . 86

4.4 Applications of strictly convex curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5 Discretization: geometry of polygons, back to configurations . 96
4.6 Inflections of Legendrian curves and singularities of wave fronts102

5 Projective invariants of submanifolds 109

5.1 Surfaces in RP3 : differential invariants and local geometry . . 110
5.2 Relative, affine and projective differential geometry of hyper-
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3 Geometry of relative normals and exact transverse line fields 129
5.4 Complete integrability of the geodesic flow on the ellipsoid
and of the billiard map inside the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.5 Hilbert’s 4-th problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.6 Global results on surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

6 Projective structures on smooth manifolds 159

6.1 Definition, examples and main properties . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.2 Projective structures in terms of differential forms . . . . . . 165
6.3 Tensor densities and two invariant differential operators . . . 168
6.4 Projective structures and tensor densities . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.5 Moduli space of projective structures in dimension 2, by V.
Fock and A. Goncharov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

7 Multi-dimensional Schwarzian derivatives and differential

operators 187
7.1 Multi-dimensional Schwarzian with coefficients in (2, 1)-tensors188
7.2 Projectively equivariant symbol calculus in any dimension . . 193
7.3 Multi-dimensional Schwarzian as a differential operator . . . 199
7.4 Application: classification of modules D λ2 (M ) for an arbitrary
manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.5 Poisson algebra of tensor densities on a contact manifold . . . 205
7.6 Lagrange Schwarzian derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

8 Appendices 223
8.1 Five proofs of the Sturm theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.2 Language of symplectic and contact geometry . . . . . . . . . 226
8.3 Language of connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.4 Language of homological algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.5 Remarkable cocycles on groups of diffeomorphisms . . . . . . 238
8.6 Godbillon-Vey class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
 8.7 Adler-Gelfand-Dickey bracket and infinite-dimensional Pois-
son geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Bibliography 251

Index 268
vi CONTENTS
Preface: why projective ?

Metrical geometry is a part of descriptive geometry 1 , and de-

scriptive geometry is all geometry.
Arthur Cayley

On October 5-th 2001, the authors of this book typed in the word
“Schwarzian” in the MathSciNet database and the system returned 666 hits.
Every working mathematician has encountered the Schwarzian derivative at
some point of his education and, most likely, tried to forget this rather scary
expression right away. One of the goals of this book is to convince the reader
that the Schwarzian derivative is neither complicated nor exotic, in fact, this
is a beautiful and natural geometrical object.
The Schwarzian derivative was discovered by Lagrange: “According to
a communication for which I am indebted to Herr Schwarz, this expression
occurs in Lagrange’s researches on conformable representation ‘Sur la con-
struction des cartes géographiques’ ” [117]; the Schwarzian also appeared in
a paper by Kummer in 1836, and it was named after Schwarz by Cayley. The
main two sources of current publications involving this notion are classical
complex analysis and one-dimensional dynamics. In modern mathematical
physics, the Schwarzian derivative is mostly associated with conformal field
theory. It also remains a source of inspiration for geometers.
The Schwarzian derivative is the simplest projective differential invari-
ant, namely, an invariant of a real projective line diffeomorphism under the
natural SL(2, R)-action on RP1 . The unavoidable complexity of the for-
mula for the Schwarzian is due to the fact that SL(2, R) is so large a group
(three-dimensional symmetry group of a one-dimensional space).
Projective geometry is simpler than affine or Euclidean ones: in pro-
jective geometry, there are no parallel lines or right angles, and all non-
degenerate conics are equivalent. This shortage of projective invariants is
1
By descriptive geometry Cayley means projective geometry, this term was in use in
mid-XIX-th century.

vii
viii PREFACE: WHY PROJECTIVE ?

due to the fact that the group of symmetries of the projective space RP n is
large. This group, PGL(n+1, R), is equal to the quotient of GL(n+1, R) by
its center. The greater the symmetry group, the fewer invariants it has. For
instance, there exists no PGL(n + 1, R)-invariant tensor field on RP n , such
as a metric or a differential form. Nevertheless, many projective invariants
have been found, from Ancient Greeks’ discovery of configuration theorems
to differential invariants. The group PGL(n + 1, R) is maximal among Lie
groups that can act effectively on n-dimensional manifolds. It is due to this
maximality that projective differential invariants, such as the Schwarzian
derivative, are uniquely determined by their invariance properties.
Once projective geometry used to be a core subject in university curricu-
lum and, as late as the first half of the XX-th century, projective differential
geometry was a cutting edge geometric research. Nowadays this subject
occupies a more modest position, and a rare mathematics major would be
familiar with the Pappus or Desargues theorems.
This book is not an exhaustive introduction to projective differential
geometry or a survey of its recent developments. It is addressed to the
reader who wishes to cover a greater distance in a short time and arrive
at the front line of contemporary research. This book can serve as a basis
for graduate topics courses. Exercises play a prominent role while historical
and cultural comments relate the subject to a broader mathematical context.
Parts of this book have been used for topic courses and expository lectures
for undergraduate and graduate students in France, Russia and the USA.
Ideas of projective geometry keep reappearing in seemingly unrelated
fields of mathematics. The authors of this book believe that projective
differential geometry is still very much alive and has a wealth of ideas to offer.
Our main goal is to describe connections of the classical projective geometry
with contemporary research and thus to emphasize unity of mathematics.

Acknowledgments. For many years we have been inspired by our

teachers V. I. Arnold, D. B. Fuchs and A. A. Kirillov who made a significant
contribution to the modern understanding of the material of this book. It
is a pleasure to thank our friends and collaborators C. Duval, B. Khesin, P.
Lecomte and C. Roger whose many results are included here. We are much
indebted to J. C. Alvarez, M. Ghomi, E. Ghys, J. Landsberg, S. Parmentier,
B. Solomon, G. Thorbergsson and M. Umehara for enlightening discussions
and help. It was equally pleasant and instructive to work with our younger
colleagues and students S. Bouarroudj, H. Gargoubi, L. Guieu and S. Morier-
Genoud. We are grateful to the Shapiro Fund at Penn State, the Research
in Pairs program at Oberwolfach and the National Science Foundation for
 ix

their support.
x PREFACE: WHY PROJECTIVE ?
Chapter 1

Introduction

...the field of projective differential geometry is so rich that it

seems well worth while to cultivate it with greater energy than
has been done heretofore.
E. J. Wilczynski

In this introductory chapter we present a panorama of the subject of this

book. The reader who decides to restrict himself to this chapter will get a
rather comprehensive impression of the area.
We start with the classical notions of curves in projective space and de-
fine projective duality. We then introduce first differential invariants such
as projective curvature and projective length of non-degenerate plane pro-
jective curves. Linear differential operators in one variable naturally appear
here to play a crucial role in the sequel.
Already in the one-dimensional case, projective differential geometry of-
fers a wealth of interesting structures and leads us directly to the celebrated
Virasoro algebra. The Schwarzian derivative is the main character here. We
tried to present classical and contemporary results in a unified synthetic
manner and reached the material discovered as late as the last decades of
the XX-th century.

