Psychology

The Psychology Express undergraduate revision

Psychology
guide series will help you to understand key
concepts quickly, revise effectively and make
sure your answers stand out.

‘A great little guide that gives you the main points and encourages
further reading . . . it’s concise, clear and open to a variety of abilities.’
Katie Towers, Psychology student at Anglia Ruskin

Biological Psychology
Prepare for exams and Q Sample question Essay
coursework using sample Critically evaluate the risks to development during the prenatal period
questions and assessment advice

Make your answer stand out

Maximise your marks
It is really easy to fall into the trap of simply describing a number of teratogens
and approach exams with
and how they affect human development during the prenatal period. A good
confidence
answer will remember to take a critical stance, evaluating the impact of the
risk for later development and will focus clearly on psychological aspects of
development including cognitive, social and emotional. Linking your evaluation
to what you know about other periods of development will demonstrate
your ability to synthesise the information you have learnt. Evaluating the
> UNDERSTAND QUICKLY
methodological approaches of any research studies cited will also make your
answer stand out.
> REVISE EFFECTIVELY
> TAKE EXAMS WITH CONFIDENCE
Quickly grasp KEY STUDY
key research and
Mattson, S. N., et al. (2010) Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal
methodological issues alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism, Clinical & Expimental Research,
34(9), 1640–50
Excessive prenatal alcohol exposure can result in a number of developmental
difficulties including problems with cognitive functioning and behaviour. However
not all infants exposed to large amounts of alcohol prenatally go on to develop
FAS. A primary goal of recent research is to enable better and quicker diagnosis of
problems in alcohol exposed infants to enable more timely interventions. The study
by Mattson and colleagues is a good example of recent work which has attempted to
use neuropsychological data to develop a battery of tests to identify and differentiate

Biological
FAS. The researchers were able to distinguish children with FAS from a control group
not exposed to alcohol prenatally with 92% accuracy. More importantly they were able
to distinguish children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure but without FAS and non-
exposed controls with 84.7% accuracy. Overall the neuropsychological test battery was
more successful at distinguishing the groups than IQ testing. Measures of executive
function and spatial processing were found to be especially sensitive to prenatal alcohol
exposure.

Use the subject-specific companion website to test

your knowledge, try out sample exam questions and
view guided answers, and keep up to date with the
latest study advice
Psychology
Emma Preece
£12.99
Preece

> UNDERSTAND QUICKLY

> REVISE EFFECTIVELY
ONLINE REVISION SUPPORT www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
> TAKE EXAMS WITH CONFIDENCE
> Test questions > Essay writing guidance > Flashcards and more
www.pearson-books.com
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CVR_PREE7223_01_SE_CVR.indd 1 14/11/2011 11:09

 Psychology
Biological Psychology
The PsychologyExpress series
 Understand qUickly
 revise effectively
 take exams with confidence

‘All of the revision material I need in one place – a must for psychology undergrads.’
Andrea Franklin, Psychology student at Anglia Ruskin University
‘Very useful, straight to the point and provides guidance to the student, while helping
them to develop independent learning.’
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‘Engaging, interesting, comprehensive . . . it helps to guide understanding and boosts
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‘Very useful . . . bridges the gap between Statistics textbooks and Statistics
workbooks.’
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‘The answer guidelines are brilliant, I wish I had had it last year.’
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‘I definitely would (buy a revision guide) as I like the structure, the assessment advice
and practice questions and would feel more confident knowing exactly what to revise
and having something to refer to.’
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‘The clarity is absolutely first rate . . . These chapters will be an excellent revision
guide for students as well as providing a good opportunity for novel forms of
assessment in and out of class.’
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‘Do you think they will help students when revising/working towards assessment?
Unreservedly, yes.’
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‘The revision guide should be very helpful to students preparing for their exams.’
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‘A brilliant revision guide, very helpful for students of all levels.’
Svetoslav Georgiev, Psychology student at Anglia Ruskin University
 Psychology
Biological
Psychology
Emma Preece
University of Worcester

Series editor:
Dominic Upton
University of Worcester
Pearson Education Limited
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 contents

Acknowledgements vii
Introduction ix
Guided tour xii
Guided tour of the companion website xiv
Key research studies xvi

1 Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches

and applications 1
2 Structure and function of the central and peripheral
nervous systems 25
3 The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour 47
4 Biological basis of language 63
5 Mechanisms of perception and sensation 81
6 Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming 99
7 Biological aspects of emotion 119
8 The biology of learning and memory 135
9 Biological basis of psychological abnormality 151

And finally, before the exam . . . 177

Glossary 181
References 190
Index 201

v
[Page vi -- Post-TOC web box]
supporting resources
[COPY TO COME]
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress to find valuable
online resources.

Companion website for students

 Get help in organising your revision: download and print topic maps and
revision checklists for each area.
 Ensure you know the key concepts in each area: test yourself with
flashcards. You can use them online, print them out or download to an
iPod.
 Improve the quality of your essays in assignments and exams: use the
sample exam questions, referring to the answer guidelines for extra help.
 Practise for exams: check the answers to the Test your knowledge
sections in this book and take additional tests for each chapter.
 Go into exams with confidence: use the You be the marker exercises to
consider sample answers through the eyes of the examiner.

Also: The companion website provides the following features:

M Search tool to help locate specific items of content.
M E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors.
M Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting.

For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

vi
 acknowledgements

author’s acknowledgements
Thanks are due firstly to the editor Professor Dominic Upton for giving me the
opportunity to write this text. Thank you to Dr Jonathan Catling for his support
during the writing process and to Mr Lee Badham who designed most of the
artwork. Special thanks are also due to my family, Angela Huddart, Michelle
Hallard, Catherine Moreland, Charlotte Taylor, Helena Darby, Carole Hender,
Gemma Taylor, Tracey Price, Laura Scurlock-Evans, Emma Jackson, Chris
Leck, Daniel Kay and all other friends and colleagues for their support and
encouragement.

series editor’s acknowledgments

I am grateful to Janey Webb and Jane Lawes at Pearson Education for their
assistance with this series. I would also like to thank Penney, Francesca, Rosie
and Gabriel for their dedication to psychology.
Dominic Upton

Publisher’s acknowledgements
Our thanks go to all the reviewers who contributed to the development of this
text, including students who participated in research and focus groups which
helped to shape the series format.
Dr Paul Hitchcott, Southampton Solent University
Dr Minna Lyons, Liverpool Hope University
Dr Deaglan Page, Queen’s University Belfast
Dr Jonathon Reay, Northumbria University
Dr Julia Robertson, Buckinghamshire New University
Dr Mark Scase, De Montfort University
Dr Sonia Tucci, University of Liverpool
Student reviewer:
Katie Towers, Psychology student at Anglia Ruskin University

vii
 introduction

Not only is psychology one of the fastest growing subjects to study at university
worldwide, it is also one of the most exciting and relevant subjects. Over the
past decade the scope, breadth and importance of psychology have developed
considerably. Important research work from as far afield as the UK, Europe,
USA and Australia has demonstrated the exacting research base of the topic
and how this can be applied to all manner of everyday issues and concerns.
Being a student of psychology is an exciting experience – the study of mind and
behaviour is a fascinating journey of discovery. Studying psychology at degree
level brings with it new experiences, new skills and knowledge. As the Quality
Assurance Agency (QAA, 2010) has stressed:
psychology is distinctive in the rich and diverse range of attributes it develops – skills
which are associated with the humanities (e.g. critical thinking and essay writing) and
the sciences (hypotheses-testing and numeracy). (QAA, 2010, p. 5)

Recent evidence suggests that employers appreciate the skills and knowledge
of psychology graduates, but in order to reach this pinnacle you need to
develop your skills, further your knowledge and most of all successfully
complete your degree to your maximum ability. The skills, knowledge and
opportunities acquired during your psychology degree will give you an edge
in the employment field. The QAA stresses the high level of employment skills
developed during a psychology degree:
due to the wide range of generic skills, and the rigour with which they are taught,
training in psychology is widely accepted as providing an excellent preparation for many
careers. In addition to subject skills and knowledge, graduates also develop skills in
communication, numeracy, teamwork, critical thinking, computing, independent learning
and many others, all of which are highly valued by employers. (QAA, 2010, p. 2)

This book is part of the comprehensive new series, Psychology Express, that
helps you achieve these aspirations. It is not a replacement for every single
text, journal article, presentation and abstract you will read and review during
the course of your degree programme. It is in no way a replacement for your
lectures, seminars or additional reading. A top-rated assessment answer is likely
to include considerable additional information and wider reading – and you
are directed to some of these in this text. This revision guide is a conductor:
directing you through the maze of your degree by providing an overview of your
course, helping you formulate your ideas, and directing your reading.
Each book within Psychology Express presents a summary coverage of the
key concepts, theories and research in the field, within an explicit framework
of revision. The focus throughout all of the books in the series will be on how
you should approach and consider your topics in relation to assessment and
exams. Various features have been included to help you build up your skills and

ix
00 • Chapter title goes here
Introduction

knowledge ready for your assessments. More details of these features can be
found in the guided tour for this book on page xii.
By reading and engaging with this book, you will develop your skills and
knowledge base and in this way you should excel in your studies and your
associated assessments.
Psychology Express: Biological Psychology is divided into nine chapters and your
course has probably been divided up into similar sections. However we, the series
authors and editors, must stress a key point: do not let the purchase, reading and
engagement with the material in this text restrict your reading or your thinking. In
psychology, you need to be aware of the wider literature and how it interrelates
and how authors and thinkers have criticised and developed the arguments of
others. So even if an essay asks you about one particular topic you need to draw
on similar issues raised in other areas of psychology. There are, of course, some
similar themes that run throughout the material covered in this text, but you can
learn from the other areas of psychology covered in the other texts in this series
as well as from material presented elsewhere.
We hope you enjoy this text and the others in the Psychology Express series,
which cover the complete knowledge base of psychology:
MM Biological Psychology (Emma Preece): covering the biological basis
of behaviour, hormones and behaviour, sleeping and dreaming, and
psychological abnormalities.
MM Cognitive Psychology (Jonathan Ling and Jonathan Catling): including key
material on perception, learning, memory, thinking and language.
MM Developmental Psychology (Penney Upton): from pre-natal development
through to old age, the development of individuals is considered. Childhood,
adolescence and lifespan development are all covered.
MM Personality and Individual Differences (Laura Scurlock): normal and abnormal
personality, psychological testing, intelligence, emotion and motivation are all
covered in this book.
MM Social Psychology (Jenny Mercer and Debbie Clayton): covering all the key
topics in Social Psychology including attributions, attitudes, group relations,
close relationships and critical social psychology.
MM Statistics in Psychology (Catherine Steele, Holly Andrews and Dominic Upton):
an overview of data analysis related to psychology is presented along with
why we need statistics in psychology. Descriptive and inferential statistics and
both parametric and non-parametric analysis are included.
MM Research Methods in Psychology (Steve Jones and Mark Forshaw): research
design, experimental methods, discussion of qualitative and quantitative
methods and ethics are all presented in this text.
MM Conceptual and Historical Issues in Psychology (Brian M. Hughes): the
foundations of psychology and its development from a mere interest into a
scientific discipline. The key conceptual issues of current-day psychology are
also presented.
x
 Introduction

This book, and the other companion volumes in this series, should cover all
your study needs (there will also be further guidance on the website). It will,
obviously, need to be supplemented with further reading and this text directs
you towards suitable sources. Hopefully, quite a bit of what you read here you
will already have come across and the text will act as a jolt to set your mind at
rest – you do know the material in depth. Overall, we hope that you find this
book useful and informative as a guide for both your study now and in your
future as a successful psychology graduate.

Revision note
MM Use evidence based on your reading, not on anecdotes or your ‘common
sense’.
MM Show the examiner you know your material in depth – use your additional
reading wisely.
MM Remember to draw on a number of different sources: there is rarely one
‘correct’ answer to any psychological problem.
MM Base your conclusions on research-based evidence.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

xi
 Guided tour
1 Introduction to
biopsychology: origins,
approaches and
applications
M Understand key concepts quickly

• Philosophy
The origins of
biopsychology • Medicine
• Technology

Introduction to
biopsychology:
origins,
approaches and
applications Start to plan your revision
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

using
The origins of biopsychology
• Physiological psychology and the Topic maps.
6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming psychophysiology
• Neuroscience
Approaches in
Biological mechanisms controlling the timingThe biological psychology that we know today is the product of several
of sleep
• Neuropsychology
biopsychology
theoretical shifts, centuries of research and numerous methodological
• Psychopharmacology
The timing of sleep is controlled by an internal hypothetical
• Behavioural mechanism(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, biopsychology has links to
genetics
adaptations
known as the circadian clock, which regulates •sleep–wake homeostasis, and
Comparative psychology
philosophy, science, medicine and technology and can be tracked back as far
zeitgebers, which reset this clock. This mechanism works in conjunction with
as ancient Greece and humorism (Burton, 1989/1994). These influences have
the neurotransmitter adenosine, the hormone melatonin and temperature
contributed towards the diversity of contemporary biopsychology. Indeed, the
fluctuations to stimulate the feeling of tiredness and determine the ideal time
origins and development of biopsychology are also intertwined with the other
for sleep. However, it is important to remember that in humans the amount and
schools of thought in psychology, such as cognitivism and behaviourism. As
timing of sleep can also be controlled by the individual to some extent and it is
such, it is impossible to fully summarise the complete history of biopsychology
subject to significant individual and group differences. For example, newborns
in this book, but links to further reading are provided at the end of this section.
tend to sleep the most while adults sleep the least.
A from
A printable version of this topic map is available brief review of some of the contributions which have been made towards the
Research has suggested that the regulation of circadian rhythms, including the
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress origin and development of biopsychology is provided below.
sleep–wake cycle, may be mediated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), raphe
nucleus, pons and the locus coeruleus area of the reticular formation in the brain 1
stem. This suggests that these regions may correspond with the Key termsof the
location
Grasp Key terms quickly using
circadian clock. Indeed, Aston-Jones and Bloom (1981) observed increased
Humorism: An ancient school of thought concerned with the balance of the body’s
activity of noradrenergic neurons in this region three secondsnaturally before produced
animals substances: bile, blood and phlegm.
the handy definitions. Use
awoke. However, you should also remember that the hypothalamus has been
Cognitivism: A school of thought concerned with human cognition.
the flashcards online to test
associated with regulating sleep–wake cycles (e.g. Saper, Scammell & Lu, 2005).
Behaviourism: A school of thought concerned with purely observable and

yourself.
Key terms
measureable human and animal behaviour.

Circadian clock: A hypothetical biological mechanism which is theorised to control

sleep–waking patterns and the other biological prerequisites for sleep (such
Philosophy
as temperature change, the release of growth hormones and the secretion of
neurotransmitters). The mind–body problem
Circadian rhythm: A behavioural or physiological process which changes daily
The philosophical origins of biopsychology are notably eclectic and incorporate

M revise effectively
according to a set pattern, such as the sleep–wake cycle.
several of the prominent and prevailing debates in psychology (Valentine,
Zeitgebers: Stimuli which can reset the circadian clock and circadian rhythms. These
usually come in the form of changing light.
1992). For example, the Critical Focus box below details how biopsychology is
routed in the mind–body problem. This has been a common theme for debates
since the origins of philosophy and features in religious scriptures that discuss
the soul. The debate concerns the relationship between the mind (or, more
KEY STUDY
generally, any incorporeal aspect) and the body. Contemporary biopsychology
The suprachiasmatic nucleus and circadian rhythms tends to adopt a dualist perspective, which argues that cognition and bodily
responses
Silver, LeSauter, Tresco and Lehman (1996) identified that surgical removal are both
of the SCNrelevant to human experience, rather than a monist
perspective,
of hamsters eradicated their circadian rhythms, suggesting that this which
structure may argues that there is only one reality and that is either physical
be the
locus of the circadian clock. Furthermore, when SCN tissue was (materialism)
transplanted or psychological
into the (idealism) in nature.
hamsters’ third ventricles using small semi-permeable capsules, the circadian rhythms
recommenced. However, the notable issue with this finding is that while chemicals and
Key terms Quickly remind yourself of
nutrients could pass through the capsule to replenish the SCN tissue, the tissue itself was
not able to establish synaptic connections to the surrounding tissue due to the nature the Key studies using the
Dualist/dualism: A perspective which states the mind and body both exist as
of the capsules. This suggests that the SCN may control circadian rhythms through
chemicals rather than electrical signals although the nature of these chemicals is yet to special boxes in the text.
separate entities which contribute toward the sense of reality.
Idealism: A perspective which states that the only reality is that created by the mind.
be determined.
t

106

xii
 perception mismatch in tone-deafness. Current Biology, 18(8),
331–332. by cross-cultural studies?
7.21 Which hemisphere is more influential in the recognition of emotion?
Auditory perception Shamma, S. A., & Micheyl, C. (2010). Behind the scenes of auditory
perception. Current Opinions in Neurobiology,Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
20(3), 361–366.
Auditory perception
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
Zmigrod, S., & Hommel, B. (2009). Auditory event files: Integrating
and action planning auditory perception and action planning. Attention, Perception and Guided tour
Psychophysics, 71(2), 352–362.

Test your knowledge Chapter summary – pulling it all together

5.8 What are the physical dimensions of audition?
Prepare for upcoming exams
5.9 What are the perceptual dimensions of audition?
¡¡Can you tick all the pointsand
this chapter?
tests using the Test your
from the revision checklist at the beginning of

5.10 Where is the primary auditory cortex located? knowledge and Sample
¡¡Attempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
Answers to these questions can be found on the companionanswer
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
website at:
guidelines below.
question features.
¡¡Go to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards. You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.
Somatosensation
Answer guidelines
Somatosensation refers to bodily sensations and comprises three interacting
systems, which are the exteroceptive system (see previous section on the

Sample question
general properties of perception, sensation and attention), proprioceptive Essay
Compare your responses with
system and interoceptive system.
Compare and contrast two biological approaches to studying human emotion.
the Answer guidelines in the 91
text and on the website.
Approaching the question Examples in neuropsychology

This question is asking you to apply your understanding of human emotion

Concussion
and two different approaches in biological psychology to discuss how these
Following
approaches a blunt
presentforce trauma
similar to the head,
or different individuals This
interpretations. sometimes experience
can include any of
retrograde amnesia
the approaches for events
described just before
in Chapter 1 andtheany
incident and anterograde
emotional state. You willamnesia
also
for
needa period afterwards
to critically (Carlson,
evaluate 2004; Pinel, 2003). However, the duration and
these perspectives.
extent of these deficits are dependent upon the extent of the injury. While
most cases of retrograde amnesia are resolved with time, people rarely recover
memories for things which occurred just before the trauma.

Electroconvulsive shock
132
Patients who undergo electroconvulsive shock (ECS) for conditions such as
obsessive compulsive disorder and major depression experience a degree of
retrograde amnesia and a period of confusion following the treatment. Most
interestingly, ECS appears to be a useful technique for investigating the time
required for memory consolidation in that longer gradients of retrograde
amnesia would suggest that memory consolidation is a longitudinal process.
Chapter summary
This–appears
pulling it all
to together
be the case, suggesting that memories become gradually more
resilient to damage and interference (Nadel & Moscovitch, 1997; Pinel, 2003).
Approaching the question
This question is asking you to evaluate the methodologies,Medial
insights,temporal
strengths amnesia
and limitations of evidence provided by studies of individuals with brain damage
As you will remember from the discussion of patient H.M., damage to the
or other cognitive impairments.
medial temporal area can result in severe anterograde amnesia, but this pattern
Important points to include of impairment is not all-encompassing and there are types of knowledge which
can still be acquired. Several studies with laboratory animals have demonstrated
Your essay should begin with a clear and concise summary of the arguments,
that bilateral surgical removal of the hippocampus and rhinal cortex can severely
evidence and interpretations you will discuss in your response to the question.
Important things to consider include: impair object recognition memory. For example, rats demonstrate severe deficits

M make your answers stand out

on the delayed non-matching-to-sample task (see Critical Focus box below) after
MM A description of what neuropsychology is, including its assumptions,
damage to the hippocampus which has been linked to memory for relationships
methodologies and participants. This should especially highlight the use
between objects (Mumby, Pinel & Wood, 1989).
of multiple methods in case studies, including experiments, observations,
interviews and neuroimaging.
MM CRITICAL
Insights provided by specific case studies such as patient H.M. FOCUS
These should
evaluate the extent to which the findings from these studies have expanded
The Mumby box
the Critical
Use Whether
MM
focus boxes
the understanding of memory processes and structures.
The Mumby box was developed by Mumby et al., (1989) in an attempt to test rats’ ability
valuable insights have been provided by other biological or
to impress your
non-biological examiner
approaches
to perform a delayed non-matching-to-sample task after lesions to the hippocampus. Rats
to studying learning and memory.
were used because the location of their hippocampus means that only a small section of
The strengths of neuropsychology, including that it takes the
an indepth look at would also be damaged during the aspiration (suction) of this area,
withrare
your
cases,deep
employs aand
variety critical
parietal neocortex
MM

of methods, provides valuable insights

whereas and animals
in other has the rhinal cortex would also be damaged.
understanding.
an applied focus on understanding and rehabilitation. During the experiment, a rat is placed in the middle of a box partitioned into three
sections. One of the sliding doors is lifted to reveal a sample object which hides a food
MM The weaknesses of neuropsychology, including issues surrounding
source. A trained, intact rat will run to the object and push it aside to obtain the food.
generalisability, modularity, reductionism, specialism of function, the lack of
The rat returns to the middle section while the first door is closed and the second door
baseline measures, plasticity and reorganisation of function, problems with
is lifted. The rat finds an object identical to the sample and a new object at the end of
interpretation and ethics. this section. However, the rat must learn to differentiate these objects and go to the
MM Your conclusions concerning the validity and reliability of new
the evidence
object to find the food.
t

provided by neuropsychology.

Make your answer stand out 145

To make an answer stand out in this area you need to demonstrate that you
have an understanding of the broader aspects of learning and memory which Go into the exam with
span across both biological and non-biological approaches and also across
clinical and non-clinical samples. This will mean that you will need to be able
confidence using the handy
to synthesise and critically evaluate a range of evidence while explicitly linking
this to the essay question. For example, how can research with neurologically
tips to make your answer
damaged patients correspond to research with healthy control subjects? You stand out.
will also need to demonstrate that you are aware of (and understand) the
theoretical and practical challenges directed towards neuropsychology.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards. xiii
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

149
 Guided tour of the companion website

M Understand key concepts quickly

Printable versions of the

Topic maps give an overview
of the subject and help you
plan your revision.

Test yourself on key definitions

with the online Flashcards.

xiv
 Guided tour of the companion website

M revise effectively

Check your understanding

and practise for exams
with the Multiple choice
questions.

M make your answers stand out

Evaluate sample exam answers

in the You be the marker
exercises and understand how
and why an examiner awards
marks.

Put your skills into practice

with the Sample exam
questions, then check your
answers with the guidelines.

All this and more can be found at

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

xv
 key research studies

MM Corkin, S., Sullivan, E. V., Twitchell, T. E., & Grove, E. (1981). The amnesic
patient H. M.: Clinical observations and a test performance 28 years after
operation. Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 7, 235.
MM Darwin, C. (1872/1965). The expression of the emotions in man and animals.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
MM Galton, F. (1865). Hereditary talent and character. Macmillan’s Magazine, 12,
157–166. Available: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Galton/talent.htm.
MM Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1977). Functional architecture of macaque
monkey visual cortex. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 198, 1–59.
MM Lashley, K. S. (1930). Basic neural mechanisms in behaviour. Psychological
Review, 37 (1), 1–24. Available: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Lashley/neural.htm
MM Madsen, P. L., Holm, S., Vorstrup, S., Friberg, L., Lassen, N. A. & Wildschiodz, G.
(1991). Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid-eye-movement sleep.
Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 11, 502–507.
MM Sperry, R. W. (1966). Brain bisection and consciousness. In J. Eccles (Ed.),
Brain and conscious experience. New York: Springer-Verlag.
MM Weiskrantz, I. (1987). Residual vision in the scotoma: A follow-up study of
‘form’ discrimination. Brain, 110, 77–92.
1 Introduction to
biopsychology: origins,
approaches and
applications

• Philosophy
The origins of
biopsychology • Medicine
• Technology

Introduction to
biopsychology:
origins,
approaches and
applications

• Physiological psychology and

psychophysiology
• Neuroscience
Approaches in
• Neuropsychology
biopsychology
• Psychopharmacology
• Behavioural genetics
• Comparative psychology

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

1
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Introduction

This chapter will provide an overview of some of the main areas of biological
psychology and will draw your attention to research techniques, theories and
prominent research within these areas. Although you need to understand the
general origins, nature and scope of biological psychology it is also important
to remember that it consists of several significantly different approaches. These
include physiological psychology, neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience,
behavioural genetics and psychopharmacology (see Figure 1.1).
Each of these approaches focuses on different levels of analysis and employs
different techniques and interpretations. However, you should also understand
that these approaches are applied and combined to provide several levels of
analysis when examining the biological aspects of behaviour and experience. It
is not enough to merely be descriptive and list a series of facts, techniques and
approaches; you must also think and write critically. Consequently, this chapter
will encourage you to compare and contrast these approaches and will highlight
some of the prevailing issues and debates which arise when studying human
behaviour and experience from a biological perspective.
By the end of this chapter you should feel more confident in your understanding
of the approaches, methodologies and applications of biological psychology
but you should also be able to discuss some of the similarities, differences,
strengths and limitations of these approaches.

Cognitive
neuroscience

Psychophysiological Behavioural
approach genetics

Physiological
approach Psychopharmacology

Comparative
Neuropsychology Biopsychology psychology

Figure 1.1 Approaches in biopsychology

2
 Introduction

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP How biopsychology originated and evolved
PP What the main approaches in biopsychology are
PP Which methodologies are used in biopsychology
PP How biopsychology is applied to study phenomena
PP What some of the continuing issues and debates are

Assessment advice
Essay questions for introductory biopsychology will usually ask you to compare
and contrast two or more approaches or research techniques with reference to a
specific phenomenon. For example, you may be asked to evaluate and compare
neuropsychological and physiological approaches to studying perception. For
questions like this you will need to understand the similarities, differences,
techniques and principles of these approaches. You will also need to cite specific
examples of these approaches in action.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent has biopsychology contributed towards the understanding

of human behaviour and experience? Discuss in relation to two approaches.

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

3
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

The origins of biopsychology

The biological psychology that we know today is the product of several

theoretical shifts, centuries of research and numerous methodological
adaptations (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, biopsychology has links to
philosophy, science, medicine and technology and can be tracked back as far
as ancient Greece and humorism (Burton, 1989/1994). These influences have
contributed towards the diversity of contemporary biopsychology. Indeed, the
origins and development of biopsychology are also intertwined with the other
schools of thought in psychology, such as cognitivism and behaviourism. As
such, it is impossible to fully summarise the complete history of biopsychology
in this book, but links to further reading are provided at the end of this section.
A brief review of some of the contributions which have been made towards the
origin and development of biopsychology is provided below.

Key terms
Humorism: An ancient school of thought concerned with the balance of the body’s
naturally produced substances: bile, blood and phlegm.
Cognitivism: A school of thought concerned with human cognition.
Behaviourism: A school of thought concerned with purely observable and
measureable human and animal behaviour.

Philosophy
The mind–body problem
The philosophical origins of biopsychology are notably eclectic and incorporate
several of the prominent and prevailing debates in psychology (Valentine,
1992). For example, the Critical Focus box below details how biopsychology is
routed in the mind–body problem. This has been a common theme for debates
since the origins of philosophy and features in religious scriptures that discuss
the soul. The debate concerns the relationship between the mind (or, more
generally, any incorporeal aspect) and the body. Contemporary biopsychology
tends to adopt a dualist perspective, which argues that cognition and bodily
responses are both relevant to human experience, rather than a monist
perspective, which argues that there is only one reality and that is either physical
(materialism) or psychological (idealism) in nature.

Key terms
Dualist/dualism: A perspective which states the mind and body both exist as
separate entities which contribute toward the sense of reality.
Idealism: A perspective which states that the only reality is that created by the mind.
t

4
 The origins of biopsychology

Materialism: A perspective which states that the only reality is that experienced by
the body.
Mind–body problem: A philosophical debate concerning the relationship between
and dominance of the mind and the body.
Monist/monism: A perspective which states that either the mind or the body exists
independently. There is only one reality and that may be through the mind (idealism)
or the body (materialism).

