s

| PHYSICS

is

Ser
ies gro
uping

, R2=r1+r2

  

R1
R3
G –
R2
R4
 18
CHAPTER

CURRENT
ELECTRICITY
Chapter Objectives
Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity, mobility and their relation with electric
current; Ohm’s law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics (linear and non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical
resistivity and conductivity, Carbon resistors, colour code for carbon resistors; series and parallel combinations of resistors;
temperature dependence of resistance.
Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel, Kirchhoff’s
laws and simple applications, Wheatstone bridge, metre bridge.
Potentiometer - principle and its applications to measure potential difference and for comparing EMF of two cells; measure-
ment of internal resistance of a cell.

STUDY MATERIAL
Concept Clarified
 Electric Current :
Flow of charge in a definite direction can be defined as electric current and the time rate of flow of charge through
any cross section of a conductor is the measure of current.
q dq
= = =
t dt
(a) It represents the direction of flow of positive charge.
(b) It is a Scalar Quantity hence follows Law of Scalar Addition.
Note : The Angle between the current carrying wires does not affect the total current of the circuit.

 Current Carriers
(a) Current Carriers in Solid Conductors :
Valence Electrons are the usual current carriers in solids. For Example : In case of metals i.e., Solid Conductor
valence electron of atom do not remain attached to the individual atoms and remain free to move throughout
the space (volume of the conductor). This valence electron activates because of an external electric field due to
which valence electron move in a definite direction causing electric current in the conductor.
(b) Current Carriers in Liquid
Positively and negatively charged ions are the current carriers in liquids. For Example : In case of Electrolytes
like CuSO4, NaCl etc., there exist positively and negatively charged ions (Cu++, SO4 ). These ions are forced
to move in a definite direction under the effect of an external electric field causing electric current.
(c) Current Carriers in Gases
Usually Gases are insulators but can be ionized by application of high potential difference at low pressure.
Positive Ions and Electrons currents carriers in Gases.
 Drift Velocity :
“Drift velocity can be defined as average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the positive
end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field applied.” Drift Velocity of an
electron is of the order 10-4 m/s.
     
If u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 un are the random velocities of n free electrons in metal conductor, then the
average thermal velocity of electron is
     
u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 un 
=0
n
 | PHYSICS
Note : There will be no current as a result of no net flow of electrons or charge in one direction.

  E
1. Each electron in the conductor experience a force : = e

 eE
2. Each electron is accelerated with a =
m 
3. Instant velocity of an electron having thermal velocity u1 will be
   
v1 = u1 a 1 (Here 1 – elapsed time as it suffers collision with atoms of conductor)

4. The average velocity of all free electrons in conductor under the effect of external field is drift velocity vd of
free electron.
               
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 vn u1 a 1 u2 a 2 u3 a 3 u4 a 4 un a n
5. Hence, vd = =
n n
     
u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 un   
a 1 2 3 4 n
= 0 a = a
n n

Here = 1 2 3 4 n
, it is defined as the time elapsed since each electron suffered last collision
n 
 eE
with atom of conductor and is called average relaxation time. Value varies from 10-14 s. We get, vd =
 m
 eE
Average Drift Speed vd =
m
 
**Here negative sign indicates that the direction of vd is opposite.

 Relaxation Time :
Relaxation time is the time between two successive collision of electrons with positive ions in metallic lattice.
l
= =
v
Note : Increase in temperature will increase the vrms which result in decrement of .
There exists a direct proportional relation of and , both increases interdependently.
Mobility :
Mobility of Electron defines the Drift velocity per unit electric field. SI unit is m2 /volt-s
v
Mathematically, = d
E
• If Cross section is constant, I J i.e., for the given cross-sectional area, along with direct proportionality between
current density and current.
• Drift velocity of electron is diminished as a result of frequent collision suffered by electrons.
• The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount of electric current due to presence of high number
of free electrons in conductor. Current propagates at speed of light i.e., Electromagnetic process. Electric bulb
glows suddenly and fan start movement suddenly when switch is ON due to this effect only.
• The path of electrons between successive collisions are straight line in the absence of electric field and path
remain curved in case of presence of electric field.
N xd
• Free electron density in a metal is given by, n = A
A
(Here NA = Avogadro Number, x = number of free electrons, d = density of metal, A = Atomic weight)
Mobility of Charge carriers (µ) the magnitude of the drift velocity of charge per unit electric field applied.
Mathematically,
v q m
= = d= = q m