1.1 Projective space and projective duality

Given a vector space V , the associated projective space, P(V ), consists of
one-dimensional subspaces of V . If V = R n+1 then P(V ) is denoted by
RPn . The projectivization, P(U ), of a subspace U ⊂ V is called a projective
subspace of P(V ).

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The dual projective space P(V )∗ is the projectivization of the dual vec-
tor space V ∗ . Projective duality is a correspondence between projective
subspaces of P(V ) and P(V )∗ , the respective linear subspaces of V and V ∗
are annulators of each other. Note that projective duality reverses the inci-
dence relation.
Natural local coordinates on RPn come from the vector space Rn+1 . If
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn are linear coordinates in Rn+1 , then yi = xi /x0 are called
affine coordinates on RPn ; these coordinates are defined in the chart x 0 6= 0.
Likewise, one defines affine charts xi 6= 0. The transition functions between
two affine coordinate systems are fractional-linear.

Projectively dual curves in dimension 2

The projective duality extends to curves. A smooth curve γ in RP 2 deter-
mines a 1-parameter family of its tangent lines. Each of these lines gives a
∗ ∗
point in the dual plane RP2 and we obtain a new curve γ ∗ in RP2 , called
the dual curve.
In a generic point of γ, the dual curve is smooth. Points in which γ ∗ has
singularities correspond to inflection of γ. In generic points, γ has order 1
contact with its tangent line; inflection points are those points where the
order of contact is higher.

γ γ∗

Figure 1.1: Duality between an inflection and a cusp

Exercise 1.1.1. a) Two parabolas, given in affine coordinates by y = x α

and y = xβ , are dual for 1/α + 1/β = 1.
b) The curves in figure 1.2 are dual to each other.
A fundamental fact is that (γ ∗ )∗ = γ which justifies the terminology (a
proof given in the next subsection). As a consequence, one has an alternative
definition of the dual curve. Every point of γ determines a line in the dual
plane, and the envelope of these lines is γ ∗ .
Two remarks are in order. The definition of the dual curve extends to
curves with cusps, provided the tangent line is defined at every point and
1.1. PROJECTIVE SPACE AND PROJECTIVE DUALITY 3

γ γ∗

Figure 1.2: Projectively dual curves

depends on the point continuously. Secondly, duality interchanges double

points with double tangent lines.
Exercise 1.1.2. Consider a generic smooth closed immersed plane curve γ.
Let T± be the number of double tangent lines to γ such that locally γ lies
on one side (respectively, opposite sides) of the double tangent, see figure
1.3, I the number of inflection points and N the number of double points of
γ. Prove that
1
T+ − T− − I = N.
2

T+ T- I N

Figure 1.3: Invariants of plane curves

Hint. Orient γ and let `(x) be the positive tangent ray at x ∈ γ. Consider
the number of intersection points of `(x) with γ and investigate how this
number changes as x traverses γ. Do the same with the negative tangent
ray.

Projective curves in higher dimensions

Consider a generic smooth parameterized curve γ(t) in RP n and its generic
point γ(0). Construct a flag of subspaces as follows. Fix an affine coor-
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

dinate system, and define the k-th osculating subspace F k as the span of
γ 0 (0), γ 00 (0), . . . , γ (k) (0). This projective space depends neither on the pa-
rameterization nor on the choice of affine coordinates. For instance, the
first osculating space is the tangent line; the n − 1-th is called the osculating
hyperplane.
A curve γ is called non-degenerate if, in every point of γ, one has the
full osculating flag
F1 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Fn = RPn . (1.1.1)
A non-degenerate curve γ determines a 1-parameter family of its osculating
hyperplanes. Each of these hyperplanes gives a point in the dual space RP n∗ ,
and we obtain a new curve γ ∗ called the dual curve.
As before, one has the next result.

Theorem 1.1.3. The curve, dual to a non-degenerate one, is smooth and

non-degenerate, and (γ ∗ )∗ = γ.

Proof. Let γ(t) be a non-degenerate parameterized curve in RP n , and Γ(t)

its arbitrary lift to Rn+1 . The curve γ ∗ (t) lifts to a curve Γ∗ (t) in the dual
vector space satisfying the equations

Γ · Γ∗ = 0, Γ0 · Γ∗ = 0, ..., Γ(n−1) · Γ∗ = 0, (1.1.2)

where dot denotes the pairing between vectors and covectors. Any solution
Γ∗ (t) of (1.1.2) projects to γ ∗ (t). Since γ is non-degenerate, the rank of
system (1.1.2) equals n. Therefore, γ ∗ (t) is uniquely defined and depends
smoothly on t.
Differentiating system (1.1.2), we see that Γ (i) ·Γ∗ (j) = 0 for i+j ≤ n−1.
Hence the osculating flag of the curve γ ∗ is dual to that of γ and the curve
γ ∗ is non-degenerate. In particular, for i = 0, we obtain Γ · Γ ∗ (j) = 0 with
j = 0, . . . , n − 1. Thus, (γ ∗ )∗ = γ.

As in the 2-dimensional case, the dual curve γ ∗ can be also obtained

as the envelope of a 1-parameter family of subspaces in RP n∗ , namely, of
the dual k-th osculating spaces of γ. All this is illustrated by the following
celebrated example.

Example 1.1.4. Consider a curve γ(t) in RP3 given, in affine coordinates,

by the equations:
y1 = t, y2 = t2 , y3 = t4 .
This curve is non-degenerate at point γ(0). The plane, dual to point γ(t),
∗
is given, in an appropriate affine coordinate system (a 1 , a2 , a3 ) in RP3 , by
1.2. DISCRETE INVARIANTS AND CONFIGURATIONS 5

the equation
t4 + a1 t2 + a2 t + a3 = 0. (1.1.3)
This 1-parameter family of planes envelops a surface called the swallow tail
and shown in figure 1.4. This developable surface consists of the tangent
lines to the curve γ ∗ . Note the cusp of γ ∗ at the origin.

Figure 1.4: Swallow tail

Comment
The study of polynomials (1.1.3) and figure 1.4 go back to the XIX-th cen-
tury [118]; the name “swallow tail” was invented by R. Thom in mid XX-th
century in the framework of the emerging singularity theory (see [16]). The
swallow tail is the set of polynomials (1.1.3) with multiple roots, and the
curve γ ∗ corresponds to polynomials with triple roots. This surface is a
typical example of a developable surface, i.e., surface of zero Gauss curva-
ture. The classification of developable surfaces is due to L. Euler (cf.[193]):
generically, such a surface consists of the tangent lines of a curve, called the
edge of regression. The edge of regression itself has a singularity as in figure
1.4.
Unlike the Plücker formula of classic algebraic geometry, the result of
Exercise 1.1.2 is surprisingly recent; it was obtained by Fabricius-Bjerre in
1962 [61]. This result has numerous generalizations, see, e.g., [199, 66].