CrItICAl foCus

The mind–body problem

It is important that you can understand how the debates surrounding the mind–
body problem have informed and influenced development and interpretation in
biopsychology. For example, the monist perspective known as idealism states that the
mind exists independent of the body, implying that bodily responses are irrelevant in
determining behaviour and experience. In contrast, the monist perspective known as
materialism states that only the physical reality is real, making all phenomena which
cannot be observed and quantified irrelevant. This approach was endorsed by early
behaviourism. In this case, it might be useful for you to consider the technological and
methodological adaptations which have occurred since monist perspectives were widely
endorsed. Can cognition and other previously unobservable (for example, physiological)
phenomena now be quantified given the correct technology and measures?
Indeed, it is significant that branches of contemporary biopsychology tend to be
founded on the assumptions of the dualist perspective known as interactionism. This
states that there is a two-way relationship between the mind and the body. In this sense,
bodily responses can influence thought and cognition can mediate bodily responses. For
example, consider how chemical imbalances and negative thought patterns may interact
in cases of depression to exacerbate the symptoms. Also consider how the perception of
pain is relative rather than a universal. It is significant that both medication and thought
processes (such as meditation) can reduce the perception of pain. However, can you
think of any examples where this may not be the case? For example, in cases where
‘blind-sight’ individuals are able to reach for an object of which they are not consciously
aware. This may support the dualist perspective known as parallelism, which states that
there is a correlation between the mind and body rather than causation.

Functionalism and structuralism

The origins and current status of biopsychology are also intertwined with the
debate between structuralism and functionalism (Valentine, 1992). For example,
early structuralism attempted to study the structure and organisation of the
mind based purely on conscious mental experience. This approach was linked
to introspection and relied to a large extent on self-examination. However,
several criticisms were levelled at this approach, including that it was subjective,
unscientific and intrinsically linked to idealism.

5
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

In contrast, early functionalism attempted to understand behaviour and

experience in terms of the functions which it served and how it facilitated
or reflected reactions to the environment. As such, functionalism envisioned
constant interaction between mental states, physiology and situational influences
and is more representative of contemporary biopsychology. For example, in the
case of evolutionary theories, behaviours are believed both to be determined
by genetic predisposition and form a response to environmental factors. In
this case, a behaviour, physiological response or mental state would serve
the function of promoting survival (Lashley, 1930). Indeed, contemporary
biopsychology attempts to identify which cerebral structures or physiological
responses serve which specific functions.

Key terms
Evolutionary theories: Theories that behaviour and experience have developed
through centuries of genetic mutation, evolution and survival of the fittest.
functionalism: An approach which is concerned with identifying the functions which
behaviour and experience serve.
Introspection: A technique developed by Wundt (1902) to study the subjective
experience of patients based on their description of their thoughts and feelings.
structuralism: An approach which is concerned with studying how the structure and
organisation of the mind influence behaviour and experience.

Psychology as a science
You have probably already encountered the debate surrounding whether
psychology can be considered to be a science. This debate has been ongoing
since the emergence of early research and theorisation concerning the mind–
body debate and is likely to continue due to the permanently evolving status
of psychology (Hergenhahn, 2009; James, 1890; Valentine, 1992). For the
purpose of this chapter it is important to note that biopsychology possesses
more explicit links to science, medicine and technology than any other area of
psychology. Indeed, while its origins are linked to philosophy, its development
has been highly determined by scientific influences which are discussed
later in this section. However, it is also important that you remember that
biopsychology is also concerned with explaining phenomena which cannot
always be observed and quantified. Sciences such as physics and biology have
also experienced similar problems and technological advances have resolved
several of these limitations.

Nature–nurture debate
The nature–nurture debate permeated psychology and refers to whether
behaviour is determined by biological or environmental factors (Galton, 1865).
However, in most cases the extremist views which arose as a product of monism
have since been replaced by dualist perspectives (Valentine, 1992). Indeed, the

6
 The origins of biopsychology

most commonly endorsed perspective concerning the origins of mental illness

is the diathesis–stress model. Proponents of this model argue that individuals
may be predisposed to a condition due to genetic or physiological factors but
that environmental factors can determine whether the condition manifests. For
example, an individual may have low levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and
dopamine which would predispose them to depression, but the condition may
not arise until a serious life event exacerbates these factors. It is also important to
remember that cognitive factors, such as negative thoughts and worry, and social
factors, including social norms and values, also influence human behaviour.

Key terms
Diathesis–stress: A theoretical model which states that behaviour and experience are
produced by both biological and environmental factors.
Nature–nurture: A theoretical debate surrounding the topic of whether an individual’s
behaviour and experience are determined and inevitable due to biological factors, or
undetermined and changeable due to environmental factors.
Neurotransmitter: A naturally occurring chemical produced in the body at the terminal
buttons of neurons which facilitates the transmission of action potentials across synaptic
gaps. The activation threshold and compatibility of the postsynaptic receptor cells will
determine their efficiency. Neurotransmitters can have excitatory or inhibitory effects.

Medicine
Biopsychology also has explicit bases and links to medicine because both
disciplines examine how biology influences behaviour. For example, in ancient
Greece, humorism stated that imbalance between the body’s humors (believed
to be yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm) could result in both physical
and mental illness (Burton, 1989/1994). Based on this assumption, techniques
such as bloodletting and trepanning (drilling holes in the skull) were used for
centuries to relieve imbalance and pressure respectively. Over the centuries
several other medically based approaches have been adopted in the study
of human experience and behaviour, including the use of medication to alter
physiological states and the use of cerebral lesions to treat psychological
impairments. While it is important to remember that many of these approaches
would be reprehensible today, the general principles remain prevalent in both
medicine and biopsychology. For example, cerebral lesions to areas of the brain
are still occasionally performed to reduce the symptoms of severe unipolar
depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Therefore, it is important
to remember that both early and contemporary biological psychology is
concerned with how genetics, physiology and anatomy influence both normal
and maladaptive behaviour (Burton, 1989/1994; Carlson, 2004; Galton, 1865;
James, 1890; Lashley, 1930; Pinel, 2003). As such, the links between medicine
and psychology are most pronounced in this area and these links are further
strengthened by the contemporary reliance on technology.

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1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

 Sample question Essay

To what extent has contemporary biopsychology been influenced by

philosophy and medicine?

Key terms
Bloodletting: An ancient technique of releasing blood from the body in an attempt
to restore balance.
lesions: The severing of connections or damage to structures in the brain.
obsessive compulsive disorder: A psychological condition in which individuals
experience extreme anxiety, obsessive thoughts and compulsions to perform actions
which they believe relieve the anxiety.
trepanning: An ancient technique in which holes are drilled in the skull in an attempt
to relieve pressure.
unipolar depression: A psychological condition characterised by unusually low mood,
lethargy, negative thoughts and negative emotions.

Technology
Biopsychology is highly influenced by and often dependent on technological
advancement. Indeed, due to the association with medicine and the need to
understand how both normal and impaired functions arise it has often utilised
the tools of medicine. However, it is important to remember that technology is
constantly evolving and contemporary biopsychology is significantly different
from the rudimentary approaches discussed previously. For example, cognitive
neuroscience relies on complex neuroimaging technologies such as positron
emission tomography (PET) to understand which physiological processes and
anatomical structures are associated with human behaviour and experience. In
addition, neuropsychology adopts numerous technologies including conventional
experimentation using computers, laboratory equipment and neuroimaging.
These approaches are discussed in more detail in the following section, but it
is important that you remember the development of biopsychology is highly
dependent upon the tools and measures that are available.

Key term
Neuroimaging: A procedure in which neurological imaging technology is used to
visualise and record the activity of the brain.

8
 Approaches in biopsychology

 Sample question Essay

To what extent is contemporary biopsychology dependent upon technological

advancement?

further reading The origins of biopsychology

Topic Key reading
Mental health Comer, R. J. (2007). Abnormal psychology (6th ed.). New York:
Worth Publishers.
History of psychology Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to the history of
psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Theoretical origins Valentine, E. R. (1992). Conceptual issues in psychology (2nd
of psychology ed.). London: Routledge.

Test your knowledge

1.1 How has philosophy contributed towards the origins and development
of biopsychology?
1.2 How has medicine contributed towards the origins and development of
biopsychology?
1.3 To what extent has the emergence of biopsychology been subject to
the rate of technological advancement?
1.4 Does contemporary biopsychology still resemble early biological
psychology?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Approaches in biopsychology

There are several significant sub-disciplines within biopsychology. These

approaches study human behaviour and experience using different but
complementary levels of analyses and methodologies. Several also vary in the
type of participants they examine. The following sections provide brief overviews
of these approaches which you will need to know. Indeed, these approaches
will form the basis of your understanding and reoccur throughout this revision
guide. However, you should remember that the approaches are often combined,
a practice known as converging operations, to study the same phenomenon at
several different levels of analysis.

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1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Key term
Converging operations: Combining two or more different approaches or techniques
to study the same phenomenon at different levels of analysis.

Physiological psychology and psychophysiology

Physiological psychology attempts to identify the neural correlates of behaviour
and experience, often through manipulating the brain using surgery and
electrical stimulation. As such there is a tendency for this approach to rely
on laboratory animals rather than human subjects due to the explorative and
invasive nature of this research. For example, Anand and Brobeck (1951)
performed bilateral electrolytic lesions to the lateral hypothalamus of rats and
cats and observed that the animals ceased eating. This is a condition known as
aphagia and demonstrates how areas of the brain correspond with behaviour.

Key terms
Aphagia: A condition in which a neurologically damaged individual ceases to eat.
Physiological psychology: An approach in psychology which attempts to identify the
neural correlates of behaviour and experience, often in laboratory animals.
Psychophysiology: An approach in psychology which investigates the correspondence
between physiological activity, behaviour and experience in human subjects.

In contrast, psychophysiology investigates the correspondence between

physiological activity, behaviour and experience in human subjects. The
procedures tend to be significantly less invasive than those used in physiological
psychology (Pinel, 2003). For example, an electroencephalogram (EEG) can be
used to detect electrical activity produced by the brain using electrodes attached
to the surface of the scalp. As such, the participant is usually able to remain
mobile and measures are taken throughout their daily routine. For example,
EEG can be used to identify the cerebral origins of seizures in cases of epilepsy.
The methodologies used in physiological psychology (see Table 1.1) and
psychophysiology (see Table 1.2) are significantly diverse and a list is provided at
the end of this section to guide your further reading. Please note that this list is
by no means complete and methodology is constantly advancing.

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast physiological psychology and psychophysiology.

10
 Approaches in biopsychology

Table 1.1 Measures used in physiological psychology

Technique Description

Cryogenic blockade This is an alternative to lesions and involves applying a coolant to

the cerebral area under investigation to temporarily cease activity.

Lesions This can include aspiration, radio-frequency lesions or knife cutting.

Parts of the brain are damaged, destroyed or completely removed.

Table 1.2 Measures used in psychophysiology

Technique Description

ECG Electrocardiogram: Measures the electrical signal produced by the

heart using electrodes placed on the chest.

EEG Electroencephalogram: Measures the electrical signals produced

by the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

EMG Electromyography: Measures muscle tension using electrodes

placed on the skin near the respective muscle.

EOG Electrooculography: Measures the electrical signal associated with

eye-movements using electrodes placed around the eye.

However, several criticisms have been levelled at physiological psychology and

psychophysiology. These include:
MP There are significant issues in generalising findings from laboratory animals to
humans.
MP While physiological measures are more direct than behavioural measures,
there is still a delay between the event and measurement, implying that other
changes may be involved in the behaviour.
MP Physiological approaches are reductionist and tend to ignore complex
cognition and behaviour.

further reading Physiological psychology

Topic Key reading
Synthesising neuroscience Davidson, R. J. (2003). Affective neuroscience and
and psychophysiology psychophysiology: Towards a synthesis. Psychophysiology,
40, 655–665.

Neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience attempts to identify the neural correlates of cognition
using a combination of physiological measures (see Tables 1.1 and 1.2),
neuroimaging techniques (see Table 1.3), conventional laboratory experiments

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1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Table 1.3 Neuroimaging techniques

Technique Description

CT X-ray computed tomography is used to visualise the structures of the brain.

fMRI Functional magnetic resonance imaging is used to produce a 3D computer-

generated image of the brain reflecting blood and oxygen flow (cerebral activity).

MEG Magnetoencephalography is used to measure changes in magnet field

(cerebral activity) from the surface of the scalp.

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging measures the waves produced by hydrogen

atoms activated by radio-frequency waves in the magnetic field and produces a
2D or 3D image.

PET Positron emission tomography is used to measure glucose metabolism

(reflecting cerebral activity) in the brain using a low dose of radioactive
2-deoxyglucose.

X-ray Contrast x-rays produce an image of the brain after a substance has been
injected into the respective area which absorbed x-rays more or less than the
surrounding tissue.

and information technology (Bear, Connors & Paradiso, 2007; Cabeza & Nyberg,
2000; Gazzaniga, 2003). It occasionally also employs computer models to
simulate the human brain. This facilitates practices and investigations which
would otherwise be unethical and inhuman. For example, a connectionist
(computational) network can be used to simulate the micro-structure of the
human brain and allows researchers to mimic learning processes and cognition
and to map the effects of brain damage. This is a useful technique which permits
researchers to investigate the nature of phenomena which occur infrequently
or those which could otherwise not be studied. However, criticisms of cognitive
neuroscience include:
MP Biological approaches are reductionist and as such reduce complex behaviour
to physiological responses.
MP Neuroimaging techniques are not always time-sensitive and elements of the
response can be lost in this interval.
MP While techniques are usually non-invasive, they may still cause distress and
this can influence physiology and confound results.
MP The brain is highly interconnected and as such any effect seen in one cerebral
region may have originated from or contributed towards the processing
of another. Hence, these regions may also be associated with the form of
processing which is being investigated.

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 Approaches in biopsychology

Key terms
Connectionist: A computational model used to simulate human performance and
neural activity.
Neuroscience: An approach in psychology which attempts to identify the neural
correlates of cognition using a combination of physiological, experimental and
computational measures.
reductionist/reductionism: Attempting to explain a higher order function based on
lower order processes.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

You aim to investigate which areas of the brain are associated with human
memory. How would you go about designing and conducting an experiment
in neuroscience? You will need to consider who your participants will be,
which technique you would need to use, what measures you would obtain
and any strengths and weaknesses of your approach.

further reading Neuroscience

Topic Key reading
General neuroscience Bear, M. F., Connors, B., & Paradiso, M. (2007). Neuroscience:
Exploring the brain (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams
& Watkins.
Cognitive neuroscience Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An
empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(1), 1–47.
Cognitive neuroscience Gazzaniga, M. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the
mind (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Co.

Neuropsychology
Researchers in neuropsychology attempt to identify how cerebral structures
contribute towards cognitive processing by studying what happens when the
cerebral region has been damaged. In other words, it attempts to identify
how cerebral structures influence both normal and impaired functioning.
Neuropsychology primarily draws upon case studies of individuals who have

13
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

suffered brain damage or infection which resulted in a significant and notable

change in cognitive function (Crawford & Garthwaite, 2002). However, group
studies and computer simulations are also conducted (Cohen, Johnstone &
Plunkett, 2002; Robertson, Knight, Rafal & Shimamura, 1993). This is a significant
example of how converging operations can be employed in psychology to
better understand a phenomenon (see Table 1.4). Indeed, a single case or group
study can utilise a range of techniques including traditional experimentation,
observation, neuroimaging, interviews and computer simulations.
The most reliable evidence in neuropsychology is obtained from the observation
of double dissociation, in which one patient exhibits one form of impairment
after damage to one region and another exhibits alternative impairment after
damage to another region. A significant example of this is demonstrated by
aphasia. Indeed, while damage to Broca’s area in the brain can result in impaired
speech production, damage to Wernicke’s area can result in impaired language
comprehension. However, it is important that you remember there are limitations
in generalising findings from impaired cognition to normal functioning.

Key terms
Aphasia: A deficit in language usually produced through brain damage.
Double dissociation: Observed when one brain-damaged patient shows one pattern
of impairment while another shows a different pattern of impairment. Potentially due
to the damage of different cerebral structures.
Neuropsychology: An approach in psychology which attempts to identify both normal
and impaired human function, usually through studying the effects of brain damage.

The limitations of this approach include:

MP Case studies do not contain a baseline measure of how well the individual
would perform the task before the incident.
MP The individual may display idiosyncratic tendencies which are not
representative of others. As such, any measures may reflect this rather than
actual impairment due to brain damage.
MP The brain is highly interconnected, which hinders researchers’ abilities to
establish localisation of function.
MP There is always a period of rehabilitation in which specialism of function may be
reorganised within the brain. Other structures may compensate for impairment.
MP The experience of brain damage is traumatic and research may be seen as an
invasion of privacy.

14
 Approaches in biopsychology

Table 1.4 techniques in neuropsychology

Technique Description

Case study The detailed study of an individual who has experienced brain
damage or infection, resulting in deficits for memory, perception,
attention etc. Tends to be longitudinal and can extend to how
well the brain can demonstrate reorganisation and plasticity
during the period of rehabilitation.

Cohort study The study of groups of individuals who are matched on all other
possible factors except the variable under investigation.

Lesions Lesions can be inflicted on laboratory animals to identify which

cerebral structures may explain the symptoms exhibited by
humans.

Cognitive neuroscience Neuroimaging techniques and computer simulations can be used

to further explore how brain damage can impair performance.

further reading Neuropsychology

Topic Key reading
Neuropsychology Cohen, G., Johnstone, R. A., & Plunkett, K. (Eds.) (2002). Exploring
and neuroscience cognition: Damaged brains and neural networks – Readings in
cognitive neuropsychology and connectionist modelling. Hove:
Psychology Press
Neuropsychology Robertson, L. C., Knight, R. T., Rafal, R., & Shimamura, A. P. (1993).
methodology Cognitive neuropsychology is more than single-case studies. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 19(3),
710–717.
Neuropsychology Crawford, J. R., & Garthwaite, P. H. (2002). Investigation of the single
methodology case in neuropsychology: Confidence limits on the abnormality of test
score and test score differences. Neuropsychology, 40(8), 1196–1208.

Psychopharmacology
Psychopharmacology investigates the effects of drugs on physiological activity,
behaviour and experience (Coull, 1998; Meyer & Quenzer, 2004; Vitiello, 2007).
The majority of research in this field is conducted in medicine with an applied
focus of improving quality of life and reducing maladaptive behaviours. For
example, psychopharmacology is prevalent in abnormal psychology which will
be discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. Medications can be used to reduce the
severity of symptoms in cases of anxiety, depression and schizophrenia, and also
in some personality disorders. Trials in psychopharmacology attempt to identify
the beneficial and potentially harmful effects of substances, the best method
for administration, drug metabolism, correct doses and suitable applications.
However, the regulation and testing of psychopharmacology products continue
after the trials and previously unobserved side-effects are regularly reported

15
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

even after the use of the drug has been approved. Clinical trials are highly
regulated and are usually longitudinal. As such, research normally begins in a
laboratory setting with cultures of tissue and laboratory animals and will only
proceed to human volunteers if maximum safety has been ensured. However,
occasionally errors do occur and can have disastrous consequences.
Some of the general limitations of psychopharmacology include:
MP It is an expensive procedure which requires numerous experts, funding
bodies, ethics committees and organisations.
MP It is a time-consuming process which can span several years.
MP Significant ethical issues arise both in the use of animals and in administering
drugs to humans in clinical trials.
MP Many medications have serious side-effects and restrictions of use.
MP Several medications were designed for use in one specific condition and
the administration in other cases is often explorative. Discoveries that a
medication reduces symptoms in other disorders are often serendipitous.

Key terms
Anxiety disorder: A psychological condition characterised by high levels of stress and
anxiety, usually elicited by an external stimuli but also influenced by internal processes.
Clinical trial: The procedure by which medications are tested and legalised.
Psychopharmacology: An approach in psychology which is concerned with the
effects of medication on behaviour and experience.
serendipitous: Findings which were observed but were not originally the subject of
the investigation.
schizophrenia: A severe condition in which sufferers experience hallucinations,
delusions, speech impairment, irrationality, unusual motor activity and impairment in
most aspects of their lives.

further reading Psychopharmacology

Topic Key reading
Psychopharmacology, Coull, J. T. (1998). Neural correlates of attention and arousal:
attention and arousal Insights from electrophysiology, functional neuroimaging and
psychopharmacology. Progress in Neurobiology, 55(4), 343–361.
Psychopharmacology Meyer, J. S., & Quenzer, L. F. (2004). Psychopharmacology: Drugs,
the brain and behavior. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc.
Child and adolescent Vitiello, B. (2007). Research in child and adolescent
psychopharmacology psychopharmacology: Recent accomplishments and new
challenges. Psychopharmacology, 191(1), 5–13.

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 Approaches in biopsychology

Behavioural genetics
Behavioural genetics attempts to identify what proportion of the variance in a
trait or behaviour can be attributed to genetics and to the environment (Plomin,
1988; Stabenau & Pollin, 1993; Zuckerman, 1991). This relationship is referred
to as heredity and is a prominent aspect of several areas of biopsychology
research. Indeed, you may be aware that research has often investigated if
there are genetic components to personality traits, intelligence and mental
illness. However, it is important to remember that there is a constant interaction
between genes and the environment (Jaffee et al., 2005). For example, a genetic
predisposition can determine which environments we seek while environmental
factors can also determine whether a gene pool survives (Darwin, 1859). This
is in accordance with evolutionary theories that behaviour tends to serve the
purpose of promoting survival, but also incorporates the principle of diathesis–
stress which states that both biology and environment influence behaviour.
Contemporary behavioural genetics often relies on techniques such as twin
studies, adoption studies and family studies (Table 1.5) and employs a variety
of parametric tests. Indeed, you may already be aware that monozygotic twins
share the same DNA, while dizygotic twins only share around half of their DNA.
Therefore, if genes are influential in determining behaviour, monozygotic twins
are more likely to share the same traits and behaviours. However, adoption
studies can also be used to investigate heredity. For example, by comparing
monozygotic and dizygotic twins who have been raised either together or
apart, researchers can calculate the proportion of the variance in a trait which
can be explained by the environment and genetics. While behavioural genetics
can contribute towards our understanding of how genetics and environment
contribute towards determining our behaviour, there are several significant
limitations with this approach:
MP Behavioural genetics have previously been used to support prejudiced views
and discrimination.
MP Ethical issues arise surrounding related topics such as eugenics (the argument
that intelligent individuals should have more children).
MP Behavioural genetics can be seen as a deterministic perspective in which the
individual is passive.
MP The genetic code is extremely complex and it is unlikely that a trait will arise
solely due to one chromosome.
MP The environment is constantly changing and as such so are the influences on
our behaviour.
MP Behavioural genetics often focuses on the extremes of a given trait because
these are more observable.
MP Parametric tests are not infallible and vary considerably in reliability and validity.
MP The distinction between normal and abnormal behaviour is culturally and
temporally relative.

17
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Table 1.5 techniques in behavioural genetics

Technique Description

Twin study Investigates the extent to which scores on a trait correlate between
monozygotic and dizygotic twins reared together. A test of heredity.

Adoption study Investigates the extent to which scores on a trait correlate between
monozygotic and dizygotic twins reared either together or apart. A
test of heredity.

Family study Investigates the prevalence of a trait or type within a family.

Targeted mutation Intended genetic mutations are produced in a laboratory and

injected into laboratory animals to produce the desired mutation.

Genetic engineering The manipulation or cloning of the genome within laboratory settings.

Key terms
Adoption study: The comparison of siblings reared together or apart to assess heredity.
Behavioural genetics: An approach in psychology which attempts to identify what
proportion of the variance in a trait or behaviour can be attributed to genetics and to
the environment.
Dizygotic twins: Non-identical twins who only share half of their DNA.
Eugenics: A school of thought in which intelligent people are encouraged to
reproduce in an attempt to improve the species.
family study: A research technique in which the prevalence of a trait or type within a
family is assessed in regards to heredity.
Genetic engineering: The manipulation or cloning of the genome within laboratory
settings.
Heredity: The proportion of variance in a given trait or type which can be accounted
for by genetics and the environment.
Monozygotic twins: Identical twins who share the same DNA.
targeted mutation: Intended genetic mutations are produced in a laboratory and
injected into laboratory animals to produce the desired mutation.
twin study: The comparison of siblings on a specific measure to assess heredity.

KEY stuDY

Plomin (1988)
Plomin (1988) reanalysed the vast amount of literature concerning the heredity
of intelligence derived from twin, adoption and family studies and identified the
following findings:
MP the IQ scores of identical twins reared apart correlated at 0.74
MP the IQ scores of identical twins reared together correlated at 0.87
MP the IQ scores of non-identical twins reared together correlated at 0.53
t

18
 Approaches in biopsychology

This suggests that genetics contributed 68 per cent of the variance in IQ, whereas the
environment explained only 19 per cent. However, it also means that 13 per cent of the
variance in scores was not explained by either genetics or the environment. Interesting
results were also obtained for unrelated children living together (0.23) and between
unrelated children and their adoptive parents (0.20). This suggets that the environment
explained 20–25 per cent of the variance in intelligence scores.

further reading Behavioural genetics

Topic Key reading
Nature–nurture Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Dodge, K. A., Rutter, M., Taylor,
A., & Tully, L. A. (2005). Nature x nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities
interact with physical maltreatment to promote conduct problems.
Developmental Psychopathology, 17(1), 67–84.
Schizophrenia Stabenau, J., & Pollin, W. (1993). Heredity and environment in
and heredity schizophrenia, revisited: The contribution of twin and high-risk studies.
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 181(5), 290–297.
Personality and Zuckerman, M. (1991). Psychobiology of personality. Cambridge:
heredity Cambridge University Press.

Comparative psychology
Comparative psychology is concerned with the general biology of behaviour and
performs comparisons across species (Dewsbury, 1990). However, while there
are similarities between comparative psychology and behavioural genetics, in
that both attempt to identify genetic components of behaviour, there are also
significant differences. Indeed, practitioners in comparative psychology are
influenced by the evolutionary perspective to a greater extent than those in
behaviour genetics. For example, they often believe that humans have evolved
from other organisms and share some degree of their genetics, biology and
behaviour with other animals (Darwin, 1859). In contrast, behavioural genetics
is primarily concerned with how human DNA influences their behaviour and
traits. There has also been an extension of comparative psychology to animal
cognition, demonstrating influences of cognitive psychology (Wasserman, 1993).
However, it is important for you to remember that although a large amount
of research occurs in laboratory settings, animals are also studied in their
natural environment. This is called ethological research and forms a significant
proportion of contemporary research in comparative psychology.

Key terms
Comparative psychology: An approach in psychology which is concerned with the
general biology of behaviour and performs comparisons across species.
Ethological research: A research technique in which animals are studied in their
natural environment with little intervention by the researcher.

19
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Some of the limitations of this approach include:

MP interpretation issues in understanding animal behaviour
MP ethical considerations in laboratory experiments with animals (e.g. pain and
distress)
MP ethical considerations in ethological research (e.g. invasion or damage of
habitat)
MP generalisation across species is problematic – while some features are similar
there are also significant differences
MP several aspects of evolutionary theory have been discounted.

CrItICAl foCus

Comparative psychology
While comparative approaches were prominent areas of research during the early days
of biological psychology, its influence has subsequently declined and few studies are
currently conducted in this area (Carlson, 2004; Darwin, 1859; Pinel, 2003). This may
be due to technological advances, which allow us to study human behaviour in much
more detail than was previously possible, and changes in ethical guidelines concerning
research with laboratory animals. It may also be due to theoretical shifts towards
including environmental factors in the equation for behaviour. For example, the nature–
nurture debate has undermined several aspects of biological comparative approaches
(Jaffee et al. 2005). Indeed, the majority of contemporary comparative research is
accomplished through cross-cultural studies rather than cross-species comparisons.
These studies usually adopt a very different perspective from that of biological
approaches. For example, contemporary cross-cultural studies tend to assume that
the environmental differences between cultures give rise to different behaviours and
attitudes. This is in direct contrast to biological comparative psychology which argues
that genetics is responsible for behavioural differences and similarities. However, it is
significant that cross-cultural studies also once assumed that these differences were
due to genetic factors, demonstrating significant developments in theory and practice.

Key term
Cross-cultural study: The study and comparison of groups of people from different
cultural backgrounds.

further reading Comparative psychology

Topic Key reading
Comparative approaches Dewsbury, D. A. (1990). Contemporary issues in comparative
psychology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc.
Comparative psychology Wasserman, E. A. (1993). Comparative cognition: Beginning
and animal intelligence the second century of animal intelligence. Psychological
Bulletin, 113(2), 211–228.

20
 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Test your knowledge

1.5 What are the similarities and differences between cognitive

neuropsychology and neuroscience?
1.6 What are the applications of psychopharmacology?
1.7 What are the issues and limitations which arise in behavioural genetics?
1.8 Can neuropsychology contribute towards understanding normal
functions?
1.9 What are the strengths and limitations of psychophysiology?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent has biopsychology contributed towards the understanding

of human behaviour and experience? Discuss in relation to two approaches.

Approaching the question

Like most questions you will receive in this area, this question is asking you
to review the extent to which two biological psychological approaches have
contributed towards understanding human behaviour and experience.