Mobility of Electron : e = q e me
Net current is the sum of the net current carried by positive and negative charge carriers. Mathematically,
vd = e E
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |
Relation between Current and Drift Velocity :
Let there be a conductor of length l and uniform cross section A, Volume of conductor = Al. If n is the number of
free electrons per unit volume, then total number of free electrons = Aln l
Then net charge of all electrons in conductor, q= Alne
Net electric field set up across the conductor is given by E = V/l. Due to this A
field, the free electron will start moving with a drift velocity vd towards left vd
hand side.
I I
Time taken by free electron to cross the conductor, t = l/Vd E
q Alne
Hence current, dI I Anevd
t t l / vd
Ane 2 E
Putting value of vd eE / m , we have
m

 Ohm’s Law
It states that “Current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
I
potential difference (V) across its ends provided all physical condition are remain same”.
A
I V or V = RI or V/I = R = Constant
Deduction of Ohm’s Law
eE eV
We know that, vd but E = V/l hence vd V
m ml O
eV Ane 2
Also, I = Anevd and ne T1
ml ml V V
1
V ml 2 T2
R a constant i.e., known as Resistance.
I Ane 2
This is V = IR (This is called Ohm’s Law). I I
• Ohm’s Law is not a Universal law and those substance obey (A) Slope of the line (B) Here tan tan
Ohm’s Law are called Ohmic substance. Graphic between V
& I for a metallic conductor is a straight-line V & I curve are V
tan =R So, R1 > R2 i.e., T1 > T1
different. I
• Non-Ohmic or Non-linear substance conductors are those Crystal
device and substance which don’t obey ohm’s law e.g. Gases, rectifier
Crystal rectifiers etc. I

V 1
Static Resistance, R st
i tan
V 1 V
Dynamic Resistance dyn
I tan
 Electrical Resistance :
The obstacle posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current is called the Electrical Resistance.
Measured in Ohm or Volt/ampere.
ML2 T 2 /AT
Dimensions : Pot. Diff. / Current = M1L2 T 3 A 2

A
V
Mathematically, R=
I
Resistance of a conductor depends on :
(a) Length (l) : Resistance shows a directly proportional relation with Length. i.e., R l
(b) Area of Cross-Section (A) : Resistance shows an inversely proportional relation with Area of Cross Section i.e.,
R 1/A
(c) Resistance also shows dependency on the nature of material and temperature of the conductor.
l l
A A
 | PHYSICS
 Resistivity (ρ) :
Resistivity is constant of proportionality and defines the Specific Resistance or Electrical Resistivity of that
conductor. It is defined as the resistance of a unit length with unit area of the material of conductor.
m
Unit – Ohm/m and Dimension [ML3T-3A-2]. Mathematically r= 2
ne
It is intrinsic in nature and Independent of shape and size of the body.
and r =
8
Example : r =

r ∝r ∝r ∝r

• It depends on temperature i.e., ri =r0 (1 aDt ) resistivity increase with temperature.

• Impurity and Mechanical Stress also increases resistivity.
• It increases with magnetic field for all metal except iron, cobalt and nickel.
• Resistivity also shows a inverse proportionality with Intensity of light for certain material like Selenium,
cadmium, sulphides etc.
ml m l m
We have, = , comparing the above relation we get r = 2
ne 2
ne 2
ne

 Conductivity :
Reciprocal of Resistivity is called Conductivity ( ) i.e., = 1/ . Unit – mho/m and dimensions
[M-–1L–3T3A2]
Conductance
-1
ecip cal esistance is calle n ctance nit or Siemen.
Concept of Wire Stretching
If a conductor is stretched along its length, length increases, and area of cross section decreases as a result resistance
increases but the net volume remain constant.
Before stretching After stretching
l
Let the initial Resistance be : 1 = r 1 l1
A1 l2
Volume remain constant i.e., A 1l1 = A 2l2
l2
After Stretching, New Volume = A2l2 and Resistance = 2 = r
A2
2 2 4 4
R1 l1 A2 l A2 r2 d2
Ratio of resistance, = = 1 = = =
R 2 l2 A1 l2 A1 r1 d1
2
R1 l
(i) If length is given, then R l2 and = 1
R2 l2
4