1.2 Discrete invariants and configurations

The oldest invariants in projective geometry are projective invariants of
configurations of point and lines. Our exposition is just a brief excursion to
the subject, for a thorough treatment see, e.g., [22].
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Cross-ratio
Consider the projective line RP1 . Every triple of points can be taken to
any other triple by a projective transformation. This is not the case for
quadruples of points: four points in RP1 have a numeric invariant called the
cross-ratio. Choosing an affine parameter t to identify RP 1 with R ∪ {∞},
the action of PGL(2, R) is given by fractional-linear transformations:

at + b
t 7→ . (1.2.1)
ct + d

The four points are represented by numbers t 1 , t2 , t3 , t4 , and the cross-ratio

is defined as
(t1 − t3 )(t2 − t4 )
[t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 ] = . (1.2.2)
(t1 − t2 )(t3 − t4 )
A quadruple of points is called harmonic if its cross-ratio is equal to −1.

Exercise 1.2.1. a) Check that the cross-ratio does not change under trans-
formations (1.2.1).
b) Investigate how the cross-ratio changes under permutations of the four
points.

a b c
d
A' B' C' D'

A B C D

Figure 1.5: Cross-ratio of lines: [A, B, C, D] = [A 0 , B 0 , C 0 , D 0 ] := [a, b, c, d]

One defines also the cross-ratio of four concurrent lines in RP 2 , that is,
four lines through one point. The pencil of lines through a point identifies
with RP1 , four lines define a quadruple of points in RP 1 , and we take their
cross-ratio. Equivalently, intersect the four lines with an auxiliary line and
take the cross-ratio of the intersection points therein, see figure 1.5.
1.2. DISCRETE INVARIANTS AND CONFIGURATIONS 7

Pappus and Desargues

Let us mention two configurations in the projective plane. Figures 1.6 depict
two classical theorems.

Figure 1.6: Pappus and Desargues theorems

The Pappus theorem describes the following construction which we rec-

ommend to the reader to perform using a ruler or his favorite drawing soft-
ware. Start with two lines, pick three points on each. Connect the points
pairwise as shown in figure 1.6 to obtain three new intersection points. These
three points are also collinear.
In the Desargues theorem, draw three lines through one point and pick
two points on each to obtain two perspective triangles. Intersect the pairs
of corresponding sides of the triangles. The three points of intersection are
again collinear.

Pascal and Brianchon

The next theorems, depicted in figure 1.7, involve conics. To obtain the
Pascal theorem, replace the two original lines in the Pappus configuration
by a conic. In the Brianchon theorem, circumscribe a hexagon about a conic
and connect the opposite vertices by diagonals. The three lines intersect at
one point.
Unlike the Pappus and Desargues configurations, the Pascal and Brian-
chon ones are projectively dual to each other.

Steiner
Steiner’s theorem provides a definition of the cross-ratio of four points on
a conic. Choose a point P on a conic. Given four points A, B, C, D, define
their cross-ratio as that of the lines (P A), (P B), (P C), (P D). The theorem
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.7: Pascal and Brianchon theorems

B C
A D

P P1

Figure 1.8: Steiner theorem

asserts that this cross-ratio is independent of the choice of point P :

[(P A), (P B), (P C), (P D)] = [(P1 A), (P1 B), (P1 C), (P1 D)]

in figure 1.8.

Comment
In 1636 Girard Desargues published a pamphlet “A sample of one of the
general methods of using perspective” that laid the foundation of projective
geometry; the Desargues theorem appeared therein. The Pappus configura-
tion is considerably older; it was known as early as the III-rd century A.D.
The triple of lines in figure 1.6 is a particular case of a cubic curve, the
Pappus configuration holds true for 9 points on an arbitrary cubic curve –
see figure 1.9. This more general formulation contains the Pascal theorem
as well. Particular cases of Steiner’s theorem were already known to Apol-
1.3. INTRODUCING SCHWARZIAN DERIVATIVE 9

Figure 1.9: Generalized Pappus theorem

lonius 1 . Surprisingly, even today, there appear new generalizations of the

Pappus and the Desargues theorems, see [182, 183].

1.3 Introducing Schwarzian derivative

Projective differential geometry studies projective invariants of functions,
diffeomorphisms, submanifolds, etc. One way to construct such invariants
is to investigate how discrete invariants vary in continuous families.

Schwarzian derivative and cross-ratio

The best known and most popular projective differential invariant is the
Schwarzian derivative. Consider a diffeomorphism f : RP 1 → RP1 . The
Schwarzian derivative measures how f changes the cross-ratio of infinitesi-
mally close points.
Let x be a point in RP1 and v be a tangent vector to RP1 at x. Extend
v to a vector field in a vicinity of x and denote by φ t the corresponding local
one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms. Consider 4 points:

x, x1 = φε (x), x2 = φ2ε (x), x3 = φ3ε (x)

1
We are indebted to B. A. Rosenfeld for enlightening discussions on Ancient Greek
mathematics
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

(ε is small) and compare their cross-ratio with that of their images under f .
It turns out that the cross-ratio does not change in the first order in ε:

[f (x), f (x1 ), f (x2 ), f (x3 )] = [x, x1 , x2 , x3 ] − 2ε2 S(f )(x) + O(ε3 ). (1.3.1)

The ε2 –coefficient depends on the diffeomorphism f , the point x and the

tangent vector v, but not on its extension to a vector field.
The term S(f ) is called the Schwarzian derivative of a diffeomorphism
f . It is homogeneous of degree 2 in v and therefore S(f ) is a quadratic
differential on RP1 , that is, a quadratic form on T RP1 .
Choose an affine coordinate x ∈ R ∪ {∞} = RP1 . Then the projective
transformations are identified with fractional-linear functions and quadratic
differentials are written as φ = a(x) (dx) 2 . The change of variables is then
described by the formula

2
φ ◦ f = f0 a(f (x)) (dx)2 . (1.3.2)

The Schwarzian derivative is given by the formula

  !
f 000 3 f 00 2
S(f ) = − (dx)2 . (1.3.3)
f0 2 f0

Exercise 1.3.1. a) Check that (1.3.1) contains no term, linear in ε.

b) Prove that S(f ) does not depend on the extension of v to a vector field.
c) Verify formula (1.3.3).

The Schwarzian derivative enjoys remarkable properties.

• By the very construction, S(g) = 0 if g is a projective transformation,

and S(g ◦ f ) = S(f ) if g is a projective transformation. Conversely, if
S(g) = 0 then g is a projective transformation.

• For arbitrary diffeomorphisms f and g,

S(g ◦ f ) = S(g) ◦ f + S(f ) (1.3.4)

where S(g) ◦ f is defined as in (1.3.2). Homological meaning of this

equation will be explained in Section 1.5.

Exercise 1.3.2. Prove formula (1.3.4).