21
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Important points to include

You should begin your essay by providing a detailed summary of the two
approaches you have chosen to describe and evaluate. This should clearly
describe the principles and techniques which are used by each approach. You
should also incorporate a critical evaluation of evidence concerning how each of
these approaches has been applied to study a human behaviour and experience.
It would be useful to provide examples from two or three areas of study (e.g.
memory, language and perception). However, you should make sure that you
write critically and evaluate all of the evidence you cite with reference to the
question. For example, how does the evidence you are including demonstrate that
biopsychology has contributed towards understanding these phenomena? Are
there any aspects of these phenomena which one or both of these approaches is
unable to explain? Your essay should finally draw conclusions concerning how well
each of these approaches can explain and test human behaviour and experience
with specific reference to their strengths and limitations.

Make your answer stand out

To make your answer stand out in this area you must demonstrate that you
have drawn on a variety of information from a range of sources and that you
have critically evaluated both the theories and the evidence you have cited to
reach a coherent and balanced conclusion. It is not enough to simply list facts
and figures; you must synthesise these ideas to establish an academic debate.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

22
 Notes

Notes

23
1 • Introduction to biopsychology: origins, approaches and applications

Notes

24
2 Structure and function of
the central and peripheral
nervous systems

Central • Protection of the central nervous system

nervous • The spinal cord
system • The brain

Structure and
function of the
central and
peripheral
nervous
systems

• Somatic nervous system

Peripheral • Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic,
nervous parasympathetic and enteric
system • Neurotransmitters and other substances
• Damage to the peripheral nervous system

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

25
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Introduction

This chapter will provide you with a summary of the structures and functions
of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
In regards to the CNS, this includes the brain and spinal cord. However, you
should remember that some texts also include the retinas – whether these are
included in this system will depend on your course. The PNS includes all of
the nerves, neurons, muscles and organs which are located beyond the central
nervous system. The endocrine system, which is responsible for releasing and
regulating hormones and related chemicals, is covered in Chapter 3. Together,
these structures form the main regulatory and control systems responsible for
facilitating all forms of cognition, experience and movement. They also play a
large role in regulating bodily functions through a complex system of neurons
which either send signals from the nervous system to trigger responses in the
body or transmit signals back to the nervous system. However, it is important to
remember that you are studying psychology and not biology and as such these
structures need to be understood in the context of behaviour rather than solely
based on anatomy. Consequently, this chapter will help you to understand how
the brain and spinal cord function within the body to enable behaviour, and also
to appreciate what happens when the nervous system is damaged.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP What the central and peripheral nervous systems are
PP What the differences between the central and peripheral nervous
systems are
PP How the central nervous system functions
PP How the peripheral nervous system functions
PP How behaviour is impaired if the nervous system is damaged

Key terms
Central nervous system: A complex system which governs all top-down processes
and consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Endocrine system: The network of glands and organs which release and regulate
hormones.
Hormones: Endogenous substances produced by the glands of the body.
Peripheral nervous system: A complex system which governs all bottom-up
processes and consists of all of the nerves, muscles and organs beyond the CNS.

26
 The central nervous system

Assessment advice
Essay questions concerning the nervous system will often ask you to discuss
how one of these vital systems enables behaviour and experience. For example,
you may be asked to evaluate the extent to which the central nervous system
determines perception. Although this question would not explicitly mention the
peripheral nervous system, it would be prudent to consider multiple influences and
establish an academic debate in your essay. This implies that it would be a good
idea to consider whether the peripheral nervous system and non-biological factors
complement, counteract or override the functions of the central nervous system.
Alternatively, you could be explicitly asked to compare and contrast the structures
and functions of the peripheral and central nervous systems in regards to one or
two specific behaviours. For questions like these you will need to understand the
structures, functions, research techniques for investigating these systems and the
prominent findings which have been provided by research. You will also need to
cite specific examples from the literature. Any essays in this area will also need to
demonstrate that you can draw appropriate conclusions based on the evidence
and correct interpretation of the nervous system.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent does the central nervous system determine the course of
human behaviour? Discuss with reference to at least two aspects of behaviour
(for example, perception and memory).

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The central nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Although
some texts include the retinas, there isn’t a consensus concerning this inclusion.
As such, they are not included in this revision guide, but you should consult
your course text to determine whether your module includes these aspects. You

27
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

should remember that the central nervous system is responsible for all forms of
cognition including perception, attention and memory in addition to reflexes,
compilation of somatosensory information and prompting motor movement.

Key term
Somatosensory: Information derived from the bodily senses.

Protection of the central nervous system

The importance of the central nervous system in evolutionary terms can be
demonstrated by the level of protection provided by surrounding tissue. Indeed,
the central nervous system is protected by three layers of tissue, called meninges:
MP Dura mater is the outermost layer and can be described as thick, tough and
flexible but not stretchable.
MP Arachnoid mater is a soft, spongey and spiderweb-like tissue which forms the
middle protective layer. The area between the arachnoid matter and following
layer is called the subarachnoid space and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) which cushions the central nervous system. CSF reduces the weight of
the brain to just 80 grams and reduces the pressure at the base.
MP Pia mater forms the final layer of protective tissue. This is closely connected
to the brain and spinal cord and contains a network of blood vessels.

The spinal cord

Structure and organisation
The spinal cord is a long and relatively thin bundle of nervous tissues and
support cells which begins at the occipital bone and extends from the brain
via the medulla oblongata. It continues through the conus medullaris which
is located near the first or second lumbar vertebra and ends with a fibrous
extension known as a filum terminale. It also contains motor and sensory neurons
demonstrating the connection of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the structures and functions of the brain and the spinal cord.

28
 The central nervous system

Further reading The structure of the spinal cord

Topic Key reading
Cervical spinal cord Wheeler-Kingshott, C. M., Hickman, S. J., Parker, J. M., Ciccarelli, O.,
Symms, M. R., Miller, D. H., & Barker, G. (2001). Investigating cervical
spinal cord structure using axial diffusion tensor imaging. Neuroimage,
16(1), 93–102.
General Carlson, N. R. (2004). Physiology of behavior (8th ed.). New York:
Pearson Education Inc.

Normal function
The primary function of the spinal cord is to transmit neural signals between the
brain and the rest of the body including the somatosensory system, muscles and
glands. However, it is important to remember that it also has some autonomy
and can function independently as demonstrated by reflexes.

 Sample question Essay

How would injury to the spinal cord impair normal functions in humans?

Damage to the spinal cord

Damage to the spinal cord can arise through trauma in the forms of stretching,
laceration, bruising, excessive pressure, severing or shattering (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). This can result in the loss of feeling for corresponding parts of the
body or complete bodily paralysis, known as quadriplegia. It can also result in
muscle weakness, impaired motor function and muscle atrophy (decay). However,
it is important to remember that while the effects of major trauma may be
permanent, the duration of less severe impairments varies considerably across
individuals and will depend upon the location and extent of the injury in addition
to the rehabilitation and adaptability of the patient. Psychological factors such
as determination, motivation, personality type, mood and the degree of social
support available to the patient would also significantly influence the outcome.

Key term
Atrophy: The decay or wasting of a structure, organ or system.

Further reading The functions of the spinal cord

Topic Key reading
Spinal cord injury McDolald, J. W., & Sadowsky, C. (2002). Spinal-cord injury. Lancet,
359(9304), 417–425.
Spinal cord injury Proctor, M. R. (2002). Spinal cord injury. Critical Care Medicine,
30(11), 489–499.

29
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Test your knowledge

2.1 What are the names given to the three levels of spinal meninges?
2.2 In addition to the meninges, which other structures and substances
protect the spinal cord?
2.3 What substance is contained within the subarachnoid space?
2.4 How might trauma to the spinal cord occur and what are the
consequences?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The brain
The brain is the most important organ in the human body and is the subject of
study in most areas of psychology. It is also by far the most complex structure
in the human body. The brain plays a role in regulating other organs and largely
determines our ability to think, move, use language, perceive the world, maintain
consciousness, interact with each other and experience the world around us.
Several theorists also believe that the brain stores our intelligence and personality
and as such determines who we are. It is vitally important that you can understand
both the normal structure and functions of this organ and also appreciate what
happens when it is damaged. While it is impossible to fully cover this complex
organ in the scope of this revision guide, it will provide you with a coherent and
concise summary to guide your revision and test your understanding.

Structure and organisation

The brain can be described as a fragile, soft, jelly-like organ which is highly
interconnected with millions of neurons. While it displays a significant degree of
plasticity in childhood, this adaptability declines in adulthood. However, some
ability to adapt to physical trauma and rearrange connections does remain
throughout life. The importance of the brain was established during evolution and
is replicated during the development of the central nervous system in all healthy
embryos, children and adults. For example, in addition to the three levels of
meninges, the brain is also protected by the skull, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and
the blood–brain barrier. The skull forms a hard barrier between the brain and the
external world while the cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain and reduces the
pressure at its base. The brain also contains four chambers (known as ventricles)
which are filled with CSF and further protects the central nervous system. Indeed,
this substance is constantly extracted from the bloodstream and projected into the
ventricles by the choroid plexus before it flows through the central nervous system
and is subsequently reabsorbed into the bloodstream. However, the blood–brain
barrier prevents any chemicals which may be hazardous in the brain from being
transmitted from the bloodstream, providing another level of defence.

30
 The central nervous system

? Sample question Essay

Critically review the extent to which the central nervous system is protected
by biological factors.

The brain could simply be split along the corpus callosum and divided into two
hemispheres where the right side of the brain synthesises information and the
left side of the brain analyses information. However, several other attempts have
been made to group regions of the brain according to structures which share
commonalities in regards to either their location or their function. For example,
Table 2.1 demonstrates how the brain can be divided into those falling in the
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain regions. Secondly, the brain can also be
organised according to more specialised structures, such as those summarised in
Figure 2.1 in addition to the specifications provided in Table 2.2.

Key term
Corpus callosum: A bundle of neural fibres connecting the left and right hemispheres
of the brain.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent has the brain been organised according to specialism and
localisation of function?

Table 2.1 Broad breakdown of the areas of the brain

Area Incorporated structures

Forebrain Lateral ventricle, telencephalon, cerebral cortex, basal ganglia,

limbic system, third ventricle, diencephalon, thalamus and
hypothalamus. However, you should also remember that the
cerebral cortex is also divided into regions called the lateral,
parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.

Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct, mesencephalon, tactum tegmentum.

Hindbrain Fourth ventricle, metencephalon, cerebellum, pons,

myelencephalon, medulla.

31
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Telencephalon

Diencephalon

Mesencephalon
Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

Figure 2.1 The organisation of the brain according to encephalon

Table 2.2 Breakdown of the areas of the brain according to encephalon

Area Incorporated structures

Telencephalon Cerebral cortex, primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex,

primary somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, primary motor cortex,
the limbic system (hippocampus, amygdala, fornix and basal ganglia).

Diencephalon Thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland.

Mesencephalon Superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, tegmentum, reticular formation,

periaqueductal grey matter, red nucleus and substantia nigra.

Metencephalon Cerebellum and pons.

Myelencephalon Medulla.

Further reading The structure of the brain

Topic Key reading
Neuropsychology Cohen, G., Johnstone, R. A., & Plunkett, K. (Eds.) (2002). Exploring
and neuroscience cognition: Damaged brains and neural networks – Readings in
cognitive neuropsychology and connectionist modelling. Hove:
Psychology Press.
Blood–brain barrier Smith, R. (2003). A review of blood–brain barrier transport
techniques. Methods of Molecular Medicine, 89(3), 193–208.
Central nervous Brodal, P. (2010). The central nervous system: Structure and
system function (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Function
Several factors may determine which regions of the brain specialise in which
function. Biological factors can include evolution, genetics and anatomical
predisposition. However, you should also remember that experience will

32
 The central nervous system

determine the strength of connections in the brain, how well certain functions
are performed and it can also result in the redistribution of functions in a manner
which is not conventionally seen. You should also remember that the brain
is highly interconnected. As such, while it may appear that certain areas are
dominant in performing certain functions this may actually result from activity in
other areas of the brain, or be due to the connections between regions. Table
2.3 provides an overview of some of the regions which have been consistently
associated with certain functions. You should remember that this list is not
exhaustive so consult further reading accordingly. Figure 2.2 should also
help you to visualise where these structures are located in the brain and their
proximity to other regions.

Table 2.3 Functions of the brain according to specialised structures

Structure Function

Basal ganglia Associated with the control of movement and balance.

Limbic system Associated with emotion, language, memory and motivation.

Thalamus Receives information from the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus Associated with the regulation of the autonomic nervous

system (part of the peripheral nervous system) and the
pituitary gland. Also associated with species-typical
behaviour and linked to hormones and the endocrine system.

Superior colliculus Associated with vision.

Inferior colliculus Associated with audition (hearing).

Reticular formation Associated with arousal, attention, reflexes, movement and

sleep.

Periaqueductal grey matter Associated with pain perception.

Red nucleus and substantia Associated with motor systems.

nigra

Cerebellum Receives visual, auditory, vestibular and somatosensory

information. It is also associated with movement and balance.

Pons Associated with sleep, arousal and the relay of information

from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.

Medulla Control of vital functions such as the cardiovascular system.

Also associated with skeletal muscle tonus.

Amygdala Associated with emotion and memory.

Cerebral cortex Associated with most of the higher order functions such as
cognition.

33
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Damage to the brain

You should already be aware that brain damage can seriously impair an
individual’s ability to function normally from the discussion in Chapter 1.
Brain damage can destroy specific structures in the brain or the connections
between these structures, so it is important to remember that deficits
observed after brain damage may arise either due to the impairment of
a specific structure or due to the inability of structures to communicate
(Belmonte et al., 2004; Cohen, Johnstone & Plunkett, 2002; Liddle, Laurens,
Kiehl & Ngan 2006). Brain damage can impair memory, language, perception,
emotional responses, attention, social skills, reasoning and personality. Indeed,
you should remember that the brain may essentially be the seat of everything
that we are and as such serious injury or infection may completely change an
individual. However, you should also remember that the brain retains some
ability to reorganise its processes and compensate for deficits, suggesting that
less severe impairment may not be permanent.

Central sulcus
Superior frontal gyrus Postcentral gyrus

Precentral sulcus Postcentral sulcus

Precentral gyrus Supermarginal gyrus

Frontal pole Occipital pole

Posterior ramus of
lateral sulcus Transverse occipital
sulcus
Superior temporal gyrus
Superior temporal sulcus Inferior temporal gyrus

Middle temporal gyrus Cerebellum

Inferior temporal sulcus

Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of some of the specialised structures of

the brain

Further reading The functions of the brain

Topic Key reading
Abnormal brain Liddle, P. F., Laurens, K. R., Kiehl, K. A., & Ngan, E. T. (2006). Abnormal
activity in function of the brain system supporting motivated attention in
schizophrenia medicated patients with schizophrenia: An fMRI study. Psychological
Medicine, 38(8), 1097–1108.
Autism Belmonte, M. K., Allen, G., Beckler-Mitchener, A., Boulanger, L. M.,
Carper, R. A., & Webb, S. J. (2004). Autism and abnormal development
of brain connectivity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(42), 9228–9231.

34
 The peripheral nervous system

Test your knowledge

2.5 How many ventricles are there in the brain?

2.6 What is the primary difference between the left and right hemispheres?
2.7 Which functions does the hypothalamus perform?
2.8 Which structures are included in the telencephalon?
2.9 Which structures are included in the mesencephalon?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system includes all of the cranial, spinal, motor and
sensory neurons, organs and neurotransmitters located beyond the central
nervous system. Hormones also play a role in the peripheral nervous system
but are covered in greater detail in Chapter 3. The peripheral nervous system is
responsible for transmitting signals to the central nervous system from the body
though the afferent neurons (with the exception of visual information which is
transmitted directly via the optical nerve) and also receives feedback from the
central nervous system via the efferent neurons. You should also remember that
there is constant interaction and communication between these systems and the
rest of the body, including the glands and muscles which receive signals from
the efferent neurons. There are also 12 pairs of cranial nerves which serve the
function of transmitting sensory information from the head and neck back to the
central nervous system. Somatosensory information from the peripheral nervous
system is typically received by the central nervous system via unipolar neurons.
However, the structure and functions of the peripheral nervous system are easier
to understand when considered in the various subdivisions of this nervous system.

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system is a division of the peripheral nervous system
which is responsible for monitoring and interacting with the external world.
You should remember that this system co-ordinates bodily movement and
receives information concerning external stimuli via the somatosensory system.
For example, it regulates the movements which are under voluntary control via
the efferent neurons which are connected to skeletal muscles, skin and sense
organs throughout the body. These messages are transmitted along the efferent
neurons as action potentials (electrical signals) which stimulate the release of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine by the terminal buttons at the end of each
neuron where they cross the synapse and are absorbed by nicotinic receptors.

35
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

The action potential is subsequently transmitted to the neuromuscular junctions

of skeletal muscles where acetylcholine is released again to facilitate the
contraction of muscle fibres.

Key terms
Action potential: An electrical signal which is transmitted along neurons.
Somatic nervous system: A division of the peripheral nervous system which is
responsible for monitoring and interacting with the external world.

Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic,

parasympathetic and enteric
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is responsible for governing responses
which are largely beyond conscious control. In contrast to the somatic nervous
system it is concerned primarily with the internal world although its functions
can be influenced by the perception of external stimuli. The autonomic nervous
system can be divided into three subdivisions which all have different structures
and functions. These are the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic
nervous system and enteric nervous system. You should remember that together
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are responsible for the
stress response, while the enteric system is responsible for maintaining the vital
gastrointestinal system. Figure 2.3 should help you to understand which organs
and functions are associated with the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions
of the autonomic nervous system.

Key terms
Autonomic nervous system: A division of the peripheral nervous system which is
responsible for governing responses which are largely beyond conscious control.
Enteric nervous system: A division of the autonomic nervous system which is
responsible for maintaining the gastrointestinal system.
Parasympathetic nervous system: A division of the autonomic nervous system which
promotes the conservation of resources.
Stress response: The physiological, cognitive and behavioural response to threat and
anxiety characterised by action readiness for ‘fight-or-flight’.
Sympathetic nervous system: A division of the autonomic nervous system which
promotes action readiness.

36
 The peripheral nervous system

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Dilates pupil

Stimulates Inhibits flow

Ganglion
flow of saliva
of saliva
Medulla oblongata
Accelerates
heartbeat
Slows
heartbeat

Vagus Dilates
nerve bronchi
Solar
Constricts plexus
bronchi
Inhibits
peristalsis
Stimulates and
peristalsis secretion
and
secretion
Conversion
Chain of of glycogen
Stimulates sympathetic to glucose
release of ganglia
Secretion of
bile
epinephrine and
norepinephrine

Contracts Inhibits
bladder bladder
contraction

Figure 2.3 The organisation and functions of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

The cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system are located in the grey
matter of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord and form the
sympathetic ganglion system which connects to the rest of the peripheral
nervous system including most of the bodily organs and glands. The
sympathetic nervous system generally promotes a state of readiness. The
functions of this system are as follows:

37
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

MP dilates pupils
MP inhibits salivation
MP dilates bronchioles in the lungs
MP expands airways
MP speeds heart rate
MP stimulates sweating
MP stimulates glucose release
MP constricts blood vessels in the skin
MP inhibits the digestive system
MP stimulates secretion of the catecholamine hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine by adrenal medulla
MP relaxes bladder
MP stimulates sexual arousal.

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast the structures and functions of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of the peripheral nervous system with reference
to stress.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system has a similar
structure to the sympathetic branch but originates from cells in the cranial
and sacral regions. One of the main features of this system is the vagus nerve
which regulates thoracic and abdominal cavities through efferent fibres. The
parasympathetic system can be characterised as a system which counteracts the
functions of the sympathetic nervous system. As a result its primary functions
are to conserve energy and restore homeostasis. The functions of this system
are as follows:
MP constricts pupils
MP stimulates salivation
MP constricts airway
MP slows heart rate
MP stimulates digestive systems
MP contracts bladder
MP stimulates ejaculation.

38
 The peripheral nervous system

Key term
Homeostasis: The naturally balanced state of the body. This is the ideal state
and the parasympathetic nervous system strives to restore this equilibrium when
physiology is imbalanced.

However, it is important to remember that while the central and peripheral

nervous systems are discrete structures, they also interact. For example, if you
consider the stress response, the peripheral nervous system may trigger the
fight-or-flight response but the central nervous system would produce the
assessment of stimuli and facilitate reflexes.

CriTiCAl FoCuS

The stress response

The fight-or-flight theory of stress is concerned with how bodily responses create states
of readiness which promote either combating the cause for the stress or escaping the
stressor (Carlson, 2004; Selye, 1975). This frequently manifests in anxiety disorders, which
are covered in Chapter 9, and can be seen in differential functions of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic branches of the ANS. Indeed, the sympathetic branch creates
a state of readiness for escape while the parasympathetic branch attempts to restore
equilibrium and provide energy for combating the threat. Long-term states of stress can
have serious medical and psychological complications (Carlson, 2004). However, the
majority of early research in this area was conducted with laboratory animals. While it
appears to be largely transferable to humans there are several other factors which should
be considered. This especially includes cognitive appraisal of the stimuli or situation. For
example, it stands to reason that different individuals will perceive different situations as
threatening and that the manifestation of their stress and anxiety will vary according to
social desirability, coping mechanisms, social norms, available escape routes, reasoning
and learning from any previous experiences with the stimuli (LeDoux, 1995). It is also
significant that the amygdala in the central nervous system is involved in fear responses.
This demonstrates that the functions of the peripheral nervous system during the stress
response may also be mediated by the central nervous system.

Enteric system
The enteric system is responsible for controlling the gastrointestinal system
and operates autonomously from the other branches of the nervous system.
Indeed, it continues to function even when the vagus nerve is severed. This
is potentially due to the vital nature of the gastrointestinal system for survival.
The enteric system contains efferent, afferent and inter-neurons and utilises the
neurotransmitters acetylcholine, dopamine and serotonin.

39
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Further reading The enteric nervous system

Topic Key reading
The central nucleus LeDoux, J. E. (1995). Emotion: Clues from the brain. Annual
and conditioned responses Review of Psychology, 46, 209–235.
The enteric nervous system Furness, J. B. (2006). The enteric nervous system. Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Homeostasis Pichon, A., & Chapelot, D. (2010). Homeostatic role of the
parasympathetic nervous systems in human behavior. New
York: Nova Science Publishers.

Neurotransmitters and other substances

Electrical signals within the body are transmitted as action potentials within
neurons (see Figure 2.4). However, when these signals reach a gap between
neurons (known as a synapse) a chemical must be released at the terminal buttons
of the first neuron to carry the signal on to the receptor cells of the second neuron.
These chemicals are naturally occurring compounds called neurotransmitters. You
should remember that the type and proportion of neurotransmitter released will
depend on the nature of the neurons and the strength of the signal. You should
also remember that neurotransmitters can exert either an inhibitory or excitatory
influence. Whether the neurotransmitters bind to the receptor cells will also
depend on the compatibility between the receptor cell and neurotransmitter, the
activation threshold of the cells and whether any other compounds are currently
blocking the receptors. Figure 2.5 should help you to understand how synaptic
transmission occurs. This image demonstrates how neurotransmitters are released
from the terminal buttons of the first neuron and are transported across the
synapse where they bind with the receptor sites of the next neuron.

Basic neuron types

Bipolar Unipolar Multipolar

(relay) (sensory neuron) (motoneuron)

Figure 2.4 The structure of bipolar, unipolar and multipolar neurons

40
 The peripheral nervous system

Dendrites

Axon terminal
Synaptic vesicles
Axon

Neurotransmitter
Cell body
Receptor site
Synaptic space

Dendrite or cell body

Figure 2.5 Neural transmission between two neurons

Table 2.4 provides an overview of some of the neurotransmitters you will need
to know during your undergraduate degree, in addition to brief summaries
concerning their primary functions. However, it is important for you to remember
that this list is not exhaustive and neurotransmitters serve multiple functions.

? Sample question Problem-based question

You must present a report to a mental health charity on the topic

‘neurotransmitters and depression’. You should draft a report which includes
some of the main findings, strengths and limitations of research in this area.
Remember that your audience may not have expert knowledge of psychology.

Table 2.4 The roles of neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Function

Norepinephrine and epinephrine Operate in arousal and reward systems (Carlson, 2004).

Dopamine Operates in reward, mood, cognition, endocrine, nausea

and motor systems (Spanagel & Weiss, 1999).

Serotonin Operates in mood, satiety, temperature and sleep

systems (Owens & Nemeroff, 1994).

Acetylcholine Operates in movement, learning, short-term memory,

arousal and reward systems (Pinel, 2003).

41
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

However, you should remember that neurotransmitters are not the only
chemicals which are active in the nervous system and that there are several
subdivisions of influential substances:
MP Neurotransmitters: These are endogenous (naturally occurring) chemicals
which transport signals between neurons.
MP Hormones: Endogenous chemicals produced mostly by the endocrine system
(covered in Chapter 3). Hormones including steroids, testosterone and
androgen can be influential in behaviour, mood and cognition.
MP Amino acids: These include glutamate, GABA and glycine. All of these
chemicals are influential in behaviour.
MP Monoamines: These are biogenic amines which include dopamine,
norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine and serotonin. These substances
are influence in reward mood/emotion, learning, motivation, behaviour and
cognition.
MP Neuroactive peptides: These chemicals often function in conjunction with
neurotransmitters.

Further reading Neurotransmitters

Topic Key reading
Monoamine Hirschfeld, R. M. A. (2000). History and evolution of the monoamine
hypothesis hypothesis of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(6), 4–6.
Mood and Castrén, E. (2005). Is mood chemistry? Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
neurotransmitters 6, 241–246.

Damage to the peripheral nervous system

Damage to nerves through injury, infection, alcoholism, other medical conditions
or nutritional deficiencies can have a detrimental effect on the performance of
the peripheral nervous system. Indeed, this can impair the ability of nerves to
carry signals along the peripheral nervous system which would hinder the normal
functions of these systems and their ability to carry signals back to the central
nervous system. This means that motor movements, the somatosensory system
and the ability to regulate bodily organs would be impaired. For example, in
the case of peripheral neuropathy the nerves which stimulate muscles to move
are damaged and can result in muscle atrophy and facial palsy. Damage to the
nerves responsible for sensation may hinder the ability to perceive temperature,
pain or touch. Furthermore, damage to the nerves which serve the autonomic
nervous system can result in incontinence, dizziness, impotence and fainting.
Nerve damage can be permanent and treatment for these deficits tends to
revolve around coping strategies, compensating for deficits and preventing
further damage.

42
 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Key term
Peripheral neuropathy: A condition in which the nerves that stimulate muscles to
move are damaged and can result in muscle atrophy and facial palsy.

Test your knowledge

2.10 What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system and how do
they differ?
2.11 What are the functions of the somatic nervous system?
2.12 What is the primary function of the enteric system?
2.13 How do neurotransmitters function?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent does the central nervous system determine the course of
human behaviour? Discuss with reference to at least two aspects of behaviour
(for example, perception and memory).

43
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to evaluate the extent to which the central nervous
system determines, monitors and regulates human behaviour. It also asks you to
choose two areas of study to contextualise your response using the literature.

Important points to include

Your essay should begin with a description of the central nervous system and the
two areas of research you have chosen to draw upon. This should ideally include
two significantly different areas with varying influences of the nervous system
to enable you to establish a clear and coherent academic debate. You should
clearly define all of the technical and anatomical terms you use in this essay. You
should subsequently critically evaluate the evidence provided by the literature
which states the central nervous system determines these behaviours. However,
you should also review the influences of other systems such as the peripheral
nervous system, endocrine system and non-biological factors. You should then
draw appropriate conclusions based on the strength of this evidence.

Make your answer stand out

It would be useful to choose two areas of study which are differentially
influenced by the central nervous system. For example, if you were to select
one behaviour which is primarily governed by the central nervous system (such
as language production) and one which is primarily governed by peripheral
nervous system (such as pain perception) this will demonstrate that you can
write critically and consider different influences on behaviour. You can also
make your essay stand out by incorporating non-biological factors which may
influence these behaviours.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

44
 Notes

Notes

45
2 • Structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous systems

Notes

46
3
The endocrine system:
hormones and behaviour

Glands

Hormones

Regulation
of the
endocrine
system
The endocrine
system: hormones
and behaviour

Developmental
aspects of the
endocrine
system

Hormones
and sexual
Disorders behaviour
of the
endocrine
system

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

47
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Introduction

This chapter will provide you with an overview of the structures and functions of
the endocrine system and how it influences human behaviour and experience.
The endocrine system is a series of cells, glands and organs that produce
and release hormones which consequently circulate throughout the body.
You should remember from the previous chapter that hormones are naturally
occurring chemicals which influence bodily functions, physical development
and emotions. This chapter will be primarily concerned with how the endocrine
system influences sexual behaviour, although it can also influence other vital
motivations such as eating and sleeping. By the end of this chapter you should
be able to correctly describe the endocrine system and understand how certain
hormones function. However, as you are studying psychology and not biology
you will also need to contextualise this with reference to the implications for
behaviour. For example, do certain hormones predispose certain behaviours?
Are they released as a product of a behaviour or are they involved in performing
the action? You will also need to put aside many of your misconceptions
about hormones. For example, despite substantial anecdotal evidence there
are few scientific examples of hormones determining any aspect of male and
female gender roles. Indeed, androgens and estrogens are present in everyone
regardless of gender. Hormones do, however, play a large role in determining
physical and sexual development across the lifespan.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP What the endocrine system is
PP How glands and hormones function
PP How hormones influence development
PP How hormones influence behaviour
PP What the limitations of research in this area are

Assessment advice
Essay questions in this area will usually ask you to evaluate the extent to which
hormones influence certain behaviours or contribute towards differences
between groups. For example, you may be asked to evaluate the extent to
which hormones determine aggression or you could be asked to discuss whether
hormones contribute towards gender typical behaviour. With questions like
these you will need to demonstrate that you can synthesise evidence from
various sources and critically evaluate the strength of this evidence. You must
also consider other possible influences for these behaviours and differences.
For example, this can include other biological factors, cognition, social factors,
48
 Glands

personality or intelligence. You will also need to consider whether the evidence
suggests there is a causal relationship between hormones and behaviour or
just a relationship between them (in which case behaviour could also result in
the release of the hormone). Any essays in this area should include a balanced
consideration of all possible sides of the argument and your conclusions should
be based on a critical evaluation of this evidence.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent can hormones be said to determine gender typical behaviour?