(ii) If radius is given, then R 1/r4 and R1 = r2

R2 r1
Relation between Current Density, Conductance and Electrical Conductivity
e n e2 ne 2
We know : =n evd =n e = = = J= =
m m A m r
Here, I - current, E - Magnitude of electric field, J - current density, - conductivity, A - area, l - length,
= resistivity,
Types of material (based on current carrying capacity) :
(a) Insulator : Material with zero or infinitesimal electric conductivity. Example : Wood, Rubber etc.
(b) Conductors : Material with high electric conductivity. When a small potential difference is applied across two
ends and a strong current flow through the conductor.
(c) Super Conductor : Material with infinite electric conductivity.
(d) Semiconductor : Material with electrical conductivity value between insulator and conductor.
Semiconductors can conduct electricity but not very easily, low current arises as the result of potential difference
created across conductors. Motion of electrons and holes are the reason behind the electric conduction in
semiconductors.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |
In Semiconductors, Resistance increases with increase in temperature.
Rt R0
= =
0 t
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance is the increment in resistance per unit original resistance of a metal that
increases with rise in temperature. Unit is K-1 or oC-1.
(a) For Metals : Direct Proportionality can be seen, value of is positive.
(b) For Insulators and Semiconductor : Usually, value of is negative, hence resistance
decreases with rise in temperature. I (mA)
Non Ohmic Device V V
Device which do not obey Ohm’s law is called Non Ohmic Device. Example : Vacuum
Tube, semiconductor etc. Non ohmic devices show changing trends when plotted in VI I ( A)
graph, characteristics are as follows :
(a) The relation between V and I depend on sign of V. It means that if I is the current at
a certain value of V and then reverse the direction of V keeping the magnitude same. I (mA)
The current produced will not have magnitude I but in opposite direction.
(b) The relation between V and I is not unique, there is more than one value of V for
same value of I V
Colour Code for Carbon Resistors
Colour Letter as an Aid Number Multiplier Colour Tolerance
0
Black B 0 10 Golden 5%
1
Brown B 1 10 Silver 10%
2
Red R 2 10 No Colour 20%
Orange O 3 103
Yellow Y 4 104
Green G 5 105
Blue B 6 106
Violet V 7 107
Grey G 8 108
White W 9 109
Colour coding can be remembered for the carbon resistor using a simple sentence :
“BB ROY Green Britain Very Good Wife Gold Silver”
In the system of colour coding, strips of different colours are given on
the body of the resistor. The colours are noted from left to right.
(a) First strip A colour shows the first significant of resistance in ohm.
(b) Second Strip B colour shows the second figure of resistance in ohm
(c) Colour of the third strip C indicates multiplier i.e., the number of A B C R
zeros will follow two significant figures.
(d) Fourth Strip R indicates the tolerance limit of the resistance value of percentage accuracy of resistance.
Combination of Resistors
I. Resistances in Series
In case of Series Combination of Resistances, it should be noted that :
(a) Current entering each resistor is same.
(b) Relative Position of Resistor doesn’t have any effect on Current in circuit.
(c) V R
(d) Net Value of Resistance = Sum of individual resistances used in combination.
(e) Rs (Net Resistance) > Resistance having highest magnitude
II. Resistances in Parallel
In case of Parallel Combination of Resistances, it should be noted that :
(a) Potential difference across each resistor is same across the system.
(b) I 1/R.
 | PHYSICS
(c) Net current in system is sum of net current flowing through the resistors.
1 1 1 1
(d) =
R p R1 R2 R3