1.3. INTRODUCING SCHWARZIAN DERIVATIVE 11

Curves in the projective line

By a curve we mean a parameterized curve, that is, a smooth map from R to
RP1 . In other words, we consider a moving one-dimensional subspace in R 2 .
Two curves γ1 (t) and γ2 (t) are called equivalent if there exists a projective
transformation g ∈ PGL(2, R) such that γ 2 (t) = g◦γ1 (t). Recall furthermore
that a curve in RP1 is non-degenerate if its speed is never vanishing (cf.
Section 1.1).
One wants to describe the equivalence classes of non-degenerate curves in
RP1 . In answering this question we encounter, for the first time, a powerful
tool of projective differential geometry, linear differential operators.
Theorem-construction 1.3.1. There is a one-to-one correspondence be-
tween equivalence classes of non-degenerate curves in RP 1 and Sturm-Liou-
ville operators
d2
L = 2 + u(t) (1.3.5)
dt
where u(t) is a smooth function.
Proof. Consider the Sturm-Liouville equation ψ̈(t)+u(t)ψ(t) = 0 associated
with an operator (1.3.5). The space of solutions, V , of this equation is two-
dimensional. Associating to each value of t a one-dimensional subspace of
V consisting of solutions vanishing for this t, we obtain a family of one-
dimensional subspaces depending on t. Finally, identifying V with R 2 by an
arbitrary choice of a basis, ψ1 (t), ψ2 (t), we obtain a curve in RP1 , defined
up to a projective equivalence.

γ(t) Γ(t)

Γ(t)

Figure 1.10: Canonical lift of γ to R 2 : the area |Γ(t), Γ̇(t)| = 1

Conversely, consider a non-degenerate curve γ(t) in RP 1 . It can be

uniquely lifted to R2 as a curve Γ(t) such that |Γ(t), Γ̇(t)| = 1, see figure
1.10. Differentiate to see that the vector Γ̈(t) is proportional to Γ(t):
Γ̈(t) + u(t)Γ(t) = 0.
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

We have obtained a Sturm-Liouville operator. If γ(t) is replaced by a pro-

jectively equivalent curve then its lift Γ(t) is replaced by a curve A(Γ(t))
where A ∈ SL(2, R), and the respective Sturm-Liouville operator remains
intact.

Exercise 1.3.3. a) The curve corresponding to a Sturm-Liouville operator

is non-degenerate.
b) The two above constructions are inverse to each other.
To compute explicitly the correspondence between Sturm-Liouville op-
erators and non-degenerate curves, fix an affine coordinate on RP 1 . A curve
γ is then given by a function f (t).
Exercise 1.3.4. Check that u(t) = 21 S(f (t)).
Thus the Schwarzian derivative enters the plot for the second time.

Projective structures on R and S 1

The definition of projective structure resembles many familiar definitions
in differential topology or differential geometry (smooth manifold, vector
bundle, etc.). A projective structure on R is given by an atlas (U i , ϕi )
where (Ui ) is an open covering of R and the maps ϕ i : Ui → RP1 are local
diffeomorphisms satisfying the following condition: the locally defined maps
ϕi ◦ϕ−1 1
j on RP are projective. Two such atlases are equivalent if their union
is again an atlas.
Informally speaking, a projective structure is a local identification of R
with RP1 . For every quadruple of sufficiently close points one has the notion
of cross-ratio.
A projective atlas defines an immersion ϕ : R → RP1 ; a projective struc-
ture gives a projective equivalence class of such immersions. The immersion
ϕ, modulo projective equivalence, is called the developing map . According
to Theorem 1.3.1, the developing map ϕ gives rise to a Sturm-Liouville oper-
ator (1.3.5). Therefore, the space of projective structures on S 1 is identified
with the space of Sturm-Liouville operators.
The definition of projective structure on S 1 is analogous, but it has a new
feature. Identifying S 1 with R/Z, the developing map satisfies the following
condition:
ϕ(t + 1) = M (ϕ(t)) (1.3.6)
for some M ∈ PGL(2, R). The projective map M is called the monodromy
. Again, the developing map is defined up to the projective equivalence:
(ϕ(t), M ) ∼ (gϕ(t), gM g −1 ) for g ∈ PGL(2, R).
1.3. INTRODUCING SCHWARZIAN DERIVATIVE 13

The monodromy condition (1.3.6) implies that, for the corresponding

Sturm-Liouville operator, one has u(t + 1) = u(t), while the solutions have
the monodromy M f ∈ SL(2, R), which is a lift of M . To summarize, the space
of projective structures on S 1 is identified with the space of Sturm-Liouville
operators with 1-periodic potentials u(t).

Diff(S 1 )- and Vect(S 1 )-action on projective structures

The group of diffeomorphisms Diff(S 1 ) naturally acts on projective atlases
and, therefore, on the space of projective structures. In terms of the Sturm-
Liouville operators, this action is given by the transformation rule for the
potential

2 1
Tf −1 : u 7→ f 0 u(f ) + S(f ), (1.3.7)
2
where f ∈ Diff(S 1 ). This follows from Exercise 1.3.4 and formula (1.3.4).
The Lie algebra corresponding to Diff(S 1 ) is the algebra of vector fields
Vect(S 1 ). The vector fields are written as X = h(t)d/dt and their commu-
tator as

d
[X1 , X2 ] = h1 h02 − h01 h2 .
dt
Whenever one has a differentiable action of Diff(S 1 ), one also has an action
of Vect(S 1 ) on the same space.

Exercise 1.3.5. Check that the action of a vector field X = h(t)d/dt on

the potential of a Sturm-Liouville operator is given by

1 000
tX : u 7→ hu0 + 2h0 u + h . (1.3.8)
2
It is interesting to describe the kernel of this action.

Exercise 1.3.6. a) Let φ1 and φ2 be two solutions of the Sturm-Liouville

equation φ00 (t)+u(t)φ(t) = 0. Check that, for the vector field X = φ 1 φ2 d/dt,
one has tX = 0.
b) The kernel of the action t is a Lie algebra isomorphic to sl(2, R); this
is precisely the Lie algebra of symmetries of the projective structure corre-
sponding to the Sturm-Liouville operator.

Hint. The space of solutions of the equation t X = 0 is three-dimensional,

hence the products of two solutions of the Sturm-Liouville equation span
this space.
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

y2

y1
y2
y1
Γ

Figure 1.11: Zeroes of solutions

Sturm theorem on zeroes

The classic Sturm theorem states that between two zeroes of a solution of a
Sturm-Liouville equation any other solution has a zero as well. The simplest
proof is an application of the above identification between Sturm-Liouville
equations and projective structures on S 1 . Consider the corresponding de-
veloping map γ : S 1 → RP1 and its lift Γ to R2 . Every solution φ of the
Sturm-Liouville equation is a pull-back of a linear function y on R 2 . Ze-
roes of φ are the intersection points of Γ with the line y = 0. Since γ is
non-degenerate, the intermediate value theorem implies that between two
intersections of Γ with any line there is an intersection with any other line,
see figure 1.11 and [163] for an elementary exposition.