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Glands

It is important to remember that there are two forms of glands. Endocrine

glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. This means that they
can take effect almost immediately. In contrast exocrine glands firstly secrete
chemicals into ducts. From the ducts they proceed from cell to cell by the
process of diffusion and are excreted on the surface of the body as sweat. You
should be able to make this distinction and appreciate that these glands perform
significantly different functions. In humans the main endocrine glands and their
functions are as follows:
MP Pineal body: Secretes melatonin and is involved with regulating the body’s
natural rest–active cycles.
MP Pituitary gland: Produces prolactin, growth hormone, luteinising hormone,
follicle-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone. Regulates the
growth of tissue and bone, controls the amount of water reabsorbed by the
kidney, protects the body from physiological stress and stimulates the thyroid.
MP Hypothalamus: Exerts control over the endocrine system, especially the
pituitary gland. Also produces thyrotropic-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-
releasing hormone, growth hormone-releasing hormone, corticotropin-
releasing hormone, somatostatin and dopamine.

49
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

MP Thyroid gland: Releases thyroxin and calcitonin. Regulates the rate of growth,
metabolism and calcium levels in the blood.
MP Parathyroid gland: Releases parathormone and promotes the homeostasis
of calcium.
MP Thymus: Releases thymosins and T-lymphocytes which promote the
development of the immune system.
MP Adrenal glands: Release epinephrine, norepinephrine, aldosterone and
cortisol. Mediate the conversion of proteins into sugars and are involved in
the stress response.
MP Pancreas: Secretes insulin, glucagon and somatostatin to regulate sugar
metabolism.
MP Ovaries: The female gonads produce estrogens and progesterone to promote
the development of external, physical, female characteristics. Fluctuations in
gonadal hormones can also result in fluctuations in mood.
MP Testes: The male gonads produce testosterone and promote external,
physical, male characteristics. Fluctuations in gonadal hormones can also
result in fluctuations in mood.

Key terms
Endocrine glands: Glands which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
having fast-acting and concentrated effects.
Exocrine glands: Glands which secrete substances into ducts, from which they pass
from cell to cell through diffusion.

Further reading Glands

Topic Key reading
Hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal Ehlert, U., Gaab, J., & Heinrichs, M. (2001).
axis Psychoneuroendocrinological contributions to the
etiology of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder,
and stress-related bodily disorders: The role of the
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. Biological
Psychology, 57, 141–152.
Immunity, stress and the Glaser, R., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (Eds.) (1994). Handbook
endocrine system of human stress and immunity. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
Stress and the endocrine system Yehuda, R. (2001). Biology of posttraumatic stress
disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62 (Supplement
17), 41–46.

50
 Hormones

Test your knowledge

3.1 Which glands secrete their chemicals directly into the bloodstream?
3.2 What are the functions of the adrenal gland?
3.3 What are the functions of the pituitary gland?
3.4 What chemicals are produced by the pancreas?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Hormones

You may be aware that hormones are chemicals which arise naturally in the body
and are associated with moods, behaviour and development (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). Hormones can be divided into three categories consisting of amino
acid derivatives, peptides and proteins and finally steroids. A summary of these
types of hormones is provided in Table 3.1 to help you refresh your memory.

Table 3.1 Types of hormone

Type of hormone Characteristics

Amino acid derivatives These substances are synthesised from epinephrine and are
involved in the synthesis and transmission of peptides, proteins
and neurotransmitters.

Peptides and proteins These hormones are short and long chains of amino acids and
facilitate physiological, biochemical and growth processes.

Steroids These hormones are synthesised from cholesterol and play a

large role in sexual development. Unlike other hormones they
can bind to receptors and penetrate cell membranes allowing
them to alter the manifestation of genetic characteristics.
Effects are long-lasting. The sex steroids also include androgen,
estrogen and progesterone which prepare the females for
reproduction and parenting.

It is also important to remember that abuse of artificial substances which simulate

the effects of steroids or natural imbalances of these substances can have serious
consequences for health and wellbeing. For example, they can result in testicular
atrophy, sterility, mood swings and gynecomastia (growth of breasts) in men.
In women they can result in amenorrhea, sterility, mood swings, hirsutism (male
pattern hair growth in women), abnormal male body shape, deepening of the voice,
baldness, shrinking of the breast and growth of the clitoris. This demonstrates how
hormones can significantly alter physical growth and impair health.

51
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the belief that steroids significantly influence sexual

development.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

One of your colleagues would like to investigate whether the injection of

testosterone and estrogen into human female and male foetuses will result in
stereotypically male and female behaviour respectively. They have asked for
your advice concerning the ethical and practical implications of this research.
What advice and evidence would you provide?

Further reading Hormones

Topic Key reading
Steroids and Mani, S. K., Allen, J. M. C., Clark, J. H., Blaustein, J. D., &
sexual behaviour O’Malley, B. W. (1994). Convergent pathways for steroid hormone-
and neurotransmitter-induced rat sexual behavior. Science, 265(5176),
1246–1249.

Test your knowledge

3.5 Which type of hormone is derived from cholesterol?

3.6 What are the main functions of steroids?
3.7 What are the main functions of amino acids?
3.8 What are the effects of steroid abuse?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Regulation of the endocrine system

Hypothalamus-releasing hormones play a large role in the regulation of the

endocrine system which you should be aware of. Indeed, hormones tend to be
topic which means that they stimulate or inhibit the release of other hormones
(Carlson, 2004; Schommer, Hellhammer & Kirschbaum, 2003). For example,
hormones from the hypothalamus trigger the release of thyrotropin-releasing
hormones from the anterior pituitary which in turn stimulate the thyroid to
release its hormones. Gonadotropin-releasing hormones also stimulate the
release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH), which
facilitate ovulation.

52
 Regulation of the endocrine system

Key term
Topic: The term assigned to hormones which stimulate or inhibit the release of other
hormones.

There are significant gender differences in the regulation of the endocrine system
by the hypothalamus. For example, while the level of hormones in males remains
relatively stable across time, female gonadal hormones are cyclical (Carlson,
2004; Kirschbaum, Kudielka, Gaab, Schommer & Hellhammer, 1999; Pinel, 2003).
This cycle is on average 28 days and you will probably know that it stimulates
the menstrual cycle including the development and release of an ovum and
menstruation in the absence of conception. However, during pregnancy and for
a brief time after birth there is a period of amenorrhoea in which menstruation
is suspended, allowing time for the uterus to recover. The process can also
be controlled with hormonal birth control which simulates the natural gonadal
hormone progesterone. Regulation of the endocrine system can be also
performed by the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and other
biological chemicals such as glucose, calcium and sodium.

Further reading Regulation of the endocrine system

Topic Key reading
Hypothalamus–pituitary– Kirschbaum, C., Kudielka, B. M., Gaab, J., Schommer, N. C., &
adrenal axis Hellhammer, D. H. (1999). Impact of gender, menstrual
cycle phase, and oral contraceptives on the activity of the
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. Psychosomatic Medicine,
61, 154–162.
Dissociation of endocrine Schommer, N. C., Hellhammer, D. C., & Kirschbaum, C.
system (2003). Dissociation between reactivity of the hypothalamus–
pituitary–adrenal axis and the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary
system to repeated psychosocial stress. Psychosomatic
Medicine, 65, 450–460.

Test your knowledge

3.9 Which structures and substances are involved in the regulation of the
endocrine system?
3.10 What characteristic of hormones means that they can be called topic?
3.11 What is the main difference between the levels of hormones in males
and females?
3.12 How can the endocrine system be regulated by engineered substances?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

53
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Developmental aspects of the endocrine system

You have probably already realised that steroids such as androgen, estrogen,
testosterone and progesterone play a large role in sexual development and
behaviour (Escobar, Obregón & Rey, 2004; Handwerger & Freemark, 2000).
Indeed, we have already identified that steroids are able to penetrate cell
membranes and influence gene expression (how characteristics manifest). These
chemicals are also involved with the production of sperm and ova by the male
and female gonads respectively. This facilitates the production of a zygote at
conception which will eventually grow into a foetus influenced by all of these
hormones. In females, progesterone also prepares the uterus for carrying a baby
and facilitates breast feeding.

? Sample question Essay

Which hormones can result in sex differences?

Up to six weeks after conception, all foetuses have the same primordial gonads
with the potential to develop ovaries or testes (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
However, at this point ovaries automatically develop and the male Y chromosome
triggers the synthesis of the protein H-Y antigen which stimulates the development
of testes. External genitalia develop from the second month of pregnancy
although there are recursors from the glands, urethral folds, lateral bodies and
labioscrotal swellings. You should also be aware that at six weeks after conception
all foetuses have two sets of reproductive ducts. These are the male Wolffian
system and the female Müllerian system. However, at the third month of foetal
development the testes release testosterone and a Müllerian-inhibiting hormone
which promote the development of the Wolffian system while inhibiting further
development of the Müllerian system. The development of the precursors are all
triggered by hormones and are listed below:
MP Glans: Head of penis in males or the clitoris in females.
MP Urethral folds: Fuse in males, enlarge and become the labia minora in females.
MP Lateral bodies: The shaft of the penis in males or hood of the clitoris in females.
MP Labioscrotal swellings: Scrotum in males or labia majora in females.
In addition to the sexual differences which arise due to hormones there are
also differences in male and female brains. For example, you should know
that the male brain is on average 15 per cent larger than the female brain and
there are structural differences in the hypothalamus, corpus callosum, anterior
commissure, thalamus and cerebral cortex. These changes are believed to arise
due to hormones in the form of perinatal androgens occurring near the time
of birth. However, it is important to remember that all sex steroids are derived
from cholesterol and can be converted to other sex steroids via a process called

54
 Developmental aspects of the endocrine system

aromatisation. This process may be responsible for the differences observed

between male and female brains.

Key term
Aromatisation: The process by which sex steroids derived from cholesterol are
converted into other sex steroids.

After foetal development the next significant stage in physical sexual

development occurs during puberty. The secondary sexual characteristics
develop during this time and include hair growth, body shape, voice deepening
in males and breast growth in females. This growth spurt is stimulated by the
release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland and results in an increase
in gonadal hormones, the maturation of the sexual organs and development of
secondary sexual characteristics.
Therefore, it is important that you remember that hormones and the endocrine
system play a significant role during physical development (García-Aragón et
al., 1992; Pinel, 2003; Reiter, 1991). However, you should also remember that
many other factors influence the rate and nature of physical development.
These can include:
MP nutrition
MP mother’s wellbeing
MP social norms and culture
MP other health conditions of the child
MP premature birth
MP socioeconomic status.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent is sexual development the product of the endocrine system?

Further reading Developmental aspects of the endocrine system

Topic Key reading
Central nervous Chan, S, & Kirby, M. D. (2000). Thyroid hormone and central nervous
system development system development. Journal of Endocrinology, 165(1), 1–8.
Thyroid hormones Escobar, G. M., Obregón, M. J., & Rey, F. E. (2004). Maternal thyroid
and foetal brain hormones early in pregnancy and fetal brain development. Clinical
development Endocrinology and Metabolism, 18(2), 225–248.
Foetal development Handwerger, S., & Freemark, M. (2000). The roles of placental
growth hormone and placental lactogen in the regulation of human
fetal growth and development. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology
and Metabolism, 13, 343–356.

55
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Test your knowledge

3.13 How does the endocrine system influence the development of a foetus?
3.14 How does the endocrine system influence development in adolescence?
3.15 How would steroids influence gene expression?
3.16 What other factors may influence physical development?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Hormones and sexual behaviour

The previous belief that sex steroids promote male and female stereotypical
behaviour is not held in contemporary psychology due to a notable lack of
evidence (Carlson, 2004; Orwoll & Klein, 1995; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, all of these
substances are present in both males and females although the evolutionary
role of the hormones may not be transparent. It is important to remember that
early research linked the perinatal hormones to animal reproductive behaviour.
For example, injections of testosterone near the time of birth were believed
to masculinise and defeminise female copulation behaviour of the offspring.
However, it is important to remember that this research makes the assumption
that the behaviour would not have been masculine without testosterone injections
and that the findings may not be generalised from laboratory animals to humans.
Indeed, a significant degree of the research conducted with laboratory animals
has investigated the effects of pheromones on the menstrual cycle and sexual
behaviour. Pheromones are chemicals released by an animal which are perceived
by another via smell or taste. Research has demonstrated that these chemicals
can indicate when a female is likely to conceive. In females, pheromones can
stimulate ovulation. However, it is important to remember that this research is not
directly applicable to humans who do not rely on these substances. Table 3.2 will
refresh your memory concerning some of the effects of pheromones observed in
laboratory animals.

Key term
Pheromone: A chemical substance transmitted from one animal to another via smell
or taste, usually to signal receptivity, availability, challenge or threat.

56
 Hormones and sexual behaviour

Table 3.2 The effects of pheromones

Effect Description

Lee–Boot effect The slowing and cessation of the menstrual/estrous cycle if all
female animals are housed together. It is caused by a pheromone
carried in urine.

Whitten effect The synchronisation of the menstrual/estrous cycle of a group of

females triggered by the pheromones in the urine of a male.

Vanderbergh effect The early onset of puberty in female rats housed with a male.

Bruce effect The termination of pregnancy triggered by the pheromones in the

urine of a mouse that did not impregnate the female mouse.

The removal of the testes (known as an orchidectomy) reduces sexual interest

and behaviour (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). However, you should also remember
that levels of testosterone do not reliably predict the sex drive of healthy adults
when within normal parameters and that the effects of castration are considerably
variable. Furthermore, while removal of the ovaries (known as an ovariectomy) in
rats was originally believed to reduce receptivity towards a male rat, there is no
evidence for this in humans. Indeed, while changes in the levels of female gonadal
hormones can relate to the level of sexual interest, human copulation itself is not
restricted by ovarian hormones. For example, it is important to remember that
human copulation can occur at any point in the menstrual cycle and sexual interest
does not always predict sexual behaviour. You should also remember that there
are no significant differences in the levels of gonadal hormones of heterosexual
and homosexual people despite different sexual practices and occasionally
different degrees of gender stereotypical behaviour (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
This demonstrates that hormones may not reliably predict human sexual behaviour
and suggests that factors other than gonadal hormones may be involved.
You may also be interested to know that lesions to the medial preoptic area
of the hypothalamus in mammals cease male sexual behaviour and reduce the
amount of time females spend with a sexually active partner (Pinel, 2003). You
should also know that the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus contains
several neural circuits which are vital for female sexual behaviour. This suggests
that the hypothalamus may play a significant role in sexual behaviour due to
either the hormones it releases or physiological activity.

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate claims that sexual orientation is determined by the levels

and functions of hormones.

57
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Test your knowledge

3.17 How does removal of the ovaries influence human sexual behaviour?
3.18 How does removal of the testes influence human sexual behaviour?
3.19 What are the main limitations of early studies investigating the effects
of hormones on sexual behaviour?
3.20 What are the main hormonal differences between heterosexual and
homosexual people?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Disorders of the endocrine system

Disorders of the endocrine system are common and are usually detected
by imbalanced levels of hormones, observable physical indications or when
examining other illnesses (Counsell & Ruddell, 1994; Guzick, 2004; Legro,
Kunselman, Dodson & Dunaif, 1999; Manolagas, 2000; Orwoll & Klein, 1995).
Table 3.3 provides a summary of some of these conditions. However, it is
important to remember that these conditions can co-occur and often also result
in psychological distress such as depression and anxiety.

Table 3.3 Disorders of the endocrine system

Disorder Description

Diabetes This is one of the main disorders of the endocrine system and arises
due to the failure of the pancreas to produce sufficient amounts of the
hormone insulin or due to the body’s inability to use insulin correctly. If
undiagnosed, consequences can be severe due to the body’s reliance
on insulin to convert sugars and starch to energy.

Osteoporosis This is a disorder in which bones become fragile and easily breakable.
It can result from abnormally low levels of estrogen or testosterone.
Diagnosis is often prompted by recurrent injuries.

Growth disorders As the endocrine system regulates growth imbalances, impaired function
or damage to this system can result in excessive or deficient growth.

Thyroid disorders There are numerous types of thyroid disorders including hyperthyroidism
(excessive amount of hormones), hypothyroidism (insufficient hormones),
thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer. These conditions also significantly
reduce autoimmunity and often result in weight changes.

Polycystic ovary PCOS is also a very common disorder of the endocrine system which
syndrome (PCOS) results in numerous cysts developing on the ovaries. This disrupts
the menstrual cycle, can cause infertility and is often characterised by
hirsutism (excessive hair growth), acne, diabetes and hypertension.

58
 Disorders of the endocrine system

This table only provides a summary of the disorders which can arise due to the
malfunction or impairment of the endocrine system. You should also remember
that many other conditions can arise though the imbalance of hormones and that
these conditions can result in or co-occur with other health complaints.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent can the deficits or malfunction of endocrine system result in

poor physical health?

Further reading Disorders of the endocrine system

Topic Key reading
PCOS Guzick, D. S. (2004). Polycystic ovary syndrome. Obstetrics and
Gynecology, 103(1), 181–193.
Diabetes and PCOS Legro, R. S., Kunselman, A. R., Dodson, W. C., & Dunaif, A. (1999).
Prevalence and predictors of risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus
and impaired glucose tolerance in polycystic ovary syndrome: A
prospective, controlled study in 254 affected women. The Journal of
Endocrinology and Metabolism, 84(1), 165–169.
Osteoporosis Manolagas, S. C. (2000). Birth and death of bone cells: Basic
regulatory mechanism and implications for the pathogenesis and
treatment of osteoporosis. Endocrine Reviews, 21(2), 115–137.

Test your knowledge

3.21 How can deficits of the endocrine system result in diabetes?

3.22 What are the main forms of thyroid disorder?
3.23 What are the main symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome?
3.24 How does osteoporosis develop due to deficits in the endocrine
system?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

59
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent can hormones be said to determine gender typical behaviour?

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to discuss critically the factors which may result in
male and female stereotypical behaviour. More specifically it is asking you to
determine whether differences in the hormones of men and women result in
different behaviours.

Important points to include

Your essay will begin with a summary concerning what gender typical behaviours
are. This will usually include a brief summary of the debate concerning whether
any behaviour can be considered to be typically male or female. It will also
briefly summarise whether gender typical behaviours arise due to biological
factors. Your essay should subsequently evaluate the evidence concerning
whether hormones influence behaviour and result in gender differences. It would
also be useful to consider both older and contemporary studies. For example,
while earlier research tended to assume that testosterone was a male hormone
and progesterone was a female hormone, more recent research has indicated
that this is not the case. Your essay should also include a critical review of
other factors which may influence behaviour including anatomy, social factors
and cognition. For example, biological factors may predispose certain gender
typical behaviours but social norms, upbringing and how individuals perceive
themselves will influence how this manifests. Your conclusions should be based
on your evaluation of this evidence and link explicitly back to the essay question.

60
 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Make your answer stand out

To make an answer stand out in this area you should write critically throughout
your response. This means that you will evaluate not only the research evidence
but also the key terms (such as ‘gender typical’) and theoretical accounts. This
will include drawing on both traditional and contemporary evidence, evaluating
research techniques, identifying assumptions and exposing misinterpretations
or limitations in studies.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

61
3 • The endocrine system: hormones and behaviour

Notes

62
4
Biological basis of
language

Defining • Linguistic relativity and non-human

language communication

The • Lateralisation of language

Biological
anatomy
basis of • Localisation of language and the
of human
language Wernicke–Geschwind model
language

Cognitive
neuroscience
and the
physiology of
language

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

63
4 • Biological basis of language

Introduction

This chapter will provide you with an overview concerning how the structures
and functions of the human body enable language acquisition, comprehension
and production. You should remember that language acquisition,
comprehension and production are some of the most complex processes which
have generated a considerable amount of research and theoretical debate.
Indeed, the ability to acquire, produce and comprehend language is often cited
as one of the factors which differentiate humans from other animals (Gaskell,
2007; Harley, 2007). The initial sections of this chapter will provide a general
overview of the features and nature of language to refresh your memory of these
topics. These sections will guide your revision of the components and processes
of language and communication. The latter sections will discuss the issues of
cerebral lateralisation, cerebral localisation, methodologies and several disorders
which are characterised by language deficits. This chapter is primarily concerned
with human communication. Although animal communication is discussed briefly,
the often outdated nature of this research means that it may not be covered in
all language modules. The sample essay questions and ‘Test your knowledge’
questions provided throughout this chapter and on the companion website will
help you to test your understanding of these topics. However, it is important
to remember that language is a complex phenomenon made up of various
processes which span across cognitive psychology, developmental psychology
and biological psychology. Many of these issues are beyond the scope of this
text which is primarily concerned with the biological aspects of these processes.
However, it is vital that you can establish and maintain an understanding of
various influences on the acquisition, comprehension and production of language
– the suggested further reading should begin this process.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP What cerebral lateralisation is and how it is documented
PP What cerebral localisation is and how it is documented
PP What the main theories of language are and how these differ
PP The methodologies available to researchers when studying language
PP Key findings in the development of an understanding of language

Assessment advice
Essay questions in this area will usually ask you to evaluate the extent to which
nature and nurture determine language development or the extent to which
language is dependent on biological factors. For example, you may be asked to

64
 Defining language

evaluate the extent to which anatomy and experience determine an individual’s

language acquisition, comprehension and production. You would need to
consider physiology, anatomy, genetics, evolution, upbringing and exposure
to stimuli. With questions like this you will need to demonstrate that you can
synthesise evidence from various sources and critically evaluate the strength of
this evidence to establish an academic debate. You must also consider a variety
of possible influences on these behaviours. For example, it may be useful to
compare verbal and non-verbal communication, possibly citing examples of the
similarities and differences associated with human and animal communication.
Any essays in this area should include a balanced consideration of all possible
sides of the argument and your conclusions should be based on a critical
evaluation of this evidence.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent do biological and environmental factors determine language?

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress.

Defining language

Language is a complex system which allows those who understand it to

communicate, share thoughts, express feelings and desires, persuade and
entertain (Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007). However, there are several established
definitions which you will need to know in detail and be able to critically
evaluate. For the purpose of this text the most prominent, broad definition of
language was provided by Hockett (1960) in the theory of linguistic universals:
MP Broadcast transmission means that messages are projected in all possible
directions and can be received by any who are listening.
MP Arbitrariness means that there is no correspondence between the symbols
used in language and the objects they refer to.
MP Cultural transmission means that language acquisition occurs through
exposure to the culture.

65
4 • Biological basis of language

MP Displacement means that the messages are not restricted to a specific time.
MP Discreteness means that there is a notable range of speech sounds within a
language.
MP Duality of structure means that phonemes can be combined or recombined in
a potentially infinite number of ways.
MP Productivity means that novel messages can be created using the rules and
symbols of the language.
MP Interchangeability means that those who share the language are both
producers and receivers of messages.
MP Semanticity means that meaning can be transmitted through the symbols.
MP Total feedback means that the speaker has immediate auditory feedback.
MP Specialisation means that the sounds of the language are distinct from other
sounds in that they convey meaning.
MP Transitoriness means that the messages fade quickly after they have been
uttered.
MP Vocal–auditory channel refers to the transmission of language using these two
sensory modes.

Key term
Linguistic universals: The 13 principles of language which Hockett (1960) argued
could be observed across all languages.

Criticism of Hockett's theory of linguistic universals:

However, you should also remember that this definition suffers from several
limitations, including its failure to consider non-verbal forms of communication
such as sign language, gestures and written communication (Carlson, 2004;
Harley, 2007). It should not have escaped your notice that written communication
is significantly longer lasting than verbal communication although verbal
communication itself may be long-lasting if recorded. It also fails to define and
differentiate the units of language, which can be found in Table 4.1.

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate Hockett’s (1960) linguistic universals.

66
 Defining language

Table 4.1 Units of language

Unit/process Description

Lexicon The complete set of morphemes (see below) available within the
language. Usually conceptualised as a store in memory.

Morpheme The smallest unit of language which possesses meaning on its own
through a combination of phonemes.

Phoneme The smallest unit within a language which forms the building blocks of
other utterances.

Semantics The meaning carried by the symbols of the language.

Syntax The rules for creating longer utterances. This includes the order in which
words should be placed in a sentence.

contemporary definition of language:

The contemporary definition of language is that it must be a meaningful,
symbolic, rule-based and shared system which can be acquired, comprehended
and produced by members of the language community (Gaskell, 2007;
Harley, 2007). You might be surprised to learn that there are 6909
recognised languages in the world today (Lewis, 2009). While these differ
in their composition and expression due to cultural exposure, the biological
prerequisites and corresponding biological activity appear to be universal
(Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007).

Linguistic relativity and non-human communication

The linguistic relativity hypothesis refers to how thought and language
are believed to influence each other and interact. In its strongest version,
proponents argue that language determines and constrains the ability to think,
whereas proponents of the weaker version argue that language influences
cognition but that there is not a direct causal effect (Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007;
Tohidian, 2009). However, today most psychologists who believe language and
thought are related tend to adopt the weaker version due to very little evidence
for the strong linguistic relativity hypothesis. While this topic is covered in more
detail in the cognitive psychology text of this series, you should be aware of how
this theory influences the view of non-human communication. For example, if
non-human animals are able to communicate using a shared system, could they
also think in a way which is similar to humans? Indeed, several animal species
including birds, dolphins and monkeys appear to communicate with each
other in a series of complex sounds and gestures which others in their species
understand (Carlson, 2004; Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). Interestingly, despite
possessing significantly different physiological, anatomical and genetic make-up,
some non-human animals have also been able to acquire elements of human
language (Carlson, 2004; Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). A collection of these cases
is presented in Table 4.2.

67
4 • Biological basis of language

Table 4.2 Cases of non-human animal communication

Species Description

Dolphins Dolphins were able to discriminate between meaningful sequences of

gestures and random meaningless combinations of gestures. They also
responded appropriately (Herman, Kuczaj & Holder, 1993).

Gorilla The gorilla Koko was trained to understand over 300 American Sign
Language gestures (Patterson, 1978, 1981).

Parrot The African grey parrot Alex could identify 50 different objects, count
to six, distinguish seven colours and differentiate five shapes. Alex also
possessed a vocabulary of over 100 words and could combine these words
to form new utterances (Pepperberg, 2006a, 2006b).

Chimpanzee The chimpanzee Sarah was trained to communicate through the use of
coloured plastic chips representing words. Language-trained chimpanzees
also appeared to have various problem-solving abilities which non-trained
chimpanzees did not (Premack, 1983).

Chimpanzee The chimpanzee Lana was trained to use a computer-based sign language
to form short meaningful sentences (Savage-Rumbaugh, Rumbaugh &
McDonald, 1985; Savage-Rumbaugh, McDonald, Sevcik, Hopkins &
Rupert 1986).

Bonobo The bonobo Kanzi learnt to communicate using a sign board by observing
another ape being trained (Gardner, Gardner & Van Contfort, 1989;
Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1985, 1986).

Chimpanzee Nim Chimpsky lived with a human family from birth and was able to
understand over 100 American Sign Language gestures (Terrace, 1979).

These cases should inspire you to wonder whether human language is as unique
and advanced as we often believe it to be. The decision on that debate is still
to be determined. However, you should keep in mind that verbal and physical
communication rely on different biological factors and cognitive processes
(Carlson, 2004; Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003).

Further reading Defining language

Topic Key reading
Psycholinguistics Gaskell, M. G. (2007) (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of
psycholinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Introductory text Harley, R. (2007). The psychology of language: From data to theory
(3rd ed.). Hove: Psychology Press.
Linguistic relativity Tohidian, I. (2009). Examining the linguistic relativity hypothesis as
one of the main views on the relationship between language and
thought. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 38(1), 65–74.