 Cells :
Cell can be defined as the device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is
known as Electrical Cell. Cell is a source of constant emf (not constant current).
Symbol of cell
I. EMF of Cell (E) : EMF is defined as the potential difference across the terminal of the cell
while not supplying any current.
II. Potential Difference : Potential difference across terminal of a cell when it is supplying
A
current to external resistance or terminal voltage. It is equal to the product of current Anode Cathode
and resistance i.e.,
V = IR
III. Internal Resistance : The opposition of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is
called Internal Resistance. The internal resistance of a cell depends on :
Electrolyte
(a) The distance between electrodes (r d)
(b) The area of electrode (r 1/A) R
(c) Nature, Concentration (r C)
V - iR
(d) Temperature of Electrolyte (r 1/ temp) i
Note : A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.
Cell in various positions : E1 r
E
1. Closed Circuit : Constant Current is supplied in the circuit by cell. Current in cell is given by i =
r R
(i) Potential difference across the resistance, V = iR,
(ii) potential drop inside the cell = ir
(iii) Equation of cell, E = V+ ir (E>V),
E
(iv) Internal resistance of the cell,=
r 1 R

2 2

(v) Power dissipated in external resistance, = i i 2=

= =
R R r
2
E
Maximises when, R = r So, Pmax =
4r
Maximum Power transfer theorem :
Pmax = E2/4r
Statement - "To obtain maximum external power from a source with a finite
internal resistance, the resistance of the load must equal the resistance of the P
source as viewed from its output."
R=r
Statement is also known as “Maximum Power Transfer Theorem”.
R
If cell is continuously charged, then E = V-ir and E < V
R
2. Open Circuit : When no current is supplied from the cell. Current through
the circuit is given by : C D A B
(i) Current through circuit, i = 0
(ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB = E
(iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0 E1 r
3. Short Circuit : When two terminals of a cell are connected by a thick
conducting wire. R=0
E
(i) Maximum Current (momentarily) : isc =
r E1 r
(ii) Potential Difference, V = 0
Difference between EMF and Potential Difference :
EMF of a Cell Potential Difference
Maximum potential difference between two electrodes Potential difference between two points is the difference
of a cell when cell is in open circuit is called EMF of Cell. of potential between those two points.
EMF depends on nature of electrodes and electrolyte Potential difference is interdependent on nature of elec-
of the cell. trodes and electrolyte of the cell.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |

EMF is independent of the resistance of circuit. Potential difference depends on the Current flowing
through the circuit.
EMF is used for Source of Electric Current. PD is measured between any two points of electric circuit.
It is a cause. It is an effect.

 Combination of Cells
A. Series Combination : If n identical cells are connected in series, anode of one cell is E1 r E1 r E1 r E1 r
connected to cathode of another cell and so on.
(i) Equivalent emf of combination, Eeq = nE i
(ii) Equivalent Internal resistance, req = nr R
nE
(iii) Main current = Current from each cell = i =
R nr
(iv) Potential Difference across external resistance, V = iR

(v) Potential difference across each cell, =

n
2
nE
(vi) Power dissipated in external circuit = R
R nr

E2
(vii) Condition for Maximum power, R = nr and P =n
4r
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr <<< R
B. Parallel Combination : If n cells are connected in parallel, all anodes are connected at a point and all cathodes
are connected at another point. E1 r
(i) Equivalent emf of combination, Eeq = E
E1 r
(ii) Equivalent Internal resistance, Req = r/n
E E1 r
(iii) Main current = Current from each cell = i = i
r
R R
n
(iv) Potential Difference across external resistance, V = iR
i
(v) Potential difference across each cell, i =
n
2

E
(vi) Power dissipated in external circuit = R
r
R
n
E2
(vii) Condition for Maximum power, R = r/n and P =n
4r
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr >>> R
Generalised Parallel Battery E1 r1
E1 E2 En
E2 r2
r1 r2 rn 1 1 1 1
Eeq and E3 r3
1 1 1 req r1 r2 rn Eq iq
r1 r2 rn
C. Mixed Combination : If n identical cells are connected in series or row and much rows are connected in parallel
then :
E1 r E1 r E1 r
(i) Equivalent emf of combination, Eeq = nE
1
(ii) Equivalent resistance of combination, r = nr/m 1 2 3
eq
nE mnE
(iii) Main current flowing through load, i  
nr mR  nr
R i
m
V
(iv) Potential difference across load, V = iR
R
 | PHYSICS