Comment
The Schwarzian derivative is historically the first and most fundamental
projective differential invariant. The natural identification of the space of
projective structures with the space of Sturm-Liouville operators is an im-
portant conceptual result of one-dimensional projective differential geome-
try, see [222] for a survey. Exercise 1.3.6 is Kirillov’s observation [115].

1.4 Further example of differential invariants: pro-

jective curvature
The second oldest differential invariant of projective geometry is the pro-
jective curvature of a plane curve. The term “curvature” is somewhat mis-
leading: the projective curvature is, by no means, a function on the curve.
We will define the projective curvature as a projective structure on the curve.
In a nutshell, the curve is approximated by its osculating conic which, by
1.4. FURTHER EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL INVARIANTS: PROJECTIVE CURVATURE15

Steiner’s theorem (cf. Section 1.2), has a projective structure induced from
RP2 ; this projective structure is transplanted from the osculating conic to
the curve. To realize this program, we will proceed in a traditional way and
represent projective curves by differential operators.

Plane curves and differential operators

Consider a parameterized non-degenerate curve γ(t) in RP 2 , that is, a curve
without inflection points (see Section 1.1 for a general definition). Repeating
the construction of Theorem 1.3.1 yields a third-order linear differential
operator
d3 d
A = 3 + q(t) + r(t). (1.4.1)
dt dt
Example 1.4.1. Let γ(t) be the conic (recall that all non-degenerate conics
in RP2 are projectively equivalent). The corresponding differential operator
(1.4.1) has a special form:

d3 d 1
A1 = 3
+ q(t) + q 0 (t). (1.4.2)
dt dt 2
Indeed, consider the Veronese map V : RP1 → RP2 given by the formula

V (x0 : x1 ) = (x20 : x0 x1 : x21 ). (1.4.3)

The image of RP1 is a conic, and γ(t) is the image of a parameterized curve
in RP1 . A parameterized curve in RP1 corresponds to a Sturm-Liouville
operator (1.3.5) so that {x0 (t), x1 (t)} is a basis of solutions of the Sturm-
Liouville equation Lψ = 0. It remains to check that every product

y(t) = xi (t)xj (t), i, j = 1, 2

satisfies A1 y = 0 with q(t) = 4u(t).

Exercise 1.4.2. We now have two projective structures on the conic in RP 2 :

the one given by Steiner’s theorem and the one induced by the Veronese map
from RP1 . Prove that these structures coincide.

Projective curvature via differential operators

Associate the following Sturm-Liouville operator with the operator A:
d2 1
L= 2
+ q(t). (1.4.4)
dt 4
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

According to Section 1.3, we obtain a projective structure on R and thus on

the parameterized curve γ(t).

Theorem 1.4.3. This projective structure on γ(t) does not depend on the
choice of the parameter t.

Proof. Recall the notion of dual (or adjoint) operator: for a differential
monomial one has
 dk  ∗ k
k d
a(t) = (−1) ◦ a(t). (1.4.5)
dtk dtk
Consider the decomposition of the operator (1.4.1) into the sum

A = A 1 + A0 (1.4.6)

of its skew-symmetric part A1 = −A∗1 given by (1.4.2) and the symmetric

part A0 = A∗0 . Note, that the symmetric part is a scalar operator:

1 0
A0 = r(t) − q (t). (1.4.7)
2
The decomposition (1.4.6) is intrinsic, that is, independent of the choice of
the parameter t (cf. Section 2.2 below).
The correspondence A 7→ L is a composition of two operations: A 7→ A 1
and A1 7→ L; the second one is also intrinsic, cf. Example 1.4.1.

Exercise 1.4.4. The operator (1.4.2) is skew-symmetric: A ∗1 = −A1 .

To wit, a non-degenerate curve in RP2 carries a canonical projective

structure which we call the projective curvature. In the next chapter we will
explain that the expression A0 in (1.4.7) is, in fact, a cubic differential; the
cube root (A0 )1/3 is called the projective length element . The projective
length element is identically zero for a conic and, moreover, vanishes in those
points of the curve in which the osculating conic is hyper-osculating.
Traditionally, the projective curvature is considered as a function q(t)
where t is a special parameter for which A 0 ≡ 1, i.e., the projective length
element equals dt.
On the other hand, one can choose a different parameter x on the curve
in such a way that q(x) ≡ 0, namely, the affine coordinate of the defined
projective structure. This shows that the projective curvature is neither a
function nor a tensor.
1.4. FURTHER EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL INVARIANTS: PROJECTIVE CURVATURE17

Exercise 1.4.5. a) Let A be the differential operator corresponding to a

non-degenerate parameterized curve γ(t) in RP2 . Prove that the operator
corresponding to the dual curve γ ∗ (t) is −A∗ .
b) Consider a non-degenerate parameterized curve γ(t) in RP 2 and let γ ∗ (t)
be projectively equivalent to γ(t), i.e., there exists a projective isomorphism
∗
ϕ : RP2 → RP2 such that γ ∗ (t) = ϕ(γ(t)). Prove that γ(t) is a conic.

l3

l2

l1

l0

Figure 1.12: Projective curvature as cross-ratio

Projective curvature and cross-ratio

Consider four points

γ(t), γ(t + ε), γ(t + 2ε), γ(t + 3ε)

of a non-degenerate curve in RP2 . These points determine four lines ` 0 , `1 , `2

and `3 as in figure 1.12.
Let us expand the cross-ratio of these lines in powers of ε.

Exercise 1.4.6. One has

[`0 , `1 , `2 , `3 ] = 4 − 2ε2 q(t) + O(ε3 ). (1.4.8)

This formula relates the projective curvature with the cross-ratio.

Comparison with affine curvature

Let us illustrate the preceding construction by comparison with geometri-
cally more transparent notion of the affine curvature and the affine param-
eter (see, e.g., [193]).
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

x x+ε

Figure 1.13: Cubic form on an affine curve

Consider a non-degenerate curve γ in the affine plane with a fixed area

form. We define a cubic form on γ as follows. Let v be a tangent vector to γ
at point x. Extend v to a tangent vector field along γ and denote by φ t the
corresponding local one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms of γ. Consider
the segment between x and φε (x), see figure 1.13, and denote by A(x, v, ε)
the area, bounded by it and the curve. This function behaves cubically in
ε, and we define a cubic form
A(x, v, ε)
σ(x, v) = lim . (1.4.9)
ε→0 ε3
A parameter t on γ is called affine if σ = c(dt) 3 with a positive constant c.
By the very construction, the notion of affine parameter is invariant with
respect to the group of affine transformations of the plane while σ is invariant
under the (smaller) equiaffine group.
Alternatively, an affine parameter is characterized by the condition

|γ 0 (t), γ 00 (t)| = const.

Hence the vectors γ 000 (t) and γ 0 (t) are proportional: γ 000 (t) = −k(t)γ 0 (t). The
function k(t) is called the affine curvature.
The affine parameter is not defined at inflection points. The affine cur-
vature is constant if and only if γ is a conic.