68
 The anatomy of human language

Test your knowledge

4.1 What are Hockett’s (1960) linguistic universals?

4.2 What is the smallest unit of language?
4.3 Which other animals have been able to acquire elements of human
language?
4.4 What is a morpheme?
4.5 Meaning is created through which aspect of language?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The anatomy of human language

It is undeniable that anatomical structures and biological mechanisms make

human verbal communication possible (Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, air is
forced up by the lungs and passes over the vocal cords, causing them to vibrate
at certain frequencies based on the force of the air and the position of the vocal
cords. These frequencies can then be modified by the lips, tongue, teeth and
soft palate to reduce some frequencies and enhance others. This demonstrates
how the human vocal tract provides the basis of human speech. However, while
you will need to be aware of how these anatomical structures make speech
possible, you must remember that you are studying psychology and not biology.
As such, biological psychology focuses on how the brain makes these processes
possible and facilitates language acquisition, comprehension and production.
The following sections will guide your revision of these topics.

Lateralisation of language
Theories which argue that language is a lateralised function are essentially
arguing that the left hemisphere of the brain is the locus of these functions
(Carlson, 2004; Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). As you should remember from
the earlier chapters, the hemispheres can indeed be dominant in certain
functions and serve minor roles in others. However, while this means that the
left hemisphere appears to exert the greatest influence in the acquisition,
comprehension and production of language, you should remember that
language is extremely complex, activity is widely dispersed in the brain and
the right hemisphere still shows levels of activity during language processes
(Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, although language is the most lateralised
of all human functions, it is not even absolute in this case (Harley, 2007; Pinel,
2003). You should also remember that the hemispheres of a cerebrally intact
individual are able to communicate via the corpus callosum and cerebral

69
4 • Biological basis of language

commissures which connect these structures. However, hemispheres do vary in

their specialism which is most apparent when this communication is prevented.
The left hemisphere tends to be dominant in vision for words, audition for
language sounds, complex movement, ipsilateral movement, verbal memory,
meaning in memories, speech, reading, writing and arithmetic. In contrast, the
right hemisphere is usually dominant in vision for faces, audition for non-speech
sounds, emotional expression, processing tactile patterns, mental rotation
and spatial awareness. Several experimental techniques have been devised to
assess the degree of cerebral lateralisation of language and a range of these
techniques are discussed below.

Sodium amytal test

In a sodium amytal test this substance is injected into the neck to anaesthetise
one hemisphere at a time. This allows the researchers to test the performance of
the other hemisphere by asking the participant to perform a verbal task. When
the left hemisphere is anaesthetised the participant is usually unable to speak,
but can speak when the right hemisphere is anaesthetised (Carlson, 2004; Pinel,
2003). This should suggest to you that the left hemisphere is indeed dominant in
speech production.

Dichotic listening
A dichotic listening test is a non-invasive technique in which participants are
presented with two separate, distinctive auditory messages. One is presented
to the left ear (right hemisphere) and the other is presented to the right ear
(left hemisphere). The participant is then asked to recite both of the messages.
Most participants are only able to recite the message presented to the right ear
which sends signals to the left hemisphere (Carlson, 2004; Harley, 2007; Pinel,
2003). This should suggest to you that the left hemisphere is dominant in speech
perception and memory for language.

Handedness, gender and neuropsychological case studies

You should already know that there is considerable debate surrounding the issue
of whether left-handed (sinestral) and right-handed (dextral) individuals differ in
lateralisation of language (Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003). However, it
is now widely accepted that the left hemisphere is dominant for most sinestral
and dextral individuals. In two classic publications, Russell and Espir (1961) and
Penfield and Roberts (1959), it was documented that 60 per cent of dextral and
30 per cent of sinestral individuals with left-hemisphere lesions presented with
deficits in language. This compared to 2 per cent of dextral and 24 per cent
of sinestral individuals who suffered right-hemisphere lesions. This suggests
that while some left-handed individuals may have right-hemisphere dominance
for language, most left- and right-handed individuals have left-hemisphere
dominance. Neuropsychology has also identified that there are gender
differences in lateralisation, with males who suffer a unilateral stroke being three

70
 The anatomy of human language

times more likely to develop deficits in language than females. This suggests
that men’s language functions are more lateralised than females (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003).

Split-brain studies
You should already be aware that split-brain studies form the majority of evidence
for the lateralisation of language abilities. In these studies, the two hemispheres
have been surgically separated in attempts to reduce medical problems such as
epilepsy through the severing of the corpus callosum (Carlson, 2004; Penfield
& Roberts, 1959; Pinel, 2003; Somers et al., 2011). Both hemispheres are able
to function independently but communication between these two structures is
severely limited and often impossible. This means that each hemisphere retains
the processes for which it was dominant but is unable to integrate functions and
processes which required the use of both hemispheres. These studies produce
very interesting insights into the lateralisation of language which you will need to
understand in your assessments.
MP When words are presented to the right visual field and left hemisphere,
patients are able to tell the experimenter what they are viewing or reach with
their right hand. Performance is at chance when using the left hand, suggesting
that performance is no better than if they were guessing the answer.
MP When words are presented to the left visual field and right hemisphere,
patients claim that nothing was presented although the left hand is still able
to reach for and identify the object.
MP There appears to be a degree of cross-curing (indirect communication
between hemispheres) because when the left hemisphere is wrong the right
hemisphere appears to provide suitable bodily cues which encourage the left
hemisphere to re-evaluate. For example, the left hemisphere may provide
an incorrect verbal response while the right hemisphere triggers a frown or
shake of the head and the left hemisphere will trigger an alternative response
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
MP There is even a ‘helping-hand’ phenomenon in which the left hand
(controlled by the right hemisphere) will reach out and grab the correct
object even when the left hemisphere is providing the incorrect answer
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
MP For most split-brain patients the left hemisphere controls most daily activities
and the right hemisphere has no ability to act with obvious intention.
However, in some patients the right hemisphere remains active and can
produce impulsive, socially unacceptable, obstinate, mischievous and
disturbing gestures. In such cases, patients often report hatred towards their
left side and right hemisphere because their left hemisphere is unable to
understand what is happening (Pinel, 2003).

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4 • Biological basis of language

Key terms
Dextral: Right-handed.
Dichotic listening test: A task in which dual messages are presented to the left and
right ear and participants must try to recite both messages.
Lateralisation: The theory that one hemisphere of the brain is dominant in a given
process while the other serves only minor roles.
Localisation: The theory that specialised structures of the brain facilitate specific
functions.
Sinestral: Left-handed.
Sodium amytal test: A test in which one hemisphere of the brain is anaesthetised to
test the performance of the other hemisphere.
Split-brain study: A study which examines the performance of people who have had
their hemispheres surgically separated.

Theories of lateralisation
There are three main interpretations concerning the function of lateralisation.
However, you should be aware that there is evidence which both supports and
refutes these perspectives (Gaskell, 2007; Harley, 2007; Soares & Grosjean, 1981).
MP The first perspective is that the left hemisphere has evolved to be more
logical and analytic while the right hemisphere has evolved to serve the
function of synthesising information.
MP The second perspective is that the left hemisphere has evolved to control fine
motor skills of which speech is only one example.
MP The final perspective forms the linguistic theory and proponents argue that
the left hemisphere’s primary function is language in all of its various forms.
The debate surrounding these theories is ongoing and I recommend that you
direct your further reading accordingly. However, the contemporary view is that
the early lateralisation and concept of hemispheric dominance is too simplistic to
account for the complex phenomenon which is human language (Gaskell, 2007;
Harley, 2007; Pinel, 2003; Pinel & Dehaene, 2010).

? Sample question Essay

To what extent can language be considered a product of the left hemisphere?

Discuss with reference to at least two experimental techniques.

72
 The anatomy of human language

Further reading Lateralisation of language

Topic Key reading
Critique of lateralisation Pinel, P., & Dehaene, S. (2010). Beyond hemispheric
dominance: Brain regions underlying joint lateralization of
language and arithmetic to the left hemisphere. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(1), 48–66.
Classic study on Russell, W. R., & Espir, M. L. E. (1961). Traumatic aphasia.
handedness and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
lateralisation
Evaluation of Somers, M., Neggers, S. F., Diederen, K. M., Boks, M. P.,
neuroimaging techniques Kahn, R. S., & Sommer, I. (2011). The measurement of
and lateralisation language lateralization with functional transcranial Doppler
and functional MRI: A critical evaluation. Frontiers in Human
Neuroscience, 5(1), 1–8.

Test your knowledge

4.6 What is the sodium amytal test?

4.7 How does dichotic listening differentiate the activity of each hemisphere?
4.8 How does handedness relate to the lateralisation of language?
4.9 What are the structural differences between the left and right
hemispheres?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Localisation of language and the Wernicke–Geschwind model

In contrast to lateralisation, localisation is the principle that language functions
and processes are the result of activity in specific cerebral structures rather than
due to the activity of one hemisphere (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). To a large
extent, this approach is based on findings from cognitive neuropsychology.
You should remember from the first chapter that cognitive neuropsychology
is concerned with the study of how brain damage impairs cognitive functions.
This approach has provided insights which suggest that language may be the
product of several specialised structures. Some of these insights include:
Define MP Damage to Broca’s area impairs speech production but not language
expressive comprehension. Patients produce stunted speech. Broca’s aphasia is also
aphasia: known as expressive aphasia.
what is receptive aphasia:
MP Damage to Wernicke’s area impairs language comprehension but not speech
production. Patients produce fluent but meaningless speech. Wernicke’s
aphasia is also known as receptive aphasia.

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4 • Biological basis of language
what is conduction aphasia ?
MP Damaging the connection between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas can cause
conduction aphasia in which individuals struggle to repeat words they have
heard.
What is agraphia and alexia ?
MP Damage to the angular gyrus can result in an inability to read (alexia) and an
inability to write (agraphia).
A comprehensive list of language deficits which can arise due to damage to
specific regions of the brain can be found in Table 4.3 and also in the Glossary
at the end of this book. You should remember that if a function is impaired after
damage to a cerebral structure that structure may be the locus of the function or
may be part of the pathway responsible for the function.

Table 4.3 Disorders and deficits of language

Condition/term Description

Agrammatism Deficits in understanding or employing grammatical devices.

Aphasia A deficit in language comprehension or production caused by

brain damage.

Apraxia of speech Deficits in the ability to programme movements of the lips,

tongue and throat to produce normal speech sounds.

Anomia Deficits in remembering an appropriate word.

Autotopagnosia The inability to name and identify body parts.

Broca’s aphasia A deficit in language production caused by damage to

Broca’s area in the prefrontal cortex. Characterised by anomia,
agrammatism and difficulties in articulation. Also known as
expressive aphasia.

Conduction aphasia Inability to repeat words which are heard, while still being able
to speak normally. Caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus
which connects Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.

Direct dyslexia The ability to read words despite lacking an understanding of

them.

Orthographic dysgraphia A writing disorder in which individuals are unable to spell

irregularly spelled words while still being able to spell regularly
spelled words.

Phonological dysgraphia A writing disorder in which individuals are unable to sound out
words and write them phonetically.

Phonological dyslexia Ability to read familiar words but deficits in the ability to read
unfamiliar words and pronounceable non-words.

Pure alexia Inability to read without the loss of the ability to write produced
by brain damage.

Pure word deafness The ability to speak, hear, write and read without being able
to comprehend the meaning of speech. Caused by damage to
Wernicke’s area and the disruption of auditory input.
t

74
 The anatomy of human language

Surface dyslexia Ability to read words phonetically but deficits in the ability to
read irregularly spelled words.

Transcortical sensory Deficits in comprehending and producing meaningful

aphasia spontaneous speech while being able to repeat speech. Caused
by damage to the posterior region of Wernicke’s area.

Wernicke’s aphasia Deficits in the ability to comprehend speech and/or the

production of fluent but meaningless speech. Produced by
damage to Wernicke’s area in the auditory association cortex in
the left temporal lobe. Also known as receptive aphasia.

Word form dyslexia An individual is only able to read words after spelling out the
individual letters. Also known as spelling dyslexia.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

A patient has been referred to you with deficits in the ability to comprehend
and produce meaningful spontaneous speech but they appear to be able to
repeat the phrases you produce when instructed. How would this patient’s
condition be diagnosed and how is it different from other disorders of
language? You will need to prepare a report which discusses this form of
impairment and differentiates it from other conditions.

Explain Wernicke–Geschwind model of language:

Geschwind (1970) utilised the insights provided by the early neuropsychologists
and devised the Wernicke–Geschwind model of language. In this model,
language is learnt, comprehended and produced through a complex circuit
which runs through several cerebral structures. These include the primary
visual cortex, angular gyrus, primary auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area, arcuate
fasciculus, Broca’s area and the primary motor cortex, although the involvement
of structures depends on the nature of the task (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). The
functions which Geschwind (1970) assigned to this structures are listed below:
MP The angular gyrus translates visual forms of words into auditory codes.
MP The primary motor cortex controls the muscles of articulation.
MP Wernicke’s area is the centre of comprehension.
MP The primary auditory cortex perceives spoken words.
MP Broca’s area is the centre of articulation.
MP The primary visual cortex perceives written words.
MP The left arcuate fasciculus carries signals between Broca’s and Wernicke’s area.
Limitations of Wernicke–Geschwind model of language: ^
However, you should remember that this model employs serial processing
which is restrictive and may not accurately reflect the complex nature of human
language. Indeed, it is unclear how certain structures would be bypassed in a
serial chain of processes while still successfully completing a task. The model is

75
4 • Biological basis of language

also susceptible to the limitations of cognitive neuropsychology. Some of the

issues which you should keep in mind include:
MP Brain damage is rarely localised, which makes drawing inferences about
structures and their functions difficult.
MP It is difficult to generalise findings from neuropsychological patients to the
rest of the population.
MP Performance may reflect compensation, idiosyncrasies or reorganisation of
function rather than the results of brain damage per se.
MP Performance may reflect damage to connections rather than to specific
structures.
MP There are no baseline measures meaning that we cannot compare current
performance with performance prior to injury.
MP Complete removal of Broca’s area without damaging surrounding areas does
not produce aphasia contrary to this model (Pinel, 2003).
MP It is difficult to damage or remove Wernicke’s area without damaging
surrounding structures due to its location, but when this has been
accomplished it does not always impair language comprehension (Pinel, 2003).
MP Aphasias are usually more complicated than the model predicts with islands
of ability remaining intact.
MP Cognitive neuroscience has largely replaced this model in contemporary
psychology.

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate the Wernicke–Geschwind model of language.

Further reading The anatomy of language

Topic Key reading
Conduction Ardila, A. (2010). A review of conduction aphasia. Current Neurology
aphasia and Neuroscience Reports, 10(6), 499–503.
Aphasia Bernal, B., & Ardila, A. (2009). The role of the arcuate fasciculus in
conduction aphasia. Brain, 132(9), 2309–2316.
Broca’s aphasia Rogalsky, C., & Hickok, G. (2011). The role of Broca’s area in sentence
comprehension. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(7), 1664–1680.
Semantic errors Schwartz, M. F., Kimberg, D. Y., Walker, G. M., Faseyitan, O.,
Brecher, A., Dell, G. S., & Coslett, H. B. (2010). Anterior temporal
involvement in semantic word retrieval: Voxel-based lesion-symptom
mapping evidence from aphasia. Brain, 132(12), 3411–3427.
Broca’s aphasia Thompson, C. K., & Lee, M. (2009). Psych verb production
and comprehension in agrammatic Broca’s aphasia. Journal of
Neurolinguistics, 22(4), 354–369.

76
 Cognitive neuroscience and the physiology of language

Test your knowledge

4.10 What is Broca’s aphasia?

4.11 What is Wernicke’s aphasia?
4.12 How does localisation differ from lateralisation?
4.13 How does conduction aphasia arise?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Cognitive neuroscience and the physiology of language

In contrast to the earlier approaches you should remember that cognitive

neuroscience is concerned with identifying the physiological activity associated
with phenomena as measured through neuroimaging techniques. This approach
is based on the ideas that larger processes can be broken down into constituent
cognitive processes with corresponding physiological activity and that structures
serve multiple functions (Bavelier et al., 1997; Bi et al., 2009; Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). As opposed to the Wernicke–Geschwind model, the processing
of language is parallel, complex and distributed throughout the brain. Indeed,
Bavelier et al. (1997) monitored physiological activity during silent reading using
functional magnetic resonance imaging and revealed that patterns of activation
were patchy, variable, widespread, across both hemispheres and extending far
beyond the structures cited in the Wernicke–Geschwind model. In addition,
Damasio and colleagues have also identified that patterns of cerebral activity
vary considerably according to the different categories of objects and tasks
used (e.g. Damasio, Grabowski, Tranel, Hichwa & Damasio, 1996; Damasio,
Tranel, Grabowski, Adolphs & Damasio, 2004). You should also remember that
these areas also extended far beyond those of the earlier model. These studies
suggest that the corresponding cerebral activity which is observed during the
processing and production of language varies considerably and cannot be
explained by lateralisation or simple localisation.

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast the insights gained from cognitive neuropsychology

and cognitive neuroscience towards an understanding of human language.

77
4 • Biological basis of language

Further reading The cognitive neuroscience approach to studying language

Topic Key reading
Neuroimaging Damasio, H., Tranel, D., Grabowski, T., Adolphs, R., & Damasio, A.
(2004). Neural systems behind word and concept retrieval. Cognition,
92(1–2), 179–229.

Test your knowledge

4.14 What are the constituent processes of language according to

cognitive neuroscience?
4.15 Is it true that structures in the brain specialise in only one function?
4.16 How does cognitive neuroscience differ from other approaches to
language?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent do biological and environmental factors determine language?

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to discuss, compare, contrast and evaluate the
contributions of nature and nurture towards determining language acquisition,
comprehension and production.

78
 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Important points to include

Your essay should begin with a brief explanation and definition of language and
an overview of the structure and content of your response. This is likely to include
a statement concerning the stance you will adopt, such as whether you believe
nature or nurture contributes more towards language. The main section of your
essay should discuss and critically evaluate the biological and non-biological
factors which make language possible. This will include a consideration of
cerebral lateralisation, localisation, the insights from cognitive neuropsychology
and the identification of environmental factors which may interact with these
influences. It may also be useful to include a consideration of whether animals are
able to communicate in a similar manner to humans despite different anatomy.
However, it is vital that you take an evidence-based approach and support your
arguments with evidence from the literature. Your essay should also contain a
clear and concise conclusion which is based on your evaluation of the evidence
and explicitly states whether biological and/or environmental factors contribute
towards the ability to acquire, produce and comprehend language.

Make your answer stand out

To make an answer stand out on this topic you need to be able to demonstrate
an awareness and understanding of the broader literature concerning language
acquisition, production and comprehension. This will mean also considering the
cognitive, social and developmental aspects of language to establish a critical
and comprehensive academic debate.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

79
4 • Biological basis of language

Notes

80
5
Mechanisms of perception
and sensation

General
properties of
perception,
sensation and
attention Visual
perception
and
attention

Auditory
Mechanisms
perception
of perception
and
and sensation
attention

Somatosensation

Chemical
senses

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

81
5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Introduction

This chapter will provide you with an overview of the biological structures,
mechanisms and processes which underlie human perception, sensation and
ultimately attention. Special attention will be paid to the general properties
of perception and sensation, visual perception, auditory perception,
somatosensory systems and the chemical senses. However, it is important
to remember that additional information which is relevant to this topic was
covered in Chapters 1–3. You should also remember that perception, sensation
and attention are intrinsically linked. For example, we must perceive a stimulus
in order to allocate our attention to this item. Our attention also facilitates the
experiences of sensation and perception. You should also remember that the
structures of the brain do not only serve one function. Perception, sensation
and attention are also linked to memory, consciousness, language and social
interaction. You will probably also be aware that while these processes are
linked they can also be dissociated and operate independently. However this
chapter is primarily concerned with the biological factors which facilitate or
are observed during perception and sensation. The cognitive mechanisms and
social functions of these phenomena are beyond the scope of this text but it is
advisable that you expand your understanding to include other non-biological
influences on behaviour. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to recall
some of the physiological, neural and anatomical factors associated with human
perception and sensation.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP What the general properties of perception and sensation are
PP Which structures are associated with perception and sensation
PP Which processes are associated with perception and sensation
PP How perception, sensation and attention are related
PP How forms of perception and sensation differ

Assessment advice
Essay questions in this area will usually ask you to compare, contrast or evaluate
two forms of perception, sensation or attention. For example, you may be asked
to compare the biological contributions towards visual and auditory perception
and attention. Alternatively, you may be asked to compare and contrast biological
and non-biological factors which influence human perception and attention. For
these types of questions you will need to adopt a critical and evidence-based

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 General properties of perception, sensation and attention

approach which considers the various influences on perception and attention. It

is also vital to discuss the strengths, limitations, supporting evidence and contrary
evidence for each of the approaches or types of perception and attention you
include and clearly define all technical terms or processes. You should also
remember to link back regularly to the essay question to ensure you do not
lose your chain of thought and the marker can follow your argument. This will
allow you to gradually build on your response to the question if you incorporate
critical analyses of theories and evidence. You should also remember that your
conclusion should be based on the strength of the evidence and the topics
you have discussed. Most importantly, you must make sure that you answer the
question and do not go off topic or lose your marker in the narrative.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

Compare, contrast and evaluate the traditional and contemporary biological

theories concerning the nature and organisation of perception and attention
with reference to the primary, secondary and associational cortices.

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress.

General properties of perception, sensation and

attention

The key terms box below presents definitions of attention, perception and
sensation. You should be able to clearly identify how these processes are related
but at the same time function independently. There are five exteroceptive
sensory systems which rely on these processes. These are vision, audition
(hearing), touch (somatosensation), smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation). Each
of these systems receives sensory information originally derived from external
sources, pressures upon the body and internal cues. This can either direct
or be informed by attention and perception (Broerse, 2001; Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). Indeed, an interesting case study of how these processes can be
dissociated is also presented below.

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5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Key terms
Attention: The allocation of cognitive resources to stimuli.
Exteroceptive sensory systems: The systems responsible for the senses of touch,
smell, taste, hearing and vision.
Perception: Higher-order processes of integrating, reorganising and interpreting a
complete pattern of sensation.
Sensation: The process of detecting a stimulus.
Visual agnosia: A neuropsychological condition characterised by deficits in perception.

KEY STUDY

Sacks (1985), The man who mistook his wife for a hat
An interesting insight into the differentiation of sensation and perception and the nature
of visual agnosia was provided by the case study of Dr. P. which was presented by
Sacks in 1985. Dr. P. is famous for making numerous perceptual errors such as mistaking
inanimate objects for people and mistaking body parts for clothing, including believing
that his foot was in fact his shoe and that his wife’s head was actually a hat. This pattern
of impairment suggests that while the patient appeared to have unimpaired sensation
because he was able to experience the stimuli, his perception of these stimuli was
severely impaired.

Some of the details surrounding the complex transmission of messages along

the sensory systems were covered in more detail in Chapter 2. However, it is
especially important that you can understand what happens when these signals
reach the brain. Each of these exteroceptive sensory systems feed into their own
respective primary sensory cortex via the thalamic relay nuclei for that system
(Broerse, 2001; Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). This signal then
transmits to a secondary sensory cortex facilitating the further processing of
stimuli. You should remember that multiple regions will receive information from
a sensory system and that these structures are each referred to as an association
cortex (Pinel, 2003). These cerebral structures are organised hierarchically in
that each additional system receives input from the previous levels and provides
another level of processing (Goldstein, 2009). This means that while destruction
of the initial receptor cells will abolish sensory information for the corresponding
stimuli, damage to the secondary and association cortices will result in more
specific patterns of impairment (Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003).
However, there has been considerable theoretical and experimental
development concerning the organisation and function of these systems
which you will need to understand in your assessments. For example, the
early perspective was that the cerebral structures which receive information
from the sensory systems are organised hierarchically and that processing is
homogeneous (uniform across structures) and serial in nature (Broerse, 2001;
Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). According to this perspective,

84
 General properties of perception, sensation and attention

processing could only proceed in one direction and was identical in nature
across each cerebral structure. You should remember that this perspective was
based on early experimental methods which lacked the advanced technology
which is available today (Pinel, 2003; Rayner, 2009). It cannot fully explain the
complex nature of human perception, sensation and attention and it fails to
consider how an early process may be impaired while later processes remain
intact (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). In contrast, the current perspective is that
while the structures are indeed organised hierarchically, they are functionally
segregated and rely on parallel processing (Broerse, 2001; Carlson, 2004;
Goldstein, 2009; Grossman et al., 2000; Kourtzi & Kanwisher, 2000; Pinel,
2003). This means that there is a division of labour, with cerebral structures
serving qualitatively and quantitatively different functions with multiple levels
of processing. These functions are performed simultaneously, and while most
pathways carry information from lower to higher systems this is not universal
because there is feedback between the cerebral structures (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003; Shaw, Lien, Ruthruff & Allen, 2011). Jeannerod, Arbib, Rizzolatti
and Sakarta (1995) also argued that there are two distinct parallel streams of
information in the sensory systems in which one influences behaviour without
conscious awareness (for example, in the case of reflexes) and another which
influences behaviour by engaging our conscious awareness and attention
(such as in intentional touch). You should remember from earlier chapters that
neuropsychological patients do appear to have specific deficits while other
abilities remain intact, processing does appear to be parallel in nature and action
and awareness can indeed be dissociated (such as in the cases of blind-sight and
split-brain studies). The following sections will also refresh your memory of these
organisational properties with specific reference to each of the sensory systems.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent do cerebral structures regulate and facilitate human perception,

sensation and attention?

Further reading The general biological properties of perception and

attention
Topic Key reading
Sensation and perception Goldstein, B. E. (2009). Sensation and perception (8th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Perception and language Pulvermüller, F., & Fadiga, L. (2010). Active perception:
Sensorimotor circuits as a cortical basis for language. Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 11(5), 351–360.
Dissociated perception Shaw, K., Lien, M., Ruthruff, E., & Allen, P.A. (2011).
and attention Electrophysiological evidence of emotion perception without
central attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23(6),
695–708.

85
5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Test your knowledge

5.1 How did early theories describe the cerebral structures and processes
of perception and attention?
5.2 How do current theories describe the cerebral structures and processes
of perception and attention?
5.3 What are the five exteroceptive sensory systems?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Visual perception and attention

Vision allows us to quickly perceive our environment and it is an exceptionally

complex process (Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). While it is not
vital for successful functioning, life can be considerably more difficult when this
sensory system is not fully functional. This section is primarily concerned with
how the brain facilitates vision. To enhance your revision of the initial micro-
processes of vision I direct your attention to introductory texts such as Goldstein
(2009) and articles such as Hubel and Wiesel (1977).
You should remember that images detected in the left visual field are
transmitted to the right hemisphere and images which are detected in the right
visual field are transmitted to the left hemisphere (Carlson, 2004; Goldstein,
2009; Pinel, 2003). Vision is governed by the retina, the entire occipital cortex
of the brain (also known as the striate cortex), large areas of the temporal cortex
and parts of the parietal cortex. In the case of vision, the striate cortex is the
primary cortex and from here signals are transmitted to the secondary visual
cortex which consists of the prestriate cortex and inferotemporal cortex. The
association cortex for vision consists of numerous regions throughout the brain
but the largest area is located in the posterior parietal cortex (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). Based on the principles of the current perspective of vision as a
hierarchical, functionally segregated system which relies on parallel processing,
minor damage to the system should result in specific deficits although other
higher-order structures should be able to compensate for these deficits (Carlson,
2004; Huberle, Driver & Karnath, 2010; Pinel, 2003). You will see from the
Critical focus box below that this is probably a correct assumption.

86
 Visual perception and attention

CriTiCAl FoCUS

Scotoma – completion of scenes, blind-sight and dissociation between

sensation and perception
Damage to the primary visual cortex results in areas of blindness in the corresponding
areas of the contralateral visual field of both eyes. This area of blindness is known as a
scotoma and research with patients suffering from this condition has provided several
interesting insights into the nature of human vision (Carlson, 2004). The range of the
scotoma can be assessed using a perimetry task in which dots are presented in all
areas of the visual field and the individual indicates when a dot has been seen. If a
dot is presented in the same location of a scotoma the individual claims that nothing
has been presented, indicating an area of blindness (Pinel, 2003). However, despite
these areas of blindness, individuals with scotomas tend to report scene completion in
which other aspects of the scene and their expectations allows them to see an intact
image. Individuals with scotomas also display blind-sight in that they are still able to
reach for and grasp items which are presented in the area of blindness despite lacking
conscious perception of the object. These findings suggest that vision is organised
hierarchically with functionally segregated systems or structures and that it relies on
parallel processing. It is also consistent with Jeannerod et al.’s (1995) perspectives that
perception and sensation can be with or without conscious experience. However, it
remains unclear whether this pattern of visual perception is due to top-down cognitive
processes, functions of areas of the striate cortex which have remained intact or whether
there are pathways leading to the secondary visual cortex which bypass the primary
visual cortex (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). It may also be unwise to conclude that this
is how normal vision functions because neuropsychological patients’ performance may
reflect the reorganisation of the system.