(v) Potential difference across each cell, V' V

n
i
(vi) Current from each cell, i '
n
nr E2
(vii) Condition for maximum power, R and Pmax ( mn)
m 4r
(viii) Total number of cells = mn
Note :
(i) If two cells are connected in parallel are of same emf ’s and same internal resistance r, then
E Er 1 1 1 2 r
E = r = ⇒ = = r =
r r r r r r 2

(ii) If n identical cells are connected in parallel, then equivalent emf of all cells is equal to the emf of one cell.
1 1 1 n r
= n = r =
r r r r n

 Electric Current :
DQ dQ
(a) Current can be defined as the time rate of flow of charge through any cross section
= i.e., i = If
0 Dt
Dt dt
flow is uniform, then i = Q/t. It is a scalar quantity and measured in ampere (A) and CGS unit – emu also called
Biot (Bi) or ab ampere. 1 A = (1/10) Bi (ab amp).
(b) 1 Amp of current is defined as the flow of 6.25×1018 electrons through any cross- section of the conductor.
(c) Direction of flow of positive charge can be taken as the conventional flow of current.
(d) Net charge on current carrying conductor is nil
(e) Current is independent of cross-sectional area i.e., i1= i 2= i3 i i
(f) Current due to translational motion : Let there be n particles
having charge q moving through a given area in time t then : F F
If there is n particles with q charge, then Current associated
per unit area is i = nqA
If there are n particles per unit volume with charge q, i1 i2 i3
moving with velocity v then i = nqvA
(g) Current due to Rotational Motion of Charge : If a point
charge q is moving in a circle with radius r with speed v then
q qv qw
– current = i qv= = =
T 2 r 2
(h) Current Carriers : The accumulation of the charged particles
that flow in a definite direction are called Current Carriers.
Note : The amount of charge flowing through a cross-section of a
q
conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by : r
tf
q= dt
ti

 Kirchhoff’s Law
A. Kirchhoff’s First Law/Kirchhoff’s Junction Law/Kirchhoff’s Current Law : It states that the
algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction in a closed electric circuit is zero i.e., = It is
based on conservation of Charge.
Note : Current cannot be stored at the junction i.e., No point junction in the circuit can act as a
sink or source of charge.
B. Kirchhoff’s Second Law / Kirchhoff’s Loop Law/Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law : It states that
algebraic sum of difference in potential around any closed path of electric circuit in the loop is
zero. i.e., D = We also get, =
Few General Observations
A. Galvanometer : Galvanometer is a device used to detect passing by small current. Usually it is
of following types: 1. Moving Coil Galvanometer 2. Moving Magnet Galvanometer 3. Hot wire
Galvanometer.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |
Symbol : G ; where G is the total internal resistance of Galvanometer. When
maximum deflection is achieved in galvanometer, the current flowing in the circuit is known as
Full scale deflection current represented by i g

• Small resistance connected in parallel with Galvanometer coil is known as Shunt. This
usually controls the net current passing through the device.
Pros of Shunt Cons of Shunt
Protection of Galvanometer from Burning. Shunt Resistance influences sensitivity of device.
Shunt is used to convert Galvanometer to Ammeter.
B. Ammeter : Device used to measure current is called ammeter. Usually it is connected in series with the element
through which the current passes.
Ammeter is said to be ideal if the value of resistance is zero or infinitesimal. The actual value of current will
always be less than the real value of current.
Principle of Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter : We can convert an ammeter to
galvanometer by adding a shunt (Low resistor) parallel to galvanometer.
GS
=
G+S
Both S and G are parallel attached hence both will have equal potential difference i.e.,
ig
i g G = (i i g )S ⇒ S = G
i ig
S
C. Voltmeter : Voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference and is i =i1
i
attached in parallel with ‘circuit element’ across which the potential difference G
i2
is to be measured.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter : Ammeter
Galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a large
resistance R in series with Galvanometer.
R
G
(V1 – I1G) (V – V2)
I1
V
Equivalent Resistance, Req = G + R
As per Ohm’s Law, maximum reading of V which can be taken, = ig which gives