Comment
The notion of projective curvature appeared in the literature in the second
half of the XIX-th century. From the very beginning, curves were studied
in the framework of differential operators – see [231] for an account of this
early period of projective differential geometry.
In his book [37], E. Cartan also calculated the projective curvature as
a function of the projective length parameter. However, he gave an inter-
pretation of the projective curvature in terms of a projective structure on
the curve. Cartan invented a geometrical construction of developing a non-
degenerate curve on its osculating conic. This construction is a projective
1.5. SCHWARZIAN DERIVATIVE AS A COCYCLE OF DIFF(RP 1 ) 19

counterpart of the Huygens construction of the involute of a plane curve

using a non-stretchable string: the role of the tangent line is played by the
osculating conic and the role of the Euclidean length by the projective one.
Affine differential geometry and the corresponding differential invariants
appeared later than the projective ones. A systematic theory was developed
between 1910 and 1930, mostly by Blaschke’s school.

1.5 Schwarzian derivative as a cocycle of Diff(RP1)

The oldest differential invariant of projective geometry, the Schwarzian deri-
vative, remains the most interesting one. In this section we switch gears
and discuss the relation of the Schwarzian derivative with cohomology of
the group Diff(RP1 ). This contemporary viewpoint leads to promising ap-
plications that will be discussed later in the book. To better understand the
material of this and the next section, the reader is recommended to consult
Section 8.4.

Invariant and relative 1-cocycles

Let G be a group, V a G-module and T : G → End(V ) the G-action on
V . A map C : G → V is called a 1-cocycle on G with coefficients in V if it
satisfies the condition

C(gh) = Tg C(h) + C(g). (1.5.1)

A 1-cocycle C is called a coboundary if

C(g) = Tg v − v (1.5.2)

for some fixed v ∈ V . The quotient group of 1-cocycles by coboundaries is

H 1 (G, V ), the first cohomology group; see Section 8.4 for more details.
Let H be a subgroup of G. A 1-cocycle C is H-invariant if

C(hgh−1 ) = Th C(g) (1.5.3)

for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G.

Another important class of 1-cocycles associated with a subgroup H
consists of the cocycles vanishing on H. Such cocycles are called H-relative
.
Exercise 1.5.1. Let H be a subgroup of G and let C be a 1-cocycle on G.
Prove that the following three conditions are equivalent:
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1) C(h) = 0 for all h ∈ H;

2) C(gh) = C(g) for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G;
3) C(hg) = Th (C(g)) for all h ∈ H and g ∈ G.
The property of a 1-cocycle to be H-relative is stronger than the condition
to be H-invariant.
Exercise 1.5.2. Check that the conditions 1) – 3) imply (1.5.3).

Tensor densities in dimension 1

All tensor fields on a one-dimensional manifold M are of the form:
φ = φ(x)(dx)λ , (1.5.4)
where λ ∈ R and x is a local coordinate; φ is called a tensor density of
degree λ. The space of tensor densities is denoted by F λ (M ), or Fλ , for
short. Equivalently, a tensor density of degree λ is defined as a section of
the line bundle (T ∗ M )⊗λ .
The group Diff(M ) naturally acts on F λ . To describe explicitly this
action, consider the space of functions C ∞ (M ) and define a 1-parameter
family of Diff(M )-actions on this space:

λ
Tλf−1 : φ(x) 7→ f 0 φ(f (x)) , f ∈ Diff(M ) (1.5.5)
cf. formula (1.3.2) for quadratic differentials. The Diff(M )-module F λ is
nothing else but the module (C ∞ (M ), Tλ ). Although all Fλ are isomorphic
to each other as vector spaces, Fλ and Fµ are not isomorphic as Diff(M )-
modules unless λ = µ (cf. [72]).
In the case M = S 1 , there is a Diff(M )-invariant pairing F λ ⊗ F1−λ → R
given by the integral
Z
λ 1−λ
hφ(x)(dx) , ψ(x)(dx) i= φ(x)ψ(x)dx
S1
Example 1.5.3. In particular, F0 is the space of smooth functions, F1 is
the space of 1-forms, F2 is the space of quadratic differentials, familiar from
the definition of the Schwarzian derivative, while F −1 is the space of vector
fields. The whole family Fλ is of importance, especially for integer and
half-integer values of λ.
Exercise 1.5.4. a) Check that formula (1.5.5) indeed defines an action of
Diff(M ), that is, for all diffeomorphisms f, g, one has T λf ◦ Tλg = Tλf◦g .
b) Show that the Vect(M )-action on F λ (M ) is given by the formula
Lλh(x) d : φ(dx)λ 7→ (hφ0 + λ h0 φ)(dx)λ . (1.5.6)
dx
1.5. SCHWARZIAN DERIVATIVE AS A COCYCLE OF DIFF(RP 1 ) 21

First cohomology with coefficients in tensor densities

Recall identity (1.3.4) for the Schwarzian derivative. This identity means
that the Schwarzian derivative defines a 1-cocycle f 7→ S(f −1 ) on Diff(RP1 )
with coefficients in the space of quadratic differentials F 2 (RP1 ). This cocycle
is not a coboundary; indeed, unlike S(f ), any coboundary (1.5.2) depends
only on the 1-jet of a diffeomorphism – see formula (1.5.5).
The Schwarzian derivative vanishes on the subgroup PGL(2, R), and thus
it is PGL(2, R)-invariant.
Let us describe the first cohomology of the group Diff(RP 1 ) with coeffi-
cients in Fλ . These cohomologies can be interpreted as equivalence classes
of affine modules (or extensions) on F λ . If G is a Lie group and V its
module then a structure of affine module on V is a structure of G-module
on the space V ⊕ R defined by

Teg : (v, α) 7→ (Tg v + α C(g), α),

where C is a 1-cocycle on G with values in V . See Section 8.4 for more

information on affine modules and extensions.

Theorem 1.5.5. One has

(
R, λ = 0, 1, 2,
H 1 (Diff(RP1 ); Fλ ) = (1.5.7)
0, otherwise

We refer to [72] for details. The corresponding cohomology classes are

represented by the 1-cocycles
 000 
−1 0 −1 f 00 −1 f 3  f 00 2
C0 (f ) = ln f , C1 (f ) = 0 dx, C2 (f ) = − (dx)2 .
f f0 2 f0

The first cocycle makes sense in Euclidean geometry and the second one
in affine geometry. Their restrictions to the subgroup PGL(2, R) are non-
trivial, hence these cohomology classes cannot be represented by PGL(2, R)-
relative cocycles.
One is usually interested in cohomology classes, not in the represent-
ing cocycles which, as a rule, depend on arbitrary choices. However, the
Schwarzian derivative is canonical in the following sense.