However, you will also probably be aware that visual perception and reality are
not always synonymous in the visual system. Indeed, visual illusions can confuse
this system into perceiving items which are not actually present. This suggests that
the processes seen in patients with scotomas are present in unimpaired individuals
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). Researchers have also identified over a dozen
separate, functional areas of the visual cortex using fMRI and PET scans suggesting
that the visual system is functionally segregated (Grossman et al., 2000; Kourtzi &
Kanwisher, 2000).

Key terms
Scotoma: An area of blindness produced through damage to the primary visual cortex.
Perimetry task: A task which identifies the location and scope of a scotoma by asking
participants to identify when they are able to see a series of dots presented in the
visual field.

87
5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

In regards to parallel processing, there appear to be two streams of information

in the visual system (Goldstein, 2009; Goodale & Milner, 2006; Pinel, 2003). The
dorsal stream flows from the primary visual cortex to the dorsal and posterior
prestriate cortex and the inferotemporal cortex. In contrast, the ventral stream
flows from the primary cortex to the ventral prestriate cortex and inferotemporal
cortex (Pinel, 2003). The traditional distinction between these two systems is that
the dorsal stream processes information relating to where stimuli are, while the
ventral stream processes information relating to what things are (Carlson, 2004;
Milner & Goodale, 1993). However, this view has been widely replaced with the
distinction that the dorsal stream directs behavioural interaction with objects
while the ventral stream mediates conscious perception of objects (Goodale
& Milner, 2006; Milner & Goodale, 1993). You should be aware that damage
to the ventral stream does impair conscious perception, while damage to the
dorsal stream impairs perceptually mediated action such as grasping unfamiliar
perceived objects (Pinel, 2003). For example, prosopagnosia (the inability to
recognise faces) can be produced through bilateral lesions to the ventral stream
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).

Key term
Prosopagnosia: A neuropsychological condition in which people are unable to
recognise faces.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent has neuropsychology contributed towards our understanding

of normal visual attention and perception?

Further reading Visual perception and attention

Topic Key reading
Selective colour vision Anderson, S. K., Müller, M. M., & Hillyard, S. A. (2009). Color-
selective attention need not be mediated by spatial attention.
Journal of Vision, 9(6), 1–7.
Audiovisual perception Anderson, T. S., Tiippana, K., Laarni, J., & Sams, M. (2009). The
role of visual spatial attention in audiovisual speech perception.
Speech Communication, 51(2), 184–193.
Selective visual Correa, A., Sanabria, D., Spence, C., Tudela, P., & Lupiáñez, J.
perception (2006). Selective temporal attention enhances the temporal
resolution of visual perception: Evidence from a temporal order
judgement task. Brain Research, 1070(1), 202–205.
t

88
 Auditory perception and attention

Transcranial stimulation Grosbras, M., & Paus, T. (2002). Transcranial magnetic stimulation
and visual perception of the human frontal eye field: Effects on visual perception and
attention. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(7), 1109–1120.
Neuropsychology and Huberle, E., Driver, J., & Karnath, H. (2010). Retinal versus physical
visual perception stimulus size as determinants of visual perception in
simultanagnosia. Neuropsychologia, 48(6), 1677–1682.
Visual perception Palermo, R., & Rhodes, G. (2007). Are you always on my mind?
and attention A review of how face perception and attention interact.
Neuropsychologia, 45(1), 75–92.

Test your knowledge

5.4 Vision is governed by which structures in the brain?

5.5 What are the primary differences between the dorsal and ventral
streams?
5.6 What is prosopagnosia?
5.7 Does visual perception always reflect reality?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Auditory perception and attention

Audition (hearing) is based on molecule vibrations for which humans are able to
hear between 20–20,200 hertz (Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). Sounds are made
up of physical dimensions with corresponding physical stimuli and perceptual
dimensions. These properties are presented in Table 5.1. The physical dimensions
reflect the sensation of the stimuli and the perceptual dimensions reflect what is
perceived. However, it is important to remember that the physical dimensions are
on a scale rather than dichotomised at two extremes and pure tones only exist in
laboratories and recording studios (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).

Table 5.1 Properties of sounds

Physical stimuli Physical dimensions Perceptual dimensions

Amplitude Loud–soft Loudness

Frequency Low–high Pitch

Complexity Pure–rich Timbre

89
5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

The process of audition is complex and involves a range of structures which are
summarised below to refresh your memory (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003; Shamma
& Micheyl, 2010):
MP Sound waves travel down the auditory canal causing the tympanic membrane
(eardrum) to vibrate.
MP These vibrations are transferred to the three ossicles (bones of the middle ear)
consisting of the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup).
MP This results in vibrations of the oval window and cochlear internal membrane
which acts as a receptor for the organ of Corti.
MP The organ of Corti consists of two membranes called the basilar and tectorial
membranes. The hair cells on the basilar membrane act as receptor cells
while the tectorial membrane rests on top of the hair cells. These structures
are responsible for triggering action potentials in the axons of the auditory
nerves, beginning the transmission of the signal from the ear to the brain.
MP The vestibular system of the ear also carries information about the direction
and intensity of head movements, making it vital for balance.
MP From the ear, the action potentials are carried along the auditory nerves
to the primary auditory cortex. However, unlike the visual system there is
no major pathway. The auditory system is more like a network of pathways
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
MP The axons of each auditory nerve synapse in the ipsilateral cochlear nuclei
leading to the superior olives, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculi and medial
geniculate nuclei.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent is auditory attention and perception dependent on biological

factors?

Hence, the auditory system is organised hierarchically. You should remember

from your studies that the primary auditory cortex is located in the lateral
fissure and is surrounded by the secondary auditory cortex. This structure is
also organised in functional segregated columns consistent with the current
perspective concerning the organisation of perceptual systems (Carlson, 2004;
Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). Furthermore, the perception of sound location
is controlled by the medial and lateral superior olives (Carlson, 2004; Pinel,
2003). For example, the medial olive is sensitive to the time delay between the
two ears as they receive vibrations from different angles. In contrast, the lateral
olive is sensitive to differences in amplitude which also arise because it receives
vibrations from different angles. However, the nature, structure and physiology
of the secondary auditory cortex are difficult to assess because the neurons
respond weakly and inconsistently to even pure tones, reflecting the distributed

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 Somatosensation

nature of the auditory system (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003; Stevens, Fanning,
Coch, Sanders & Neville, 2008). It is also difficult to track and isolate the effects
of brain damage since the location of the auditory cortex makes it virtually
impossible to damage without also destroying other structures.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent is neuropsychological research limited due to the location of

the auditory cortex? Discuss with reference to the strengths and limitation
of neuropsychology.

Further reading Auditory perception and attention

Topic Key reading
Auditory attention Bee, M. A., & Micheyl, C. (2008). The ‘Cocktail party problem’: What
is it? How can it be solved? And why should animal behaviourists
study it? Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122(3), 235–251.
Tone deafness Loui, P., Guenther, F. H., Mathys, C., & Schlaug, G. (2008). Action–
perception mismatch in tone-deafness. Current Biology, 18(8),
331–332.
Auditory perception Shamma, S. A., & Micheyl, C. (2010). Behind the scenes of auditory
perception. Current Opinions in Neurobiology, 20(3), 361–366.
Auditory perception Zmigrod, S., & Hommel, B. (2009). Auditory event files: Integrating
and action planning auditory perception and action planning. Attention, Perception and
Psychophysics, 71(2), 352–362.

Test your knowledge

5.8 What are the physical dimensions of audition?

5.9 What are the perceptual dimensions of audition?
5.10 Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Somatosensation

Somatosensation refers to bodily sensations and comprises three interacting

systems, which are the exteroceptive system (see previous section on the
general properties of perception, sensation and attention), proprioceptive
system and interoceptive system.

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5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Key terms
Proprioceptive system: The structures and processes responsible for processing
information concerning the position of the body.
interoceptive system: The structures and processes responsible for processing
information concerning conditions within the body.

There are four types of cutaneous receptors found in both hairy and hairless skin
which facilitate somatosensation (Lumpkin & Caterina, 2007; Pinel, 2003). The
free nerve endings are sensitive to temperature changes and pain. Secondly,
the Pacinian corpuscles adapt rapidly and respond to the displacement of skin.
Finally, the Merkel’s disks and Ruffini endings both adapt slowly and respond
to skin indentation and stretching. Nerve fibres carrying information from these
cutaneous receptors gather together into dorsal roots which feed into the spine.
However, consistent with the current perceptive on the organisation of the
perceptual system you should also remember that the somatosensory system has
two main, parallel routes to the cortex through either the dorsal column-medial
lemniscus route or the anterolateral system.
MP Dorsal column-medial lemniscus: This pathway carries information relating
to light touch, vibration, pressure and the position of the body. The nerves
enter the spinal cord via a dorsal root ascending ipsilaterally in the dorsal
columns and synapse in the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla. Here
they cross over and ascend to the medial lemniscus to the ventral posterior
nucleus of the thalamus.
MP Anterolateral system: This pathway carries information relating to pain
and temperature and consists of three separate tracts. These are the
spinothalamic, spinoreticular and spinotectal tracts. Firstly, the spinothalamic
tract culminates in the thalamus and is important for the localisation of
painful and thermal stimuli. Secondly, the spinoreticular tract culminates
in the reticular formation and is responsible for facilitating alertness and
physiological arousal in response to pain. Finally, the spinotectal tract
culminates in the tectum and directs attention toward the stimuli.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent has biological psychology contributed towards the contemporary

understanding of somatosensation?

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 Somatosensation

You will need to be able to discuss and differentiate these somatosensory

pathways in your assessments. As the above description demonstrates, these
systems are also organised hierarchically with functionally segregated systems
and parallel processing (Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Jeannerod, et al., 1995;
Pinel, 2003). However, further insights have been provided by neuropsychology
(Carlson, 2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). For example, lesions to the
ventral posterior nuclei reduce sensitivity to touch, changes in temperature and
sharp pain while lesions to the parafascicular and intralaminar nuclei reduce
deep chronic pain while leaving other sensations intact. In contrast, damage
to the somatosensory cortex results in specific impairments dependent upon
the location and severity of the injury. This is consistent with the characteristics
of the somatosensory pathways and principles of parallel processing and
segregation of function.
There is a notable issue when arguing that cerebral regions are responsible for
pain perception in that there are significant individual differences in sensitivity
to somatosensory information. This may be due to different functioning of
anatomy, physiology, cognitive processing or other individual differences. Other
paradoxes of pain include:
MP While it feels like a negative experience, it is vital for survival as a form of
information concerning danger and bodily harm.
MP Pain can be controlled through cognitive, emotional and pharmacological
means.
MP There is a lack of cortical representation of pain although the anterior cingulate
cortex has been associated levels and patterns of activation are variable.
In an attempt to explain individual differences in pain perception, Melzack
and Wall (1965, 1982/2008) devised the gate-theory of pain and argued that
cognition can indeed mediate and block pain signals from the somatosensory
system. In this model, signals descending in the centrifugal pathway can
activate neural gating circuits in the spinal cord and block incoming pain
signals. This is supported by evidence that electrical stimulation of the
periaqueductal grey matter has an effect synonymous with anaesthesia (Carlson,
2004; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). This model remains influential today and
has revolutionised how some medical practitioners treat pain by encouraging
patients to change their attitude toward the experience thereby reducing
their levels of discomfort (Fitzgerald, 2010). Therefore, it is important for you
to understand that while bottom-up processes can result in somatosensation,
top-down processes may control the extent to which perception results in the
experience of pain.

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5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Further reading Somatosensation

Topic Key reading
Pain Fitzgerald, M. (2010). The lost domain of pain. Brain, 133(6), 1850–1854.
Social perception Keyers, C., Kaas, J. H., & Gazzola, V. (2010). Somatosensation in social
perception. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(6), 417–428.
Age differences Low Choy, N., Brauer, S. G., & Nitz, J. C. (2007). Age-related changes
in strength and somatosensation during midlife. Annals of the New York
Academy of Science, 1114, 180–193.
Sensory Lumpkin, E. A., & Caterina, M. J. (2007). Mechanisms of the sensory
transduction transduction in the skin. Nature, 445(7130), 858–865.
Gate control Melzack, R., & Wall, P.D. (2008). The challenges of pain (2nd ed.).
theory of pain London: Penguin Books. (Original work published 1982.)

Test your knowledge

5.11 Somatosensation consists of which three interacting systems?

5.12 What do Merkel’s disks and Ruffini endings respond to?
5.13 Through which two main pathways does somatosensory information
reach the cortex?
5.14 What are the paradoxes of pain?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chemical senses

The chemical senses are those which provide information concerning the
chemical content of the environment (Anderson et al., 2003; Gibson & Garbers,
2000; Goldstein, 2009; Pinel, 2003). These include olfaction (smell) and gustation
(taste), although you should remember that these senses are intrinsically linked.
These systems are also organised hierarchically according to functionally
segregated structures and incorporate parallel processing. Gibson and Garbers
(2000) have argued that there are over 1000 olfactory receptors in the nose
which each respond to different types of odour. These receptors are located in
a layer of mucus-covered tissue called the olfactory mucosa. The axons of these
receptors pass through the cribriform plate of the skull into the olfactory bulbs
where they synapse on the neurons of mitral cells, which project via the olfactory
tracts to several structures in the medial temporal lobes including the amygdala
and piriform cortex (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). You should be aware that the
correct term for an inability to detect odours is anosmia which can be caused
through damage to this system.

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 Chemical senses

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast the biological structures and processes underlying

chemical and somatosensory perception and attention.

In contrast, the receptors for taste are located on the tongue and are often
found around small protuberances called papillae. Conventionally, there are
five different tastes, which are sweet, salty, sour, bitter and unami (savoury or
meaty) although it is notable that many flavours cannot be experienced by
combining these tastes, suggesting that this list is incomplete (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). Unlike olfaction receptors, these taste buds do not have their own
axons but rather cluster together. These afferents leave the mouth as part of the
facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus cranial nerves and terminate in the solitary
nucleus of the medulla. Here they synapse on neurons which project to the
ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and subsequently to the primary and
secondary gustatory cortex. The correct term for an inability to taste is called
ageasia which can be caused through damage to this system.

Further reading Chemical senses

Topic Key reading
Gustation Chaudhari, N., & Roper, S. D. (2010). The cell biology of taste. Journal of
Current Biology, 190(3), 285–296.
Receptor cells Damann, N., Voets, T., & Nilius, B. (2008). TRPs in our senses. Current
Biology, 18(18), 880–889.
Gustation Singh, P. B., Iannilli, E., & Hummel, T. (2011). Segregation of gustatory
cortex in response to salt and umami taste studied through event-related
potentials. Neuroreport, 22(6), 299–303.

Test your knowledge

5.15 What are the chemical senses?

5.16 What is olfaction?
5.17 What is gustation?
5.18 How many tastes are there and what are they called?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

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5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

Compare, contrast and evaluate the traditional and contemporary biological

theories concerning the nature and organisation of perception and attention
with reference to the primary, secondary and associational cortices.

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to compare, contrast and evaluate the older view that
the cerebral structures responsible for perception and attention are hierarchical,
serial and homogeneous processes and the contemporary view that these
structures and processes are hierarchical, functionally segregated and parallel.

Important points to include

Your essay should begin with a brief introduction which summarises the topic
and outlines the structure and content of your response. This will ideally include
the identification and differentiation of the older and contemporary perspectives.
The main body of your essay will describe, evaluate and compare these theories,
drawing heavily on examples from the literature. Your report should identify
their commonalities, differences and the extent to which each perspective is
supported by the literature surrounding perception and attention. You should
make specific reference to whether the contemporary view has completely
replaced the older perspective or if elements of this account are still dominant.
For example, while both perspectives see these processes as hierarchical they
differ in their account of the interaction between the primary, secondary and
associational cortices. It may also be useful to discuss how applicable these
views are to two forms of perception (such as vision and olfaction for example).
Your response should finally include a concise, coherent and evidence-based
conclusion which summarises your response to the question.

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 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Make your answer stand out

To make an answer stand out on this topic you will need to demonstrate
abilities to synthesise and critically evaluate a variety of evidence and directly
relate this to the perspectives. The best essays will be well structured,
demonstrate a balance between description and evaluation, give examples of
academic debate and provide clear evidence-based and persuasive conclusions.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

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5 • Mechanisms of perception and sensation

Notes

98
6
Biological mechanisms of
sleep and dreaming

• Normal wakefulness
• Stage 1 sleep
Stages of • Stage 2 sleep
awareness • Slow-wave sleep: stages 3 and 4
and sleep
• REM sleep

• Biological mechanisms controlling

Biological the timing of sleep
correlates
• Cerebral structures controlling
of sleep and
dreaming drowsiness and slow-wave sleep
Biological • Brain regions controlling REM sleep
mechanisms
of sleep and
dreaming
• Biological theories of sleep and
Functions dreaming
of sleep • Psychological theories of dreaming
• Sleep deprivation

Sleep
disorders

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

Introduction

The topics of sleep, dreaming and levels of awareness have been prominent
areas of research and theorisation in philosophy and science for centuries.
Indeed, these areas form significant components of research investigating
the nature and scope of consciousness and have generated considerable
research and debate (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005; Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
Sleep can be defined as a natural and potentially vital state which inevitably
follows a period of wakefulness in healthy mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and
amphibians. Sleep can also be defined as a series of transient states, meaning
that the individual can rapidly switch from various stages of sleep to normal
wakefulness unlike in other states of altered consciousness such as coma and
unconsciousness (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005; Espa, Ondze, Billiard & Bessett,
2000). This transition is usually easily observed and is signalled by a variety
of physiological and behavioural indicators. Sleep can be characterised as a
state in which normal wakefulness, awareness, responsiveness, consciousness,
sensation and voluntary control of the body is no longer evident (Pace-Schott,
Solms, Blagrove & Harnald 2003). Indeed, unlike in wakeful states an individual
is less able to respond to mild or moderate stimuli but may still perceive more
pronounced changes via the somatosensory system if in the stages of waking.
It is this inability to interact with the environment around us while in a reduced
state of consciousness which limits the chance of injury. However, it is important
to remember that the brain and our physiology responses remain active
(although often altered) throughout the stages of sleep and it is this activity
which facilitates the ability to dream (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005; Stickgold,
2005). Dreams can be defined as the perception of sensory information
while sleeping although the mechanisms and processes which give rise to
dreaming are still unascertained. It is also important to remember that sleep is
characterised by a heightened anabolic state which promotes the recovery and
growth of bodily systems, demonstrating its importance for development and
maintenance of the body.
You may also be aware that sleep and dreaming have been studied from
numerous perspectives in psychology, including from the biological, cognitive
and psychodynamic perspectives. However, this chapter will primarily provide
you with a summary of the main features of sleep, dreaming and awareness
according to a biological perspective. It will be concerned with the physiological,
anatomical and neurological aspects of these phenomena rather than non-
biological factors. Furthermore, while the area has been investigated since the
early days of psychology, this chapter will provide you with a contemporary
summary of sleep and dreaming, not an historical overview. While early studies
tended to investigate the effects of brain lesions on sleep and dreaming
in laboratory animals, this technique is mostly redundant due to the more
advanced techniques and measures used in human sleep laboratories and will

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 Introduction

not be discussed in detail (Pace-Schott et al., 2003). You should also remember
that it would be impossible to incorporate all of the information on sleep and
dreaming in one revision chapter and that the area is constantly evolving as new
research and theories are established. As such, you should remember to direct
your further reading to maintain a contemporary understanding.

 Revision checklist

Essential things to revise are:

PM What the normal stages of sleep are
PM How several theories explain the functions and nature of sleep
PM What the biological correlates of sleep and wakefulness are
PM How abnormal sleep patterns or the presence of sleep disorders can
influence an individual’s ability to function

Assessment advice
Essay questions in the area of sleep and dreaming will typically ask you
to discuss the validity and reliability of certain theories or methodologies,
evaluate the insights into normal sleep and dreaming based on the study of
sleep disorders, or critically evaluate the extent to which research in this area
can contribute towards understanding consciousness. For essays like this you
will need to demonstrate a broad understanding of the theories, techniques,
research findings, strengths and limitations of this field of study. This will mean
clearly defining all of the technical terms and theories that you mention in your
essay, supporting all of your claims with evidence and critically evaluating the
theories and research you incorporate. However, you should also remember
that it has generated considerable amounts of literature and while your initial
understanding may be based on older research you should make sure that you
have an understanding of recent theoretical and methodological developments.
Important points to remember include:
MM Conduct a detailed literature review which is relevant to the question.
MM Make sure you understand the literature and how it applies to the issues you
are discussing. An essay plan will help you to organise your ideas.
MM Take an evidence-based approach. This means supporting all of your claims
and points with appropriate citations in text.
MM Take a critical approach. This means that you must evaluate all of the theories
and evidence and frame your argument accordingly. For example, does a
certain study support your argument while most of the others refute it?
MM Stay on topic. It is easy to get lost in your own narrative but you need to state
explicitly how each section has answered the question.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

MM Stick to the conventions of your institution. Assignment time is not the time to
try out new (and often incorrect) styles, formats or referencing.
MM Draw conclusions. The ability to draw conclusions based on the evidence is
often part of the marking critera.
MM Proof-read your essay. Carelessness, errors and omissions will be detected by
your marker and, depending upon your institution’s guidelines, could reduce
your mark. This is also a good practice to get into if you ever intend to submit
work for publication.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent can research and theorisation in biological psychology

contribute towards our understanding of sleep and dreaming?

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress.

Stages of awareness and sleep

In contemporary psychology the stages and nature of sleep are typically

monitored, measured and manipulated using a combination of polysomnography
(sleep recording) and observation within tightly controlled sleep laboratories. The
measures taken include electroencephalogram (EEG) to monitor brain waves,
electrooculogram (EOG) to assess eye movements and electromyogram (EMG)
to monitor skeletal muscles. These measures allow us to identify, monitor and
record the physiological correlates of sleep and have provided valuable insights
concerning the nature and time-course of the sleep cycle. For example, sleep
studies have informed us that there are variable levels of physiological activity
which can differentiate several stages of sleep, each lasting around 90–110
minutes, and potentially serve different functions. There is a gradual decrease
in muscle tone and heart rate as the stages of sleep progress, demonstrating
that the individual becomes more relaxed the longer the transition continues.
Furthermore, growth hormones are secreted during the first few hours of sleep,
suggesting that there is recuperation and repair during sleep. If stages are

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 Stages of awareness and sleep

skipped an individual can feel as though they have not slept. These stages will
now be discussed in more detail to refresh your memory. They consist of:
MM normal wakefulness
MM non-REM sleep (stages 1–4 which includes slow-wave sleep)
MM REM sleep (stage 5).

Key terms
Non-REM sleep: Constituting stages 1–4 of normal sleep which is not characterised
by rapid eye movements.
Normal wakefulness: Full consciousness and engagement with the environment.
Polysomnography: The measurement of physiological activity during sleep.
REM sleep: Stage 5 of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement.

Normal wakefulness
Normal wakefulness refers to the conscious state we are in most of the time.
In this state we can think, perceive, move, vocalise, problem solve and reason
by conscious thought. It is characterised by two forms of EEG. These are called
beta activity and alpha activity. The following sections and key terms box should
refresh your understanding of these patterns of activity.

Stage 1 sleep
This is the initial stage observed as individuals begin to fall asleep. EEG indicates
that brain activity gradually slows to a frequency of 3–7.5 Hz. This level of
activation is referred to as theta waves. It is occasionally also called somnolence
or drowsy sleep.

Stage 2 sleep
Stage 2 sleep is characterised by waves of activity at the same frequency as that
observed during stage 1 sleep, but also features small bursts of faster activity and
large spikes of activity. These are referred to as sleep spindles and K complexes
respectively. There is a notable decrease in muscle activity and conscious
experience of external stimuli. However, individuals are unlikely to realise that
they have been asleep if they are disturbed during the first two stages of sleep.

Slow-wave sleep: stages 3 and 4

Stage 3 of sleep typically begins after 30 minutes of undisturbed sleep. This
stage of sleep is characterised by fewer sleep spindles and K complexes and
brain activity which is even slower. This can be less than 3 Hz and is termed
delta activity. It typically has higher amplitude than the earlier stages of sleep.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

However, stage 4 of sleep is difficult to differentiate from stage 3. The only

notable change is that delta activity increases in amplitude. Both stages 3 and 4
can be combined under the term of slow-wave sleep. This stage typically lasts 30
minutes in the first cycle. Stage 4 sleep is typically only observed during the first
few cycles of sleep.
It is important to remember that it is during slow-wave sleep that phenomena
such as night terrors, sleep walking, somniloquy (sleep talking) and nocturnal
enuresis (bed wetting) tend to occur if the transition to REM sleep is disturbed or
the sleep pattern is unusual (Espa et al., 2000).

REM sleep
After stage 4 the sleep cycle returns to stage 1. However, at this point the
muscles are relaxed to a much greater degree, preventing any voluntary
movement. At the same time, heart rate, breathing and the activity of
sympathetic nervous system all increase to the level usually observed during
physical exertion. At this stage beta activity is also observed (Pinel, 2003),
demonstrating that the brain appears to be actively processing information.
This stage of sleep gains its name from the observable phenomenon of rapid
eye movements in which the eyeball can be seen to move quickly despite eyes
being closed. REM sleep is also distinct from the other stages of sleep in that
it is the stage in which dreams are experienced. Indeed, EEG has revealed that
the hippocampus which is involved in memory processes produces a theta of
4–7 Hz during REM sleep, suggesting that some form of memory retrieval or
consolidation may occur during this stage of sleep (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005;
Stickgold, 2005). While individuals in REM sleep are often difficult to waken and
will appear more disoriented than if woken from earlier stages of sleep, they
remain receptive to personally salient information.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent can biological activity differentiate between the various

stages of sleep?

Key terms
Alpha activity: This is the pattern of brain activity observed when an individual is
in a state of relaxation. It is observed while the eyes are closed, implying that the
individual is also in a state of relative inactivity. This activity is considerably slower
at 8–12 Hz and the levels of activity observed in the various areas of the brain is
relatively synchronised.
Beta activity: A pattern of activity observed when actively engaging in mental activity
characterised by 13–30 Hz. Activity is desynchronised in that areas of the brain vary in
their levels and pattern of activity.
t

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 Biological correlates of sleep and dreaming

Delta activity: This is brain activity at less than 3 Hz but with higher amplitude than
the earlier stages of sleep. Observed during stages 3 and 4 of sleep.
K complexes: Large spikes of activity initially observed during stage 2 sleep and
declining in stage 3.
Sleep spindles: Bursts of faster activity initially observed during stage 2 sleep and
declining in stage 3.
Slow-wave sleep: The combined stages 3 and 4 in which brain activity is less than 3 Hz.
Theta activity: This is brain activity observed during stage 1 sleep and is
characterised by a frequency of 3–7.5 Hz.

Further reading The stages of sleep

Topic Key reading
General physiology Belcher, P., & Moorcroft, W. H. (2005). Understanding sleep and
dreaming. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Advances Pace-Schott, E., Solms, M., Blagrove, M., & Harnad, S. (Eds.) (2003).
Sleep and dreaming: Scientific advances and reconsiderations.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sleep and memory Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation.
Nature, 437, 1272–1278.

Test your knowledge

6.1 In which states are beta waves observed?

6.2 What type of activity is observed during states of relaxation when the
eyes are closed?
6.3 What are the main characteristics of slow-wave sleep?
6.4 How is REM sleep different from slow-wave sleep?
6.5 When are sleep spindles and K complexes observed?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Biological correlates of sleep and dreaming

You will need to understand and be able to discuss some of the biological
factors which may control or regulate sleep and dreaming. The following
sections and ‘Test your knowledge’ questions should refresh your memory on
these topics.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

Biological mechanisms controlling the timing of sleep

The timing of sleep is controlled by an internal hypothetical mechanism
known as the circadian clock, which regulates sleep–wake homeostasis, and
zeitgebers, which reset this clock. This mechanism works in conjunction with
the neurotransmitter adenosine, the hormone melatonin and temperature
fluctuations to stimulate the feeling of tiredness and determine the ideal time
for sleep. However, it is important to remember that in humans the amount and
timing of sleep can also be controlled by the individual to some extent and it is
subject to significant individual and group differences. For example, newborns
tend to sleep the most while adults sleep the least.
Research has suggested that the regulation of circadian rhythms, including the
sleep–wake cycle, may be mediated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), raphe
nucleus, pons and the locus coeruleus area of the reticular formation in the brain
stem. This suggests that these regions may correspond with the location of the
circadian clock. Indeed, Aston-Jones and Bloom (1981) observed increased
activity of noradrenergic neurons in this region three seconds before animals
awoke. However, you should also remember that the hypothalamus has been
associated with regulating sleep–wake cycles (e.g. Saper, Scammell & Lu, 2005).