R= G= 1 G
ig g

Note : If nth part of the partial voltage appeared across galvanometer i.e., g = then required
n
resistance R = (n – 1) G
D. Wheatstone Bridge : Principle : As per the principle, if four resistances P, Q, R and S are arranged
in form of a bridge and a galvanometer if attached shows no deflection then the system is said
to be in Equilibrium or Balanced State. Mathematically,
P R
=
Q S B
Note : In Wheatstone bridge circuit, arm AB and BC having resistance P and Q P Q
form ratio arm. The arm AD having a resistance R is known as variable resistance G (I1–I2)
A
arm and arm DC having resistance S is unknown resistance arm.
C
A. Balanced Bridge : When Galvanometer reads zero, it is said to be balanced (I–I1) K2
i.e. the current flows through Galvanometer only .In balanced R S
P R (I–I1–I )
condition mutually changing the position of cell and Galvanometer I D I
Q S
this condition will not change.
B. Unbalanced Bridge : If the bridge is not balanced, current will flow from D E K1
to B if i.e., which gives PS > RQ.
 | PHYSICS
Application of Wheatstone Bridge :
Principle of Wheatstone bridge are used to measure unknown resistance and in instruments like meter bridge,
post office box and Carey Foster bridge.
E. Meter Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge
A meter bridge or Slide wire bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone bridge.
Working : At B, adjust the position of Jockey where Galvanometer shows no deflection.
As per the Wheat Stone Bridge Principle :
P R
=
Q S
where, = resistance per cm per length, P = resistance of length l of wire AB = l
Q = resistance of length (100 – l) of wire BC = (100 – l)
E K
l R 100 l
= =
(100 l ) S l
R S
Knowing l and R, we can calculate S. D
F. Potentiometer :
Potentiometer is a device used to measure EMF of a cell or potential 0 100
difference between two points in an electric circuit. It consists of a long
P B Q C
uniform wire generally made of constant. Stretched on a wooden board. A (100 – l)
Principle : “The potential across any portion of the wire is directly (l) G
proportional to the length of the portion, wire should be of uniform area of
cross section and a constant current is flowing through it”.
Let there be, A – Area of Cross section, = Specific Resistance of material, V = Potential
Difference across the length of wire with resistance R, I = Current Flowing.
As per Ohm’s Law :
V = IR, R = l/A
l Kl
=r = (here K = I /A)
A A
A1 R
∝ l (If I and A are constant) E K
i.e., Potential difference across any potentiometer wire is directly
proportional to length of the wire. Here V/l = K is called Potential 0 50 100
gradient i.e., the fall of potential per unit length of wire.
J
Determination of Potential Difference : A B
Working and Theory : G
C R1 D
Close key K and select a value on resistance box such that the fall
of potential difference across the wire is greater than the potential
difference. Usually it can be check by pushing the Jockey J along the
E1 K1
potentiometer wire at various points i.e., on A then B. Both will show
opposite directional deflection on Galvanometer.
Close key K1, current flows through R1. A potential develops through R1. Adjust the position of jockey on
potentiometer wire if pressed shows no deflection. Follow the same pattern when jockey is at J. Note the
length AJ (= l) of potentiometer wire. This would happen when potential difference across R1 is equal to
fall of potential across potentiometer wire of length l. If K is the potential gradient, then potential difference
across R1 i.e., l B S
If r is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length L, then current Rh
K 400
E J
through potentiometer wire, = +
R r A1 300
E
Potential drop across potentiometer wire = r = r E
R r 200