Theorem 1.5.6. The Schwarzian derivative is a unique (up to a constant)

PGL(2, R)-relative 1-cocycle on Diff(RP 1 ) with coefficients in F2 .
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Proof. If there are two such cocycles, then, by Theorem 1.5.5, their linear
combination is a coboundary, and this coboundary vanishes on PGL(2, R).
Every coboundary is of the form

C(f ) = Tf (φ) − φ

for some φ ∈ F2 . Therefore one has a non-zero PGL(2, R)-invariant quadratic

differential. It remains to note that PGL(2, R) does not preserve any tensor
field on RP1 .

Exercise 1.5.7. Prove that the infinitesimal version of the Schwarzian

derivative is the following 1-cocycle on the Lie algebra Vect(RP 1 ):

d
h(x) 7→ h000 (x) (dx)2 . (1.5.8)
dx

1.6 Virasoro algebra: the coadjoint representation

The Virasoro algebra is one of the best known infinite-dimensional Lie al-
gebras, defined as a central extension of Vect(S 1 ). A central extension of
a Lie algebra g is a Lie algebra structure on the space g ⊕ R given by the
commutator
[(X, α), (Y, β)] = ([X, Y ], c(X, Y )),
where X, Y ∈ g, α, β ∈ R and c : g → R is a 1-cocycle. The reader can find
more information on central extensions in Section 8.4.

Definition of the Virasoro algebra

The Lie algebra Vect(S 1 ) has a central extension given by the so-called
Gelfand-Fuchs cocycle
 Z
d d 
c h1 (x) , h2 (x) = h01 (x) h002 (x) dx. (1.6.1)
dx dx S 1

The corresponding Lie algebra is called the Virasoro algebra and will be
denoted by Vir. This is a unique (up to isomorphism) non-trivial central
extension of Vect(S 1 ) (cf. Lemma 8.5.3).

Exercise 1.6.1. Check the Jacobi identity for Vir.

Note that the cocycle (1.6.1) is obtained by pairing the cocycle (1.5.8)
with a vector field.
1.6. VIRASORO ALGEBRA: THE COADJOINT REPRESENTATION23

Computing the coadjoint representation

To explain the relation of the Virasoro algebra to projective geometry we
use the notion of coadjoint representation defined as follows. A Lie algebra
g acts on its dual space by

had∗X φ, Y i := −hφ, [X, Y ]i,

for φ ∈ g∗ and X, Y ∈ g. This coadjoint representation carries much infor-

mation about the Lie algebra.
The dual space to the Virasoro algebra is Vir ∗ = Vect(S 1 )∗ ⊕ R. It is
always natural to begin the study of the dual space to a functional space
with its subspace called the regular dual. This subspace is spanned by the
distributions given by smooth compactly supported functions.
Consider the regular dual space, Vir ∗reg = C ∞ (S 1 ) ⊕ R consisting of pairs
(u(x), c) where u(x) ∈ C ∞ (S 1 ) and c ∈ R, so that
Z
h(u(x), c), (h(x)d/dx, α)i := u(x)h(x)dx + cα.
S1

The regular dual space is invariant under the coadjoint action.

Exercise 1.6.2. The explicit formula for the coadjoint action of the Vira-
soro algebra on its regular dual space is

ad∗(hd/dx, α) (u, c) = (hu0 + 2h0 u − c h000 , 0). (1.6.2)

Note that the center of Vir acts trivially.

A remarkable coincidence
In the first two terms of the above formula (1.6.2) we recognize the Lie
derivative (1.5.6) of quadratic differentials, the third term is nothing else
but the cocycle (1.5.8), so that the action (1.6.2) is an affine module (see
Section 1.5). Moreover, this action coincides with the natural Vect(S 1 )-
action on the space of Sturm-Liouville operators (for c = −1/2), see formula
(1.3.8).
Thus one identifies, as Vect(S 1 )-modules, the regular dual space Vir ∗reg
and the space of Sturm-Liouville operators
d2
(u(x), c) ↔ −2c + u(x) (1.6.3)
dx2
and obtains a nice geometrical interpretation for the coadjoint representation
of the Virasoro algebra.
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Remark 1.6.3. To simplify exposition, we omit the definition of the Vira-

soro group (the group analog of the Virasoro algebra) and the computation of
its coadjoint action which, indeed, coincides with the Diff(S 1 )-action (1.3.7).

Coadjoint orbits
The celebrated Kirillov’s orbit method concerns the study of the coadjoint
representation. Coadjoint orbits of a Lie algebra g are defined as integral
surfaces in g∗ , tangent to the vector fields φ̇ = ad∗X φ for all X ∈ g 2 .
Classification of the coadjoint orbits of a Lie group or a Lie algebra is always
an interesting problem.
The identification (1.6.3) makes it possible to express invariants of the
coadjoint orbits of the Virasoro algebra in terms of invariants of Sturm-
Liouville operators (and projective structures on S 1 , see Theorem 1.3.1).
An invariant of a differential operator on S 1 is the monodromy operator
mentioned in Section 1.3. In the case of Sturm-Liouville operators, this is
an element of the universal covering PGL(2,^R).

Theorem 1.6.4. The monodromy operator is the unique invariant of the

coadjoint orbits of the Virasoro algebra.

Proof. Two elements (u0 (x), c) and (u1 (x), c) of Vir∗reg belong to the same
coadjoint orbit if and only if there is a one-parameter family (u t (x), c) with
t ∈ [0, 1] such that, for every t, the element (u˙t (x), 0) is the result of the
coadjoint action of Vir; here dot denotes the derivative with respect to t. In
d
other words, there exists ht (x) dx ∈ Vect(S 1 ) such that

u̇t (x) = ht (x) u0t (x) + 2h0t (x) ut (x) − c h000

t (x). (1.6.4)

According to (1.6.3), a family (ut (x), c) defines a family of Sturm-Liouville

operators: Lt = −2c(d/dx)2 + u(x)t . Consider the corresponding family of
Sturm-Liouville equations

Lt (φ) = −2c φ00 (x) + u(x)t φ(x) = 0.

For every t, one has a two-dimensional space of solutions, hφ 1 t (x), φ2 t (x)i.