Key terms
Circadian clock: A hypothetical biological mechanism which is theorised to control
sleep–waking patterns and the other biological prerequisites for sleep (such
as temperature change, the release of growth hormones and the secretion of
neurotransmitters).
Circadian rhythm: A behavioural or physiological process which changes daily
according to a set pattern, such as the sleep–wake cycle.
Zeitgebers: Stimuli which can reset the circadian clock and circadian rhythms. These
usually come in the form of changing light.

KEY STUDY

The suprachiasmatic nucleus and circadian rhythms

Silver, LeSauter, Tresco and Lehman (1996) identified that surgical removal of the SCN
of hamsters eradicated their circadian rhythms, suggesting that this structure may be the
locus of the circadian clock. Furthermore, when SCN tissue was transplanted into the
hamsters’ third ventricles using small semi-permeable capsules, the circadian rhythms
recommenced. However, the notable issue with this finding is that while chemicals and
nutrients could pass through the capsule to replenish the SCN tissue, the tissue itself was
not able to establish synaptic connections to the surrounding tissue due to the nature
of the capsules. This suggests that the SCN may control circadian rhythms through
chemicals rather than electrical signals although the nature of these chemicals is yet to
be determined.

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 Biological correlates of sleep and dreaming

Cerebral structures controlling drowsiness and

slow-wave sleep
There are two main regions in the brain which appear to control slow-wave sleep.
These are the basal forebrain and the nucleus of the solitary tract (Carlson, 2004).
Researchers have known for a considerable amount of time that destroying the
basal forebrain region produces insomnia, while electrical stimulation of this area
promotes synchronisation of brain waves and drowsiness (Carlson, 2004; Pinel,
2003). As you will remember from the earlier sections, the synchronisation of
brain waves across regions of the brain is an indication of relaxation. In contrast,
stimulation of the nucleus of the solitary tract can also produce synchronised
brain activity and observable sleepiness (Carlson, 2004; Pinel 2003). However,
there are several limitations to this evidence:
MM The majority of research in this area is outdated and the more advanced
techniques we have today may present a different picture.
MM The majority of the evidence concerning regions controlling sleepiness was
conducted using laboratory animals, making it difficult to generalise findings
to humans who appear to have a greater role in determining when they sleep.
MM The evidence presented in support of biological mechanisms controlling slow-
wave sleep actually examines drowsiness and tiredness rather than slow-wave
sleep itself.

Brain regions controlling REM sleep

Research has demonstrated that the following regions may all play an active role
in controlling REM sleep:
MM The locus coeruleus: Exerts an inhibitory influence on REM sleep.
MM Raphe nucleus: Exerts an inhibitory influence on REM sleep.
MM Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPT) of the pons: Promotes REM sleep.
MM Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) of the pons: Promotes REM sleep.
However, it is important to remember that these influences are likely to be
dependent upon the neurotransmitters released by these structures and research
has demonstrated that acetylcholine and catecholamine neurotransmitters
do indeed play a significant role in controlling REM sleep. For example, REM
sleep and the phasic transitions appear to reflect the activity of these regions
and the balance between these respective neurotransmitters (Aston-Jones &
Bloom, 1981; Gottesmann, 2008; Shouse & Siegel, 1992; Silver et al., 1996).
Medications which act as antagonists or agonists of these chemicals also
produce the following effects. The following chemicals are secreted in these
regions and significantly influence REM sleep:
MM Acetylcholine: Released from the pons and stimulates REM sleep and brain
synchronisation.
MM Serotonin: Released from the raphe nucleus and inhibits REM sleep.
MM Nonepinephrine: Released from the locus coeruleus and inhibits REM sleep.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

The start of REM sleep is characterised by a decrease in serotonin and

norepinephrine but also by an increase in acetylcholine.

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the evidence surrounding the biological correlates of sleep

and dreaming.

Further reading The biological aspects of sleep

Topic Key reading
Neurotransmitters Gottesmann, C. (2008). Noradrenaline involvement in basic and
higher integrated REM sleep processes. Progress in Neurobiology,
85(3), 237–272.
Regulation Moore, R. Y. (1997). Circadian rhythms: Basic neurobiology and
clinical applications. Annual Review of Medicine, 48, 253–266.
Hypothalamic control Saper, C. B., Scammell, T., & Lu, J. (2005). Hypothalamic regulation
of sleep and circadian rhythms. Nature, 437, 1257–1263.

Test your knowledge

6.6 What are the main functions of the circadian clock?

6.7 Which regions of the brain may control drowsiness?
6.8 Which regions of the brain may control REM sleep?
6.9 What are the primary roles of neurotransmitters during sleep?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Functions of sleep

Several theories have been proposed to explain the functions of sleep and
dreaming. To help you establish academic debates in your assignments and
exams, those discussed in this text will enable you to revise the biological and
psychological theories of sleep and dreaming.

Biological theories of sleep and dreaming

There are several theories concerning why living creatures need sleep and what
functions it may serve (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). Indeed, as you should be

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 Functions of sleep

aware, if sleep were not required for survival, researchers would have observed
animals which do not require sleep or benefit from it, or suffer consequences
when deprived of sleep. This is not the case, suggesting that sleep is of vital
importance for wellbeing and survival of all animal species. Table 6.1 shows the
main theories concerning the functions of sleep.

Table 6.1 Biological theories concerning the functions of sleep

Theory Description

Evolutionary adaptation The evolutionary or adaptive theories state that sleeping at

night maximises the chance of survival due to incapacitating
individuals during the darkest and most dangerous times of
day when normal activities would be inhibited (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). The main limitations with this perspective include
the redundancy of this in modern society where technology
means we can be active during darker hours, and despite the
drive to sleep, individuals are not passive in this process and
can control when they sleep.

Restorative and reparative The restorative theories of sleep state that sleep is needed to
functions enable the repair of bodily structures, systems and functions.
This includes the endocrine, central and peripheral nervous
systems. For example, Zager, Anderson, Ruiz, Antunes and
Tufik (2007) observed that sleep-deprived rats had 20 per
cent fewer white blood cells than rats which had slept. This
demonstrated a significant difference in the immune system
but may have arisen due to stress rather than sleep deprivation
per se. Growth hormones are released during sleep,
promoting the restoration of bodily structures and functions.
Neurotransmitters may also be replenished during REM sleep
which is discussed in more detail in the final chapter. However,
Horne (1978) reviewed over 50 sleep deprivation studies
and observed that it does not appear to impair the ability
to perform physical activities and does not produce a stress
response. This is significant evidence against the restorative
theories of sleep and dreaming.

Neurobiological functions These theories state that sleep and dreaming serve the
function of promoting and restoring cognitive functions such
as the storage, integration, organisation and processing
of information. For example, the reverse learning theory
proposed that dreams function as a means of sorting the
information encountered during the day and filtering out any
information which is no longer needed. This would conserve
storage (Crick & Mitchison, 1983). However, it is important to
remember that dreams can be incoherent and meaningless.
Another possibility is that sleep has a beneficial effect on
working memory. For example, Turner, Drummond, Salamat
and Brown (2007) also observed that performance on working
memory tests showed a 38 per cent decline in individuals
who were deprived of sleep compared to control subjects.
However, you should remember that these effects may result
from general tiredness rather than processes which occur
during sleep.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

However, it is important to remember that other theories have been presented

concerning the functions of sleep and dreaming which you will need to consider
in any essay on this topic. This is especially the case for the psychological
theories of why we sleep and dream.

KEY STUDY

A sleep deprivation meta-analysis

Horne (1978) reviewed over 50 studies of sleep deprivation and observed that deprivation
does not impair an individual’s ability to perform physical exercise and it does not result
in a stress response. This is counterintuitive to the restorative theories of sleep. However,
Horne (1978) did identify a trend for sleep-deprived individuals to display impaired
cognitive functions (such as perception and attention) and also hallucinations. This may
suggest that sleep serves the function of allowing the brain to rest, recuperate and
facilitate the processing of information.

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate the evolutionary perspective of sleep and dreaming

Psychological theories of dreaming

Several attempts have been made to explain the functions of dreaming,
although most are considerably dated (Carlson, 2004; Crick & Mitchison, 1983;
Freud, 1953; Pinel, 2003; Webb & Cartwright, 1978). These have primarily been
proposed in psychodynamic and cognitive schools of thought and will provide
useful comparisons to those presented by biological psychology. You should
ensure that you are at least aware of these alternative accounts and remember
that the individual does not exist in a vacuum. Hence, there are likely to be both
biological and psychological influences on sleep and dreaming.
MM Sigmund Freud’s ‘Theory of Dreaming’: Freud proposed that dreams reflect
the ‘wish fulfilment’ of repressed thoughts and desires, so were able to give
us access to our own unconscious thoughts and feelings (Freud, 1953). For
example, you should remember that he differentiated between the manifest
content of a dream which is the actual content and a latent content which
is the real meaning hidden inside the symbolism the dream. There is very
little research which supports this perspective and Freudian theory has been
highly criticised for its subjectivity, preoccupation with sexual references and
unreliable methodologies. You should also ensure you know the alternative
views provided by Jung.

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 Functions of sleep

MM The ‘Problem Solving Theory of Dreaming’: Webb and Cartwright (1978)

suggested that dreaming may serve the function of enabling problem solving
through creating unusual situations or analogues in our dreams which allow us
to think more flexibly and solve difficult problems. Indeed, they observed that
if participants slept undisturbed after they were exposed to a problem, they
were significantly better at solving the problem when they woke than those
whose sleep was interrupted.
MM Learning theories: Like the neurobiological theories of sleep and dreaming,
these theories also state that dreaming facilitates the functions of the
cognitive system. These theories may or may not incorporate biological
factors. For example, Winson (2002) argued that new information is cross-
referenced with existing information through dreams to improve cognition
and survival strategies. The limitations of these perspectives include that you
cannot guarantee learning did not occur prior to sleep or that sleep and/or
dreaming were the cause for change in ability.

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast biological and non-biological theories concerning the

functions of sleep and dreaming.

Further reading The functions of sleep

Topic Key reading
Working memory Turner, T. H., Drummond, S. P. A., Salamat J. S., & Brown G. G.
(2007). Effects of 42-hour sleep deprivation on component processes
of verbal working memory. Neuropsychology, 21, 787–795.
Immune system Zager, A., Anderson, M. L., Ruiz, F. S., Antunes, I. B., & Tufik, S.
(2007). Effects of acute and chronic sleep loss on immune modulation
of rats. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Psychology, 293,
504–509.

Test your knowledge

6.10 According to evolutionary theory, what are the functions of sleep?

6.11 Which theories attempt to clarify the biological functions of sleep?
6.12 How do neurobiological theories explain sleep and dreaming?
6.13 How do restorative theories explain sleep and dreaming?
6.14 How do non-biological theories explain sleep and dreaming?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

Sleep deprivation
There are several different ways in which an individual may become sleep
deprived in the absence of a sleep disorder. These include intentional
deprivation in laboratory or similar settings, jet lag and unsociable work
patterns (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005). The effects of sleep deprivation are still
open to debate and you should remember that hundreds of studies have been
conducted in this area with variable results.

Induced sleep deprivation

Researchers often attempt to study the patterns of sleep and sleep deprivation
in controlled laboratory settings where they are able to monitor an individual
and intervene if necessary (Gallo & Eastman, 1993; Gulevich, Dement &
Johnson, 1966; Horne, 1978; Pilcher & Huffcutt, 1996). These studies can
deprive participants of one or all stages of sleep to assess the implications for
normal performance. These studies can be with humans or laboratory animals
and you should be careful when attempting to generalise the findings of one
type of study to other groups. You should also remember that a significant
number of these studies are considerably dated so, while their general
conclusions may be insightful, the measures obtained may be different with
current technologies. As demonstrated in the Key Study box below, several
individuals have chosen to deprive themselves of sleep for other reasons and
scientific insights occurred serendipitously.

KEY STUDY

Sleep debt
Gulevich et al. (1966) reported a study of a boy who stayed awake for 264 hours
to obtain a place in the Guinness Book of Records. Despite this significant sleep
deprivation, the boy only needed to sleep for almost 15 hours the following night
before waking and feeling rested. He slept just over ten hours the subsequent night
and nine hours on the third night demonstrating that 67 hours of lost sleep were never
recovered. However, what was most interesting about this pattern of sleep was that the
percentage of hours recovered was not equal across all of the stages of sleep. There
was also evidence for the ‘REM rebound’ in which more time is spent in REM sleep than
earlier stages of sleep after deprivation:
MM 7 per cent of stage 1–2 sleep
MM 68 per cent of slow-wave sleep
MM 53 per cent of REM sleep.
While the boy did not appear to suffer long-term consequences of sleep deprivation,
he did experience slurred speech, visual impairment and mild paranoia during his time
awake. However, you should remember that there are significant individual differences
in how a person responds to sleep deprivation and there have been reported cases
in which individuals have experienced delusions, hallucinations, severe cognitive
impairment and other psychological difficulties (Belcher & Moorcroft, 2005; Pace-
Schott et al., 2003).

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 Functions of sleep

In regards to research with laboratory animals, several studies have identified

that prolonged sleep deprivation appears to result in sickness, muscle weakness,
disinterest, poor co-ordination, inability to regulate body temperature, high
metabolism and finally death within 33 days (Rechschaffen & Bergmann, 1995;
Rechschaffen, Gilliland, Bergmann & Winter, 1983; Rechschaffen, Bergmann,
Everson, Kushida & Gilliland 1989). However, as a psychology student you
should also remember that animals are put under high degrees of stress in
experiments where they are kept awake indefinitely and this stress may in itself
result in illness or death if prolonged. You should also be thinking of the ethical
issues which arise when conducting this type of research.

Shift work
Individuals who work shifts may suffer several psychological impairments
including in their abilities to concentrate and perform tasks correctly (Gallo &
Eastman, 1993; Nicholson & D’Auria, 1999; Sack & Lewy, 1997). In severe cases
shift-work sleep disorder can also develop, which is characterised by insomnia
and excessive drowsiness if shifts are repeatedly scheduled during normal
sleeping times. Even when rotating shifts, altering the circadian rhythm is difficult
to do without eliciting consequences on the shift worker’s health (Gallo &
Eastman, 1993; Nicholson & D’Auria, 1999; Sack & Lewy 1997). You should also
remember that the pattern of shift work is important if the timetable rotates. For
example, it is easier for the employee to do an early then a late shift than if they
do a late shift followed by an early one.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

You have been asked to provide advice to a company which is considering

changing their employees’ working hours to a shift pattern. What advice
would you provide to maximise the employees’ work output and wellbeing?

Jet lag
Jet lag is a problem which arises when flying long distances into a different
time zone which displaces the circadian clock, resulting in tiredness and the
drive to sleep at what would be the normal time in the original time zone (Cho,
Ennaceur, Cole & Suh, 2000; Reilly, Atkinson & Waterhouse, 1997). The circadian
clock normally runs at 25 hours (rather than 24 hours) meaning that it is easier
to stay awake past the normal time we sleep than to wake up at what feels like
an earlier time. This can result in symptoms of sleep deprivation when travelling
long distances in an eastern direction but few detrimental effects when travelling
in a western direction. Cho et al. (2000) also observed that chronic jet lag (as
experienced by cabin crew) can result in cognitive deficits.

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the claim that sleep deprivation can seriously impair the
ability to function normally.

Further reading Sleep deprivation

Topic Key reading
Shift work Nicholson, P. J., & D’Auria, D. A. (1999). Shift work, health, the
working time regulations and health assessments. Occupational
Medicine, 49(3), 127–137.
Sleep deprivation Pilcher, J. J., & Huffcutt, A. I. (1996). Effects of sleep deprivation on
meta-analysis performance: A meta-analysis. Sleep, 19(4), 318–326.
Jet lag and ability Reilly, T., Atkinson, G., & Waterhouse, J. (1997). Travel fatigue and
jet-lag. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15(3), 365–369.
Shift work Sack, R. L. & Lewy, A. J. (1997). Melatonin as a chronobiotic:
Treatment of circadian desynchrony in night workers and the blind.
Journal of Biological Rhythms, 12(6), 595–603

Sleep disorders

There are numerous forms of sleep disorders and a selection of these is

presented in Table 6.2 to direct your revision. It is important to remember that
sleep disorders form a broad category which includes all abnormal patterns
of sleep-related behaviour. You should be able to clearly differentiate and
discuss each of these conditions with reference to examples from the literature.
Definitions for these conditions can also be found in the Glossary at the end of
this book.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent does the study of sleep disorders inform the understanding
of the normal mechanisms, processes and functions of sleep?

114
 Sleep disorders

Table 6.2 Common sleep disorders

Condition Description

Insomnia This condition is characterised by the difficulty in falling asleep or only

sleeping for brief intervals of time. However, you should remember that
there are a substantial number of individual differences in regards to
the time and quality of sleep experienced by all individuals. Insomnia
is typically treated with medication, including valium and librium. Other
techniques include relaxation, meditation, diet changes and alterations
to the evening routine.
Sleep apnoea Sleep apnoea refers to the condition in which individuals temporarily
cease breathing while asleep. The individual is awoken due to the
building levels of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream but quite often
will not know this has happened. The condition may be caused by the
malfunction of the central nervous system or obstruction of the airways.
Narcolepsy Narcolepsy refers to the condition in which individuals are unable to
control their sleep pattern, suffer from excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS),
fall asleep at inappropriate times or in inappropriate places and enter
REM sleep after only ten minutes. As such it is a distressing and highly
visible condition which can impair normal daily functioning. Individuals
with narcolepsy tend to present with other sleep disorders including
hypnagogic hallucinations in the transition between sleeping and waking.
Cataplexy Cataplexy refers to the sudden loss of muscle tone which can be
anything from slight paralysis of a body part to complete collapse. The
cause of this condition is believed to result from highly emotional states
and treatment usually takes the form of mood stabilisers.
Parasomnias Parasomnias include sleep walking, night terrors and bruxism (each of
which are discussed in more detail below).
Somnambulism Sleep walking is a common phenomenon in which individuals are able
(sleep walking) to unconsciously interact with their environment for a short interval of
time while sleeping. The activity tends to reflect tasks which would be
performed while awake but episodes manifest during slow-wave sleep so
does not reflect dream states.
Pavor nocturnus Night terrors refer to another condition which arises during slow-wave
(night terrors) sleep and is characterised by extreme fear, gasping and often screaming.
It is also important to remember that when an individual experiencing
a night terror wakes they are rarely in a fully conscious state and can
become physically aggressive towards the imagined object of their fear.
Sometimes the individual automatically goes back to sleep without any
conscious recollection of the experience. The causes of this condition
are still open to debate although possible causes include malfunction
of the sleep–wake cycle regulatory mechanisms, genetic predisposition,
emotional distress, tiredness or impaired cognition.
Bruxism Bruxism is a condition in which individuals grind their teeth and clench
their jaw while asleep, potentially resulting in a sore jaw, damaged teeth
and headaches.
t

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6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

Sleep paralysis Sleep paralysis is the condition in which the muscle atonia which
normally occurs during REM sleep actually occurs when going to
sleep (hypnagogic) or waking up (hypnopompic). It can cause states
of extreme panic, and in severe cases it can occur in conjunction with
terrifying hallucinations. However, while it is important to remember that
most individuals will experience this at some point in their lives, others
experience it much more frequently.
Nocturia Nocturia refers to frequent waking due to the need to urinate, which can
result in sleep deprivation. This condition is caused by drinking too much
or due to certain medical conditions.
Enuresis Enuresis refers to persistent bedwetting. However, it does not refer
to childhood bedwetting which is often the result of inexperience in
interpreting physiological cues or inability to wake at appropriate times.
In primary enuresis, bedwetting has not stopped since childhood, while
in secondary enuresis the condition arises after a long period of dryness.
Possible causes of secondary enuresis include emotional distress, while
primary enuresis may arise due to a lack of nocturnal anti-diuretic
hormone or bladder problems.

Further reading Sleep disorders

Topic Key reading
Sleep walking Harris, M., & Grunstein, R. R. (2009). Treatments for somnambulism in
adults: Assessing the evidence. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 13(4), 295–297.
Narcolepsy Kanbayashi, T., Nakamura, M., Shimizu, T., & Nishino, S. (2010).
Symptomatic narcolepsy or hypersomnia, with or without hypocretin
(Orexin) deficiency. Narcolepsy, 2, 135–165.
Pavor nocturnus Nguyen, B. H., Pérusse, D., Paquet, J., Petit, D., Boivin, M.,
Tremblay, R. E., & Montplaisir, J. (2008). Sleep terrors in children: A
prospective study of twins. Pediatrics, 122(6), 1164–1167.
Sleep disorders Petit, D., Touchette, E., Tremblay R. E., Boivin, M., & Montplaisir, J.
in childhood (2007). Dyssomnias and parasomnias in early childhood. Pediatrics,
119(5), 1016–1025.

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

MCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
MAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
MGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

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 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent can research and theorisation in biological psychology

contribute towards our understanding of sleep and dreaming?

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to evaluate the extent to which biological theories
and research techniques have informed our understanding of sleep and
dreaming. As such, it will require that you discuss and critique the theories
concerning biological factors which determine, regulate or arise due to sleep
and dreaming. It will also require that you evaluate the evidence presented in
support and opposition of these theories.

Important points to include

Your essay should begin by summarising the main features of sleep and
dreaming including the respective stages and how these are assessed. It should
also briefly outline the course of your argument including which theories and
evidence you are going to evaluate. You should subsequently describe and
evaluate the theories concerning the biological aspects of sleep and dreaming,
drawing on a range of suitable evidence and critical evaluation. It is important
to remember that the question asks ‘to what extent’, meaning that you can
establish an academic debate by highlighting evidence which has contributed
towards our understanding while also stating when studies have confused the
understanding of sleep and dreaming. Your essay should finally draw conclusions
which are directly related to the question.

Make your answer stand out

To make an essay stand out in the topic of the biological aspects of sleep
and dreaming you need to demonstrate that you have considered a range
of biological and non-biological perspectives. This will demonstrate to your
marker that you have considered the evidence with reference to the broader
literature and that you understand the multiple factors which may influence
sleep and dreaming.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

117
6 • Biological mechanisms of sleep and dreaming

Notes

118
7
Biological aspects of
emotion

Feeling
emotion: the
James–Lange
theory
The
biology
of fear

The
Biological
biology of
aspects of
anger and
emotion
aggression

Hormones
and
emotion

Communication
of emotion

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

119
7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Introduction

This chapter will aid your revision of the biological factors associated with
emotional experiences and expressions. You should already remember that
emotion can be defined as a positive or negative feeling in response to an
internal or external stimulus which is characterised by physiological changes
and species-typical behaviour (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). There are also
three distinct and interacting components of emotion which will be discussed
in this chapter. These are the behavioural, autonomic and hormonal aspects
of emotional states. In particular, this chapter focuses on the biological
factors associated with states such as fear and anger. These are the most
studied emotional states in biological psychology because they can be clearly
differentiated from baseline measures and have the clearest evolutionary origins
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). In contrast, positive emotions are considerably
harder to define and measure as they are less pronounced, and these states tend
to be studied in other areas such as social psychology. This chapter also reviews
the biological factors associated with the expression of emotions and revisits the
theme of hormonal influences on behaviour which were previously covered in
Chapter 3. You should also remember that the content of Chapters 1–3 is also
relevant to this topic because emotion relies heavily on the CNS, PNS, endocrine
system and approaches in biological psychology. More extreme, maladaptive
states are considered in Chapter 9. However, again you should remember that
cognition, social influences and individual differences exert significant influences
on the experience and expression of emotion and you should read around the
topic to acquire a comprehensive understanding of emotion.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PP What emotions are
PP What the physiological processes associated with emotion are
PP Which cerebral structures facilitate or respond to emotion
PP How emotion has been assessed in biological psychology
PP How emotions are communicated

Key terms
Emotion: A positive or negative feeling in response to an internal or external stimulus
which is characterised by physiological changes and species-typical behaviour.

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 Feeling emotion: the James–Lange theory

Assessment advice
Essay questions on the topic of emotion will usually ask you to compare, contrast
and evaluate two different approaches to studying emotion or to evaluate
theoretical perspectives. This may include discussions of neuropsychology,
physiological psychology, cognitive neuroscience, pharmacology, cognitive
psychology, social psychology and the James–Lange theory. This means that
you will need to acquire a broad understanding of the topic. Most essays will
also expect you to discuss how these approaches or theories explain two or
more emotional states using examples from the literature. For example, you
would need to discuss whether one approach explains more about an emotional
state than others, whether each approach provides a complementary level of
analysis or contradicts another and whether there are significant methodological
issues with any of the approaches. It is also vital that you adopt a critical and
evidence-based view which reviews all of the approaches and evidence included
in your response. Remember that your essays should also have an ‘hour-glassed’
structure. This means that the essay should start as a broad introduction which
narrows down to the specific issues and points in the middle of the essay and
then builds on your argument until you reach your conclusion.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast two biological approaches to studying human emotion.

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Feeling emotion: the James–Lange theory

Proponents of the widely endorsed James–Lange theory of emotion argue

that emotional behaviour and physiological responses are directly elicited by
situations and that ‘feelings’ are the result of feedback from these behavioural
and physiological responses (Carlson, 2004; D’Hondt et al., 2010; Mauss &
Robinson, 2009; Oatley, Keltner & Jenkins, 2006; Russell, 2003). This means that
according to this theory, individuals are self-observers who base their emotional

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

states on behavioural and physiological cues rather than the alternative view that
emotional states cause behavioural and physiological changes (Carlson, 2004;
Oatley et al., 2006). This may be difficult to understand, but if you consider
the number of times you have found yourself to be happy, sad, angry, stressed
or anxious without knowing the cause you may be able to appreciate this
perspective. You may have also found yourself crying in a situation where you
cannot understand why you have been affected although your mood may have
consequently changed (Carlson, 2004). Interestingly, the physiological feedback
from facial expressions does appear to alter the activity of the autonomic
nervous system (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006). The following Key Study will
help you to understand this phenomenon.

KEY STUDY

Physiological responses to behavioural cues

You will probably be aware that Levenson, Ekman and Friesen (1990) provided
participants with step-by-step instructions on how to perform a facial expression without
informing them of the expression they would eventually be expressing. They discovered
that these artificial expressions produced the expected activity in the autonomic nervous
system even though mood was not altered. This means that despite participants not
being in states such as anxiety, happiness, fear or sadness, unknowingly displaying
the facial expression appeared to produce physiological responses associated with the
emotional state (Carlson, 2004; D’Hondt et al., 2010; Lewis, 2011; Russell, 2003).

Therefore, based on these findings and consistent with the James–Lange theory,
physiological feedback from the behavioural components of emotion did appear
to inform emotional states. However, it is vital that you consider both sides of
this argument and it is equally possible that causation works in the opposite
direction or that both are possible (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel,
2003). For example, the participants may have guessed which expression they
were meant to portray and induced a suitable, temporary mood-state to help
them to express this emotion. They may have already been in the mood-state
and there is nothing to say that the components of emotion have causal rather
than correlational effects (Oatley et al., 2006; Mauss & Robinson, 2009; Russell,
2003). It is also significant that this is based on anecdotal evidence and artificial
laboratory experiments. Performance may be different in more naturalistic
settings.

Key term
James–Lange theory: A theory in which emotional behaviour and physiological
responses are directly elicited by situations and that ‘feelings’ are the result of
feedback from these behavioural and physiological responses.

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 The biology of fear

? Sample question Essay

To what extent is the James–Lange theory supported by research in biological

psychology?