Potential gradient of potentiometer wire i.e., fall of potential per unit A O

length is : - 100
+

V
E r E r
= hence = l
R r L R r L
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |
 Comparison of EMF’s of two cells using Potentiometer :
Setup : A battery with emf is connected between end terminal A and B of potentiometer with rheostat Rh,
ammeter A1 and key K in series.
The positive terminal of both is connected at A and the negative terminals are connected at 1 and 2 of two-way
keys. The common terminal 3 is connected at Jockey J through Galvanometer G.
Working : Insert the plug in the gap between terminal 1 and 3 of two-way key so that the cell of emf 1 develops
in circuit. Adjust the position of the jockey on potentiometer wire, where if pressed, the galvanometer shows no
deflection. Let it be when jockey be at J1. Length of wire is AJ1.
There will be no current in arm AE1 J1 . It means that,
Potential of positive terminal of cell = potential of point A
Potential of negative terminal of cell = potential of point J1.
EMF of the cell will be equal to potential difference between points A and J1 of the K
A1
potentiometer wire i.e., E1 = KJ1 E Rh
Now remove the plug from gap between 1 and 3 insert in gap between 2 and 3 of
two way so that calls of EMF comes into the circuit. Now repeating the activity
find the position of jockey on wire, where Galvanometer shows no deflection. Let 0 100
it be at J2. Length of wire is AJ2 then, E 2 = KJ 2 J2 J1 B
A E1 1
E1 l1 3
G
Using both equations we get, = 2
E 2 l2 E2
Precautions :
1. The current in potentiometer wire must be kept constant.
2. The edge of the jockey should not be rubbed on the wire while adjusting the position of jockey on potentiometer
wire, such that the area of cross section will remain same.
3. Heating effect should be controlled by managing the time of current flow in the system as this will change the
resistance of wire.
Determination of Internal Resistance of Cell by Potentiometer :
K
In this we will find the internal resistance r of a cell of emf using potentiometer, A1
the setup is as shown below: Rh
Close key K and constant current is maintained in potentiometer with the help
of Rheostat Rh. Adjust the position of the jockey on potentiometer wire where
0 100
we get zero deflection on Galvanometer. When jockey is as J1, length is AJ1(l1),
we know that, A J2 J1 B
E = KJ1 G

Close key K1 and take suitable resistance R from the resistance box in cell circuit.
R K1
Now find the position of jockey on potentiometer wire where galvanometer
shows no deflection. Let it be J2. Length is AJ2. As current is being drawn from
the cell, its terminal potential difference V is balanced. Now the V = potential difference across length l2 of the
potentiometer wire,
2

E l1
Now we get, = we know that internal resistance r of the cell of EMF when a resistance R is connected in its
l2
circuit is given by :

r= R= ( 1)R

l1 (l l )
Putting the value, we get : r = 1 R= 1 2 R
l2 l2
Knowing the values of l1, l2 and R, internal resistance r of the cell can be determined.
 Sensitiveness of Potentiometer :
The smallest potential difference that can be measured using the potentiometer is called its “Sensitiveness”. It can
be increased by decreasing the potential gradient. Ways to decrease potential gradient are as follows :
A. Increasing the length of Potentiometer wire.
B. If the wire is of fixed length, potential gradient can be decreased by reducing the current in circuit with Rheostat
and a single cell.
 | PHYSICS
 Heating Effect of Current :
When some potential difference V is applied across as resistance then work done by electric field on charge q to
flow through the circuit in time t will be :
2
t i R
= q= = i 2=
R A B
Heat produced in the resistor gives the work., heat produced is given by :
i2 2
t
= = =

This relation is called Joule Heating.

Some important relations are as follows :

Condition Graph
H
If R and r is constant, H i2 and H V2 H
H
H i( V)
H i( V)
H i( V)
H i( V)
If I and t are constant (Series), H R
H R
H R
H R
H R
H R
If V and t are constant (Parallel), H 1/R H R
H R
H R
H t
If V, I and R are constant, H t t
t
t

 Electric Power :
The rate at which the electric energy is dissipated into other forms of energy, is called Electric power.
P = W/t = Vi = i2R = V2/R
Unit : SI – Joule /s or Watt, Other units : kW, MW (1 HP = 746 Watt)
A. Calculating Resistance of Electric Appliance : Neglecting the variance of resistance with temperature,
2
resistance can be calculated by rated power and voltage i.e., by using R = R For Example : Power of 50 W ,
PR
220 Volt bulb, 220 220
R 968
50
B. Calculating Power Consumption : An electric appliance consumes rated power only if applied voltage (VA)
matched rated voltage (VR).