Define a Vect(S 1 )-action on the space of solutions using the Leibnitz
rule:
(ad∗h d L)(φ) + L(Th d φ) = 0
dx dx

2
This definition allows us to avoid using the notion of a Lie group, and sometimes this
simplifies the situation, for instance, in the infinite-dimensional case.
1.6. VIRASORO ALGEBRA: THE COADJOINT REPRESENTATION25

where the Vect(S 1 )-action on the space of Sturm-Liouville operators is given

by formula (1.6.2). It turns out, that the solutions of Sturm-Liouville equa-
tions behave as tensor densities of degree − 12 .
−1
Exercise 1.6.5. Check that, in the above formula, T h d = Lh 2d , where
dx dx
Lλh d is the Lie derivative of a λ-density defined by (1.5.6).
dx

To solve the (nonlinear) “homotopy” equation (1.6.4), it suffices now to

d
find a family of vector fields ht (x) dx such that
 −1
 Lht2d φ1 t = ht φ1 t − 2 h0t φ1 t = φ˙1 t
 0 1
dx

 1
 L− 2 φ2 = ht φ2 0 − 1 h0 φ2 = φ˙2
h d t
t dx
t 2 t t t

This is just a system of linear equations in two variables, h t (x) and h0t (x),
with the solution

φ˙1 t φ˙2 t φ˙1 t φ˙2 t

ht (x) = h0t (x) = 2 . (1.6.5)
φ1 t φ2 t φ1 0t φ2 0t

One can choose a basis of solutions hφ 1 t (x), φ2 t (x)i so that the Wronski
determinant is independent of t:

φ1 t φ2 t
≡ 1.
φ1 0t φ2 0t

Then one has

0 0
φ˙1 t φ˙2 t φ˙1 t φ˙2 t
=
φ1 0t φ2 0t φ1 t φ2 t
It follows that the first formula in (1.6.5) implies the second.
Finally, if the monodromy operator of a family of Sturm-Liouville oper-
ators Lt does not depend on t, then one can choose a basis hφ 1 t (x), φ2 t (x)i
in such a way that the monodromy matrix, say M , in this basis does not
depend on t. Then one concludes from (1.6.5) that

ht (x + 2π) = det M · ht (x) = ht (x),

^R). Therefore, ht (x)d/dx is, indeed, a family of vector

since M ∈ SL(2,
1
fields on S .
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Remark 1.6.6. One can understand, in a more traditional way, the mon-
odromy operator as an element of SL(2, R), instead of its universal covering.
Then there is another discrete invariant, representing a class in π 1 (SL(2, R)).
This invariant is nothing but the winding number of the corresponding curve
in RP1 , see Section 1.3. For instance, there are infinitely many connected
components in the space of Sturm-Liouville operators with the same mon-
odromy.

Relation to infinite-dimensional symplectic geometry

A fundamental fact which makes the notion of coadjoint orbits so impor-
tant (in comparison with the adjoint orbits) is that every coadjoint orbit
has a canonical g-invariant symplectic structure (often called the Kirillov
symplectic form). Moreover, the space g ∗ has a Poisson structure called
the Lie-Poisson(-Berezin-Kirillov-Kostant-Souriau) bracket, and the coad-
joint orbits are the corresponding symplectic leaves. See Section 8.2 for a
brief introduction to symplectic and Poisson geometry.
An immediate corollary of the above remarkable coincidence is that the
space of the Sturm-Liouville operators is endowed with a natural Diff(S 1 )-
invariant Poisson structure; furthermore, it follows from Theorem 1.6.4 that
the space of Sturm-Liouville operators with a fixed monodromy is an (infinite
dimensional) symplectic manifold.

Comment
The Virasoro algebra was discovered in 1967 by I. M. Gelfand and D. B.
Fuchs. It appeared in the physical literature around 1975 and became very
popular in conformal field theory (see [90] for a comprehensive reference).
The coadjoint representation of Lie groups and Lie algebras plays a spe-
cial role in symplectic geometry and representation theory, cf. [112]. The
observation relating the coadjoint representation to the natural Vect(S 1 )-
action on the space of Sturm-Liouville operators and, therefore, on the space
of projective structures on S 1 , and the classification of the coadjoint orbits
was made in 1980 independently by A. A. Kirillov and G. Segal [116, 186].
The classification of the coadjoint orbits then follows from the classical work
by Kuiper [126] (see also [130]) on classification of projective structures. Our
proof, using the homotopy method, is probably new.
This and other remarkable properties of the Virasoro algebra, its relation
with the Korteweg-de Vries equation, moduli spaces of holomorphic curves,
etc., make this infinite-dimensional Lie algebra one of the most interesting
1.6. VIRASORO ALGEBRA: THE COADJOINT REPRESENTATION27

objects of modern mathematics and mathematical physics.

28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2

Geometry of projective line

What are geometric objects? On the one hand, curves, surfaces, various
geometric structures; on the other, tensor fields, differential operators, Lie
group actions. The former objects originated in classical geometry while the
latter ones are associated with algebra. Both points of view are legitimate,
yet often separated.
This chapter illustrates unity of geometric and algebraic approaches. We
study geometry of a simple object, the projective line. Such notions as non-
degenerate immersions of a line in projective space and linear differential
operators on the line are intrinsically related, and this gives two comple-
mentary viewpoints on the same thing.
Following F. Klein, we understand geometry in terms of group actions.
In the case of the projective line, two groups play prominent roles: the group
PGL(2, R) of projective symmetries and the infinite-dimensional full group
of diffeomorphisms Diff(RP1 ). We will see how these two types of symmetry
interact.

2.1 Invariant differential operators on RP1

The language of invariant differential operators is an adequate language of
differential geometry. The best known invariant differential operators are
the de Rham differential of differential forms and the commutator of vector
fields. These operators are invariant with respect to the action of the group
of diffeomorphisms of the manifold. The expressions that describe these
operations are independent of the choice of local coordinates.
If a manifold M carries a geometric structure, the notion of the invariant
differential operator changes accordingly: the full group of diffeomorphisms

29
30 CHAPTER 2. GEOMETRY OF PROJECTIVE LINE

is restricted to the groups preserving the geometric structure. For instance,

on a symplectic manifold M , one has the Poisson bracket, a binary invariant
operation on the space of smooth functions, as well as the unitary operation
assigning the Hamiltonian vector field to a smooth function. Another ex-
ample, known to every student of calculus, is the divergence: the operator
on a manifold with a fixed volume form assigning the function DivX to a
vector field X. This operator is invariant with respect to volume preserving
diffeomorphisms.

Space of differential operators Dλ,µ (S 1 )

Consider the space of linear differential operators on S 1 from the space of
λ-densities to the space of µ-densities

A : Fλ (S 1 ) → Fµ (S 1 )

with arbitrary λ, µ ∈ R. This space will be denoted by D λ,µ (S 1 ) and its

k (S 1 ).
subspace of operators of order ≤ k by D λ,µ
The space Dλ,µ (S 1 ) is acted upon by Diff(S 1 ); this action is as follows:

Tλ,µ µ λ
f (A) = Tf ◦ A ◦ Tf −1 , f ∈ Diff(S 1 ) (2.1.1)

where Tλ is the Diff(S 1 )-action on tensor densities (1.5.5).

For any parameter x on S 1 , a k-th order differential operator is of the
form
dk dk−1
A = ak (x) k + ak−1 (x) k−1 + · · · + a0 (x),
dx dx
where ai (x) are smooth functions on S 1 .

Exercise 2.1.1. Check that the expression

σ(A) = ak (x)(dx)µ−λ−k

does not depend on the choice of the parameter.

The density σ(A) is called the principal symbol of A; it is a well-defined

tensor density of degree µ−λ−k. The principal symbol provides a Diff(S 1 )-
invariant projection
k
σ : Dλ,µ (S 1 ) → Fµ−λ−k (S 1 ). (2.1.2)
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