If VA = VR hence Pconsumed = PR,

2 2
If VA < VR then Pconsumed = A
, also we have R = R

R PR
2

Using both we get =

Pconsumed(Brightness) A
PR
PR 2
Pconsumed Brightness
2
110
For Example : If 50 W, 220 V bulb operates on 110 V supply then P = = 25 W
100
220
PR P
Note : If VA < VR then % drop in output power is 100
PR
1
Also, the R ∝ (Voltage should be Constant)
R
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY |
Long distance power transmission :
Power loss will be i2R if the current moves through a power line of resistance R. Now if power P is transmitted to
voltage V. then :
P2
P = Vi i = P/V such that Power loss = 2
R.

1
Hence, we can say that : ∝ 2

Time taken by heater to boil water :

e n t e elati n t at eat e i e t aise t e tempe at e ∆ of mass m and specific heat S,
H=m ∆
eat p ce eate eat p ce t aise t e temp ∆
J( msD )
i.e., p t=J msD ⇒ t =
P

4180 mD
Hence for ‘m’ kg water t =
P
 Electric Energy :
The net electric work done or energy supplied by the source in maintaining the current in electric circuit for a given
time is called Electric energy consumed.
Electric Energy :
W = VI × t = P.t
Electric Energy = Electric Power × time
SI unit of electric energy is Joule and the commercial unit used is kWh where :
1 kWh = 1 kilo watt × 1 Hour = 1000 watt × 1 Hour J
1 kWh = 1000Wh = 1000W × (60 × 60s) = 3.6 × 106 J

Unit of Electricity consumed = No. of kWh =

1000
2 2
Electric Energy = VIt = I Rt = V t /R
Electricity Consumption
The price of electrical consumption is based on electrical energy. Joule is a very small unit and cannot be used for
practical purpose.
1 kWh = 1000W × 3600 sec = 3.6 × 106 J

No. of Consumed Units, n =

1000
Combination of Bulbs / Heater :

Connected in Series Connected in Parallel

P1 P2 P1

Power Consumed
Power Consumption P2
Supply
1 1 1 1
= =
P P1 P2 Pn = Ptotal = P1+P2+…Pn Supply

P If n bulbs are identical then, P = nP

If n bulbs are identical then, P =
N Pconsumed (Brightness) i 1/R Prated
Pconsumed (Brightness) V R 1/ Prated
i.e., in parallel bulb of greater wattage will be bright
i.e., in series bulb with less wattage will be bright and and more current will pass through it.
pd across will be more.

 Electrical Conducting Material for Specific Use

A. Filament of Electric Bulb : Material having Properties like high resistance and high melting point such as
Tungsten is used for it.
 | PHYSICS
B. Element of Heating devices : It is usually made up of nichrome which have high resistivity
and high melting point.
C. Resistance of Resistance Box : It is usually made up of alloy of Manganin, Constantan and
Nichrome. This material pursues moderate resistivity which is practically independent of
temperature.
D. Fuse Wire : It is usually made up of tin – 63% lead – 37% alloy. The material should pursue low
melting point and high resistivity. It is used in series as a safety device in an electric circuit. The function of
fuse it to open the circuit when the heat level increases up to a certain level. It is independent of its length.
E. Thermistors : A thermistor is a heat sensitive device usually prepared from oxides of various metals such as
nickel, cobalt, iron etc. For thermistors is very high which might be positive or negative. The resistance can
change rapidly with change in temperature. This device is usually used to measure very small temperature
changes.

II. Important Formula

q dq
1. = =
t dt

2. =
l

 eE
3. Average Drift Speed, vd =
m
l
4. Relaxation Time, = =
vrms
vd
5. Mobility, =
E
vd q m
6. Mobility of Charge Carriers, = = = = q m

m
7. Resistivity, r =
ne 2
1
8. Relation between Current Density, Conductance and Electrical Conductivity, J = E= E
r
2
E
9. Maximum Power Transfer theorem, Pmax =
4
10. Maximum Reading of V as per Ohm’s Law, = ig

J( msD )
11. Time taken by heater to boil water, t =
P
ll