Further reading Feeling emotion

Topic Key reading
Psychophysiology Critchley, H. D. (2009). Psychophysiology of neural, cognitive and
of emotion affective integration: fMRI and autonomic indicants. International
Journal of Psychophysiology, 73(2), 88–94.
Mind–body links D’Hondt, F., Lassonde, M., Collignon, O., Dubarry, A., Robert, M.,
in emotion Rigoulot, S., Honoré, J., Lepore, F., & Sequeira, H. (2010). Early brain–
body impact of emotional arousal. Human Neuroscience, 4, 1–10.
Introduction to Oatley, K., Keltner, D. and Jenkins, J. M. (2006). Understanding
emotion emotions (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Test your knowledge

7.1 What are the three components of emotion?

7.2 Which components produce feedback according to the James–Lange
theory?
7.3 What produces emotions according to the James–Lange theory?
7.4 How do artificial facial expressions of emotion influence the ANS?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The biology of fear

Fear is experienced in response to threatening and dangerous situations and

stimuli in which the stress response of ‘fight-or-flight’ (discussed previously)
would usually be beneficial for survival (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). It is
characterised by action readiness, increased heart rate, palpitations, fast
breathing and hypervigilance among other experiences. This should also
remind you that the negative emotions of fear, anxiety, stress and anger are
closely linked and often co-occur making these processes transferable (Oatley
et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003). However, several physiological responses associated
with fear were covered in more detail in the discussion of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the peripheral nervous system in Chapter 2. To

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

refresh your memory of the complete system and these physiological responses,
consult Figure 2.3 in Chapter 2. This section will primarily discuss the cerebral
structures associated with the fear response to expand your revision of this topic.
You will probably already be aware that the amygdala is one of the most
significant cerebral structures in the fear response and shows significantly
increased levels of activation in response to threat (Carlson, 2004; Phelps et
al., 2001). This structure has also been associated with the perception of pain
and the processing of potentially harmful stimuli, demonstrating its importance
for fight-or-flight and survival (Carlson, 2004; Phelps et al., 2001; Pinel, 2003).
However, the amygdala can be divided into several regions which serve different
functions and pathways during the fear response (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
Firstly, the medial nucleus receives sensory information and relays these signals
to the medial basal forebrain and the hypothalamus. Secondly, the lateral nucleus
receives sensory information from the neocortex, thalamus and hippocampus
and projects these signals to the basal, accessory basal and central nucleus
regions. Finally, the central nucleus receives information from various regions and
transmits these signals to numerous cerebral regions including the hypothalamus,
midbrain, pons and medulla. The central nucleus and associated structures
are vital for the expression of all three components of emotion (behavioural,
autonomic and hormonal). If the central nucleus is damaged, animals (including
humans) are no longer able to show the fear or startle responses, they tend
to behave tamely and in the case of humans do not show the usual effects
of emotion on memory such as the formation of emotionally driven flashbulb
memories and mood-state dependent memory (Carlson, 2004). However, while
they show lower levels of stress they are also more likely to be harmed by their
environment through lack of fear (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). In contrast, if the
central nucleus is electrically stimulated, animals show fear, aggression, arousal
and agitation, making them more confrontational and more likely to both harm
and be harmed by others in the environment (Carlson, 2004). This demonstrates
the importance of the balance in this structure for facilitating survival.
However, you should remember that the amygdala transmits signals to several
other regions of the brain which are also associated with the fear response.
These include:
MP Lateral hypothalamus: Involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous
system. Increases heart rate, blood pressure and paleness.
MP Dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus: Involved in the activation of the
parasympathetic nervous system. Associated with the formation of ulcers,
urination and defecations.
MP Parabrachial nucleus: Increases respiration.
MP Ventral tegmental area: Involved in the regulation and release of dopamine
and promotes behavioural arousal.
MP Locus coeruleus: Involved in regulation and release of norepinephrine and
promotes vigilance.

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 The biology of fear

MP Dorsal lateral tegmental nucleus: Involved in the regulation and release of

acetylcholine and cortical activation.
MP Nucleus reticular ponis caudalis: Involved in the augmented startle response.
MP Periaqueductal grey matter: Involved in behavioural arrest (freezing).
MP Trigeminal facial motor nucleus: Involved in the facial expression of fear.
MP Paraventricular nucleus: Involved in the regulation and release of ACTH and
glucocorticoid.
MP Nucleus basalis: Involved in cortical activation.
This should remind you that the fear response is a complex emotion which
relies heavily on the central and peripheral nervous system in addition to a
range of neurotransmitters (Chan et al., 2011; Phelps et al., 2001; Sotres-
Bayon & Quirk, 2011). The amygdala also has an unusually high concentration
of benzodiazepine receptors and the central nucleus in particular has a high
concentration of opiate receptors (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). This suggests that
anti-anxiety medications exert their influence here by blocking these receptors
and preventing the initiation of the fear response (Carlson, 2004).

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the insights into fear which have been provided by biological
psychology.

Further reading The biology of fear

Topic Key reading
Prefrontal cortex Chan, T., Kyere, K., Davis, B. R., Shemyakin, A., Kabitzke, P. A.,
mediation Shair, H. N., Barr, G. A., & Wiedenmayer, C. P. (2011). The role of the
medial prefrontal cortex in innate fear regulation in infants, juveniles and
adolescents. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(13), 4991–4999.
Behaviourism Kindt, M., Soeter, M., & Vervliet, B. (2009). Beyond extinction: Erasing
approach human fear responses and preventing the return of fear. Nature
Neuroscience, 12(3), 256–258.
Prefrontal cortex Sotres-Bayon, F. & Quirk, G. (2011). Prefrontal control of fear: More than
mediation just extinction. Current Opinions in Neurobiology, 20(2), 231–235.

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Test your knowledge

7.5 Which area of the amygdala relays signals to the basal medial forebrain?
7.6 Which area of the amygdala relays signals to the thalamus and
hippocampus?
7.7 What functions are served by the lateral hypothalamus in the fear
response?
7.8 Which types of receptors have unusually high concentrations in the
amygdala?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

The biology of anger and aggression

Anger and aggression are observed in nearly every animal species and appear
to have neural, physiological and genetic mediators (Carver & Harmon-Jones,
2009; Huer & Kravitz, 2010; Potegal, Stemmler & Spielberger, 2010). Anger can
also occur in conjunction with fear and anxiety but exists as an emotional state in
its own right (Carver & Harmon-Jones, 2009). However, the expression of anger
and aggression is species-typical and may consist of threat behaviours, defensive
behaviours and submissive behaviours (Carlson, 2004). Typically, threatening
displays outweigh actual attacks and some form of agreement is reached prior
to physical violence. Some species also show predation in which stalking and
aggression are exhibited towards members of another species. However, this is
the means of acquiring food and is usually a product of necessity rather than a
display of anger (Carlson, 2004; Potegal et al., 2010).
You should remember that the physical expression of anger and aggression
appears to be restricted by the biological constraints of the species, their neural
circuits, the hypothalamus, amygdala and by the overall limbic system which
receives sensory information (Huer & Kravitz, 2010; Potegal et al., 2010). For
example, predatory and defensive behaviours can be induced through the
stimulation of the periaqueductal grey matter, amygdala and hypothalamus
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). It is also significant that increasing the activity of
serotonergic synapses of rats inhibits anger and aggression, while damaging the
serotonergic axons in their brains elicits anger and aggression (Carlson, 2004;
Vergnes, Depaulis, Boehrer & Kempf 1988). Similar effects of serotonin have
also been observed in species, even to the extent of predicting their survival
(Bouwknecht et al., 2001; Carlson, 2004).

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 The biology of anger and aggression

For example, animals with high levels of serotonin tend to be less aggressive
and less confrontational meaning that they are more likely to survive (Carlson,
2004; Pinel, 2003). However, you should already be thinking critically and be
considering whether these findings can be generalised to humans who live in
potentially more constrained societies. Interestingly, this is a false assumption
and serotonin does appear to mediate human anger and aggression in a similar
way to that of other animals (Bouwknecht et al., 2001; Carlson, 2004; Carver
& Harmon-Jones, 2009; Huber & Kravitz, 2010; Pinel, 2003; Potegal et al.,
2010). You will already know that increasing serotonin levels through the use of
agonists such as Prozac reduces irritability, aggression, impulsive behaviours,
anxiety and depression (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003). This
suggests that serotonin serves a significant inhibitory effect for anger and
aggression in most species.
However, most of us are able to control how we express anger in most situations
because we are also guided by social norms, morality, cognition, reason and
signals from other cerebral structures. Most importantly, the recognition of
the emotional significance of situations, regulation of emotional expression,
rationality and control of arousal are some of the main functions of the prefrontal
cortex (Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel & Damasio, 1999; Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003; Potegal et al., 2010). The orbitofrontal cortex in particular receives
information from the dorsal medial thalamus, temporal cortex, ventral tegmental
area and amygdala. This structure acts as an interface between automatic
emotional responses and the control of more complex behaviours so is able
to regulate emotional expression (Carlson, 2004; Huber & Kravitz, 2010; Pinel,
2003; Potegal et al., 2010). In addition, lesions or deficits in the prefrontal cortex
can result in poor moral judgement, insensitivity to consequences of one’s own
actions, anti-social behaviour and aggression (Anderson et al., 1999; Carlson,
2004; Pinel, 2003; Raine et al., 2002).

? Sample question Essay

To what extent are the experience and expression of anger dependent upon
biological factors?

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Further reading The biology of anger and aggression

Topic Key reading
Anger, anxiety Carver, C. S. & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related
and fear affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 183–204.
Aggression Huber, R. & Kravitz, E. A. (2010). Aggression: Towards an integration of
gene, brain and behaviour. In T. Székely, A. J Moore, and J. Komdeur
(eds.). Social Behaviour: Genes, Ecology and Evolution (pp.165–180).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Anger Potegal, M., Stemmler, G., & Spielberger, C. (Eds.) (2010). International
handbook of anger: Constituent and concomitant biological,
psychological and social processes. New York: Springer.
Prefrontal cortex Raine, A., Meloy, J. R., Bihrle, S., Stoddard, J., LeCasse, L., & Colletti, P.
(2002). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic
activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives in General Psychiatry,
57(2), 119–127.

Test your knowledge

7.9 How does serotonin relate to the level of anger and aggression?
7.10 What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in anger and aggression?
7.11 What are species-typical behaviours?
7.12 What would a low level of serotonin produce?
7.13 What can lesions to the prefrontal cortex produce?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Hormones and emotion

The effects of hormones on behaviour were discussed in more detail in Chapter

3 and you can refresh your memory of this topic by re-reading this chapter. Most
importantly, you should remember that there are few established arguments
for causal effects of hormones in human emotional behaviour and experience
(Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006). In addition, you should remember that
most of the research surrounding hormonal influences on behaviour and
experience has been conducted with non-human animals and has been primarily
concerned with aggression and physiological stress (covered in Chapter 9) in
laboratory conditions, making it difficult to generalise these results to humans.
Nevertheless, you should remember that fear, stress and anxiety are often
experienced at the same time and stress hormones are able to alter neural
structures which are associated with emotion (Rodrigues, LeDoux & Sapolsky,

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 Hormones and emotion

2009). This can make people more susceptible to these emotions as the neural
circuits become sensitive to lower thresholds through repeated activation
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
In regards to anger and aggression, it is interesting that androgens are released
prenatally but then decline until puberty when the levels of these hormones
significantly increase. It is also in this period that increased irritability, anger,
sadness, anxiety and aggression are often observed in most species including
humans (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003). Early exposure to
androgens also has a lasting effect in that it configures neural pathways to be
more responsive to testosterone which facilitates aggression in most species
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). In regards to humans, you will already be aware that
boys tend to be more assertive and aggressive than girls. As aggression in every
other species is mediated by androgens it would be parsimonious to assume
that hormones also influence human anger and aggression (Carlson, 2004;
Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003; Potegal et al., 2010).
However, you should keep in mind that socialisation and the adoption of gender
roles is likely to play a large role in determining the expression of emotion in
humans (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003; Potegal et al., 2010). It is also difficult to
assess the effects of hormones on human emotional experience and expression
because it would be unethical to alter levels of hormones for any significant
amount of time and studies would not be able to isolate the effects of hormones
from those of other factors, meaning that cause and effect could not be inferred.

? Sample question Essay

Using your broader understanding of biological psychology, critically discuss

the claim that hormones do not predispose the experience and expression
of emotion in humans.

Further reading The effects of hormones on behaviour and experience

Topic Key reading
Hormones in Adkins-Regan, E. (2009). Under the influence of hormones. Science,
interactions 324(5931), 1145–1146.
Stress Ranabir, S. & Reetu, K. (2011). Stress and hormones. Indian Journal of
Endocrinology and Metabolism, 15(1), 18–22.
Stress, fear and Rodrigues, S. M., LeDoux, J. E., & Sapolsky, R. M. (2009). The influence
hormones of stress hormones on fear circuitry. Annual Review of Neuroscience,
32(1), 289–313.
Stress Yehuda, R. (2001). Biology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of
Clinical Psychiatry, 62(17), 41–46.

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Test your knowledge

7.14 What role do androgens serve in emotion in non-human animals?

7.15 How do androgens alter neural pathways?
7.16 Why is it difficult to assess the effects of hormones on human
emotional experience?
7.17 Can an individual experience several emotions at the same time?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Communication of emotion

The expression of emotion is one of the most common human behaviours and,
although it is often unconscious and unintentional, some aspects of emotional
expression can be produced voluntarily. For examples, humans express emotion
through facial expressions, touch, gestures and language (Carlson, 2004;
Hertenstein, Holmes, McCullough & Keltner, 2009; Lewis, 2011). Other animals
are also able to communicate their emotions using pheromones, which were
discussed previously. You may already know that the expression of emotion
may have served evolutionary functions of promoting closeness through love,
affection and happiness and promoting survival through anger, aggression and
fear (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). Several findings appear to support this claim:
MP Infants actively seek, observe and imitate emotional expressions of those
around them from very shortly after birth (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
MP Matsumoto and Willingham (2009) have observed spontaneous emotional
facial expression in blind individuals despite the lack of visual cues for the
behaviours (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006).
MP The communication and recognition of core emotional expressions appears
to be consistent across cultures despite different cultural exposure, although
there are variations in the display rules for which emotions are socially
acceptable in a culture (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006).
This suggests that the motivation to seek, learn and communicate emotion may
be pre-programmed into the human genome and supports Darwin’s theory
that emotional expressions are innate, evolved, unlearnt and complex gestures
(Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003). However, it also demonstrates
how these predispositions can be mediated by cognitive and social motivations
(Oatley et al., 2006).
In biological terms, the right hemisphere is more dominant in the expression
and recognition of emotions and this includes both visual and auditory cues
(Carlson, 2004). For example, Blonder, Bowers and Heilman (1991) observed that

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 Communication of emotion

lesions to the right hemisphere impair the recognition of emotional expressions

and gestures but do not impair emotional decisions. However, the correct
functioning of the somatosensory cortex is also required for the recognition
and identification of facial expressions, while the amygdala is involved in the
recognition of threatening and fearful expressions (Carlson, 2004; N’Diaye,
Sander & Vuilleumier, 2009; Oatley et al., 2006; Pinel, 2003). This demonstrates
how several regions of the brain mediate our ability to identify and understand
facial expressions and emotional gestures.
It may help you to understand the biological prerequisites of emotional
expression if you remember that it is exceptionally difficult to fake emotions in a
manner which appears to be genuine (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). For example,
a genuine smile which arises due to happiness also includes the muscles around
the eyes, while an artificial smile cannot recreate this (Carlson, 2004; Oatley et al.,
2006). Interestingly, volitional facial paralysis is a medical condition which arises
due to damage to the facial region of the primary motor cortex or associated
nerve fibres. Individuals with this condition are unable to voluntarily move their
facial muscles to express an emotion but they are able to express genuine facial
expressions (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). In contrast, damage to the insular region
of the prefrontal cortex, white matter of the frontal lobe or parts of the thalamus
can impair the ability to express genuine emotions while patients remain able to
voluntarily move their facial muscles to form artificial expressions (Carlson, 2004;
Pinel, 2003). This demonstrates how different genuine and artificial expressions
are and how important the central and peripheral nervous systems are in our
ability to express emotions.

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the claim that the communication of emotion is innate and
relies purely on biological factors.

Further reading The communication of emotion

Topic Key reading
Touch Hertenstein, M. J., Holmes, R., McCullough, M., & Keltner, D. (2009).
The communication of emotion via touch. Emotion, 9(4), 566–573.
States and Lewis, M. (2011). Inside and outside: The relation between emotional
expressions states and expressions. Emotion Review, 3(2), 189–196.
Facial expressions Matsumoto, D. & Willingham, B. (2009). Spontaneous facial
expressions of emotion of congenitally and noncongenitally blind
individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 1–10.
The amygdala N’Diaye, K., Sander, D., & Vuilleumier, P. (2009). Self-relevance
processing in the human amygdala: Gaze direction, facial expression,
and emotional intensity. Emotion, 9(6), 798–806.

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Test your knowledge

7.18 How can emotions be communicated?

7.19 How did Darwin believe emotional expressions originated?
7.20 What insights into the communication of emotion have been provided
by cross-cultural studies?
7.21 Which hemisphere is more influential in the recognition of emotion?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast two biological approaches to studying human emotion.

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to apply your understanding of human emotion
and two different approaches in biological psychology to discuss how these
approaches present similar or different interpretations. This can include any of
the approaches described in Chapter 1 and any emotional state. You will also
need to critically evaluate these perspectives.

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 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Important points to include

Your response to the question should begin with a brief introduction which
informs the marker of the emotional states and approaches you will discuss,
compare, contrast and evaluate in your essay. You will also need to define these
and provide an indication of how you will answer the question. The main section
of your essay should apply the two approaches you have chosen to discuss the
emotional states, drawing heavily on examples and insights provided by these
perspectives in the literature. You should also remember to establish a balance
between description and evaluation. For example, you cannot only describe the
approaches and their techniques; you must also compare, contrast and evaluate
them. This may mean identifying where one approach provides a better insight,
if there are methodological limitations and whether the two approaches can be
combined to enhance the understanding of human emotion. Your essay should
end with a clear, coherent and evidence-based conclusion which summarises
your response to the question and highlights your main points.

Make your answer stand out

To make an answer stand out on this topic you need to demonstrate that
you have a broad understanding of approaches and research in psychology
and that you are able to synthesise this information into a coherent academic
debate. This means that you will need to incorporate a wide variety of evidence
from appropriate sources and critically evaluate the information, approaches,
techniques and theories you include in your response.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

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7 • Biological aspects of emotion

Notes

134
8 The biology of learning
and memory

What are
learning and
memory?

Where are
memories
stored in
the brain?

The biology
of learning
and memory

Examples in
neuropsychology

Limitations of
neuropsychology

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

135
8 • The biology of learning and memory

Introduction

This chapter will aid your revision of the theories and biological aspects of learning
and memory. It will discuss some of the insights which have been gained from
approaches such as neuropsychology, neuroscience and physiological psychology.
You should already have a good understanding of these approaches from previous
chapters. More specifically, it will allow you to revise some of the biological
structures and mechanisms which facilitate, contribute towards or arise during
normal and impaired learning and memory processes. However, as you will already
be aware, there are strong interdisciplinary links with topics such as cognitive
psychology. This chapter is directed towards providing a review of the more
applied aspects of this topic due to the focus on biological factors and you should
consult Cognitive Psychology (Jonathan Ling and Jonathan Catling) in this series
for alternative approaches to studying memory and learning.

 Revision checklist

Essential points to revise are:

PM What memory and learning are
PM Which theories contribute towards understanding memory and learning
PM Which biological factors are involved in memory and learning
PM What insights have been provided by case studies and experiments

Assessment advice
Essay questions in this area will usually ask you to discuss which biological
factors have been associated with human memory or to evaluate the
contributions of an approach such as neuropsychology or neuroimaging towards
an understanding of memory and learning. Important aspects to remember
when writing essays in this area include:
MM Provide a clear introduction which summarises the evidence and arguments
you will discuss. This includes informing the marker of the perspective you
intend to adopt and demonstrating that you have understood the question.
MM Summarise the theories and the evidence in a coherent, well-informed and
critical manner. This means explicitly comparing and contrasting perspectives
and alternative evidence and drawing conclusions concerning the validity and
reliability of these factors.
MM Your essay should demonstrate a balance between description and evaluation.
It is not enough to only include descriptions of research and theories while
not evaluating these influences. At the same time, it is not enough to write
critically while neglecting the details of the research and theories.

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 What are learning and memory?

MM Your essays should be evidence-based and directed towards individuals with

no knowledge of the subject. You will need to define any technical terms,
techniques, equipment or structures you discuss in your essays.
MM Draw conclusions based on your review of the evidence. Conclusions should
follow the argument you have adopted in your essay and should never stand
alone from or contradict the rest of the essay.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could arise
on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

To what extent have case studies in neuropsychology contributed towards

the understanding of human learning and memory?

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

What are learning and memory?

You should already know that learning refers to how experiences of the world
change the structure and activity of neural networks within the brain (Carlson,
2004). In contrast, memory refers to how these changes are stored and how
the information is subsequently reactivated during the retrieval of memories
(Henke, 2010). However, it is important for you to know that memory can also
be subdivided in several different ways. These terms are defined in the Glossary
and include:
MM Short-term memory: Information which is held in consciousness for a brief
amount of time, usually through immediate and continuous rehearsal (Baddeley,
Eysenck & Anderson, 2009). This includes iconic memory and echoic memory.
MM Long-term memory: Information which is stored in the brain for a long period
of time and retrieved at a later date despite lacking continuing rehearsal
in the interval between encoding, storage and retrieval (Baddeley et al.,
2009). These memories can be elaborated over time as new information is
encountered and processed.
MM Implicit/procedural memory: Knowledge which is not easily vocalised;
this includes procedural knowledge such as how to ride a bike and most
information which is not declarative (Henke, 2010; Voss & Paller, 2008).

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

MM Explicit/declarative memory: Knowledge which is easily vocalised, including

knowledge about oneself and the world. Includes semantic, autobiographical
and episodic memory (Henke, 2010; Voss & Paller, 2008).
MM Semantic memory: Knowledge about categories, objects, concepts and
meanings (Baddeley et al., 2009).
MM Autobiographical memory: Memory for events, experiences and personal
information from one’s own life (Carlson, 2004).
MM Episodic memory: Memory for specific events, including times, places and
emotions experienced during the event.
MM Prospective memory: Remembering to perform a planned action at the
intended time (Einstein & McDaniels, 2005).
MM Working memory: Manipulation and use of information in short-term memory
(Baddeley, 2007; Smith, 2000).

Key terms
Echoic memory: Short-term memory for information in the auditory field.
Iconic memory: Short-term memory for information in the visual field.
Learning: Learning is concerned with the process in which our experiences of the
environment change the pattern and structure of activation in brain.
Memory: How the changes in the brain experienced during learning are stored
and subsequently reactivated during the retrieval of information. Memory has been
subdivided into various forms including autobiographical, semantic, episodic, implicit,
explicit and prospective memory.

? Sample question Essay

To what extent is procedural knowledge different from declarative knowledge?

The processes involved in memory are encoding, storage, retrieval, rehearsal,

long-term potentiation and consolidation (Baddeley et al., 2009).
MM Encoding: How information is converted into physiological signals which
change the connections and pattern of activation in the brain.
MM Storage: How information is stored in the brain as connections between
neural networks and their respective patterns of activation.
MM Retrieval: The reactivation of neural networks and the information contained
within them.
MM Rehearsal: A process which can result in the transition of a memory from a
short-term to a long-term memory. Maintenance rehearsal is when individuals
rehearse the original information and elaborative rehearsal is when the
individual adds to the existing memory.

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 Where are memories stored in the brain?

MM Long-term potentiation: When pre- and post-synaptic neurons are

activated simultaneously upon exposure to a stimulus (Carlson, 2004;
Wixted, 2004). This enhances the transmission of both action potentials and
neurotransmitters, facilitating learning by altering the connections between
neurons and lowering their activation thresholds.
MM Consolidation: The physiological process by which a memory becomes
gradually more resilient to forgetting and interference with time, repeated
activation of neurons, rehearsal and entrenchment in the brain (Wixted, 2004).

Further reading The distinctions of memory

Topic Key reading
Working memory Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought and action. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Memory Baddeley, A. D., Eysenck, M., & Anderson, M. C. (2009). Memory.
Hove: Psychology Press.
Hippocampus and Henke, K. (2010). A model for memory systems based on processing
associative learning modes rather than consciousness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11,
523–532.
Implicit and Voss, J. L., & Paller, K. A. (2008). Brain substrates of implicit and
explicit memory explicit memory: The importance of concurrently acquired neural
signals of both memory types. Neuropsychologia, 46(13), 3021–3029.

Test your knowledge

8.1 Which type of memory is concerned with categories and meanings?

8.2 What types of knowledge are included in explicit memory?
8.3 How do semantic and episodic memories differ?
8.4 What are consolidation and rehearsal?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Where are memories stored in the brain?

It is generally agreed in biological psychology that memories are stored diffusely

in the cerebral structures which were involved in their acquisition (Baddeley et
al., 2009; Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). You should remember from the earlier
chapters that different areas of the brain are believed to specialise in the
processing of different types of information. Therefore, it stands to reason that
different types of memories would be stored in the neural pathways of different

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

areas of the brain. However, you should always remember that this doesn’t
discount the possibility that other areas of the brain are also involved in these
forms of processing (Cohen, Johnstone & Plunkett, 2002). The following bullet
points should refresh your memory concerning some of the areas which have
been associated with certain forms of memory:
MM Hippocampus: Associative memory and knowledge concerning the
relationship between objects and places (Henke, 2010).
MM Rhinal cortex: Object recognition memory (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003).
MM Inferotemporal cortex: The secondary sensory cortex located in this area has
been associated with the storage and processing of sensory memories, while
the broader inferotemporal cortex is associated with visual perception of
objects and the storage of visual patterns (Naya, Yoshida & Miyashita, 2001).
MM Amygdala: Associated with the encoding and storage of emotional memories
and startle responses (Carlson, 2004).
MM Prefrontal cortex: Associated with procedural knowledge, working memory
and remembering the sequences of events (Smith, 2000).
MM Cerebellum: Associated with the processing and storage of implicit memories
and sensorimotor skills (Salmon & Butters, 1995).
MM Striatum: Associated with habit learning and the processing and storage
of memories concerning the relationship between stimuli and responses
(Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003; Salmon & Butters, 1995).
However, it is also important for you to understand how memories are stored
in these areas. The simple answer is through the processes which have already
been discussed. Long-term potentiation results in lasting changes to the efficacy
of synaptic transmission, facilitating memory formation and changing the neural
pathways of the structures involved in their acquisition (Carlson, 2004; Pinel,
2003; Salmon & Butters, 1995; Smith, 2000). This means that memories would
not be stored as unified, abstract packages of information; instead they are
the product of various neurons firing at the same time and are stored diffusely
in these connections (Baddeley et al., 2009; Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). It
is also important to remember that the neurotransmitter glutamate and the
corresponding N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors significantly contribute
towards learning and memory (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). This is the main
excitatory system in the brain and the NMDA receptors respond maximally when
these two events occur simultaneously. Two events form the basis of learning
and typically require high-frequency and high-intensity stimulation as observed
during intentional learning:
MM Glutamate binds to the NMDA receptors.
MM The postsynaptic neuron is already partially depolarised (activated) triggering
action potentials and calcium ions which are required for long-term
potentiation.

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 Examples in neuropsychology

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate the claim that memories are stored diffusely in the cerebral
structures which were involved in their acquisition.

Further reading The physical location of memories

Topic Key reading
Inferotemporal cortex Naya, Y., Yoshida, M., and Miyashita, Y. (2001). Backward spreading
of memory-retrieval signals in the primate temporal cortex. Science,
291(5504), 661–664.
Working memory Smith, E. E. (2000). Neural basis of human working memory. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 9(1), 45–49.

Test your knowledge

8.5 Which types of memories are associated with the amygdala?

8.6 Which types of memories are associated with the prefrontal cortex?
8.7 What types of information may be stored in the inferotemporal cortex?
8.8 How might the hippocampus be involved in the storage of memories?
8.9 What are the differences between the information stored in the
cerebellum and striatum?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Examples in neuropsychology

Some of the most prominent and far-reaching contributions towards understanding

the biological basis of learning and memory have been provided by studies of
anterograde and retrograde amnesia in neuropsychology (Carlson, 2004; Cohen
et al., 2002; Pinel, 2003). Anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to learn
and remember information encountered after brain damage, while retrograde
amnesia refers to the inability to retrieve memories which were acquired before
brain damage. This section will refresh your memory concerning some of the case
studies and examples of memory deficits and will provide an overview of some of
the limitations of this approach.

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

Key terms
Anterograde amnesia: Inability to learn and remember information encountered after
brain damage.
Retrograde amnesia: Inability to retrieve memories which were acquired before brain
damage.

Patient H.M.
You will probably already know that the multitudes of studies which have
assessed patient H.M. have arguably provided the most extensive insights into
the biological basis of memory and learning (Baddeley et al., 2009; Pinel, 2003).
H.M. was an intelligent adult who suffered from severe epilepsy with seizures
originating from both temporal lobes. As a result, doctors performed a bilateral
medial temporal lobotomy in which most of the hippocampus, amygdala and
adjacent cortex were removed to reduce the number and severity of seizures. He
initially adjusted well after the surgery, with his intelligence quotient increasing
from 104 to 118, presumably due to the reduction of seizures. H.M.’s memory
for events prior to his surgery was relatively intact but he suffered severe
anterograde amnesia. For example, if he met someone who subsequently left
the room, he could not remember this person when they returned and would
not be able to remember what they had been doing. More specifically, H.M.
was unable to form explicit long-term memories, demonstrating deficits in the
ability to consolidate information. Table 8.1 summarises H.M.’s performance on
several tasks and demonstrates that while he was able to hold a small amount
of information in short-term memory, any distraction, longer interval of time or
exposure to larger amount of information resulted in H.M. being unable to recall
the information.

Table 8.1 H.M.’s impairments according to experimental task

Task Performance

Digit span +1 This tests short-term memory and requires that participants recite a
gradually increasing list of digits. While most people’s performance
improves, H.M. was unable to recall eight digits even after 25 trials.
This suggests that H.M. was unable to hold information in short-term
memory or that he was unable to consolidate the information to form
long-term memories.

Block tapping This tests memory span and requires participants to copy the
experimenter who indicates a sequence of blocks. H.M. was able
to learn the sequence of five blocks but was unable to learn the
sequence of six, even after 12 attempts. This suggests that H.M.
was unable to hold information in short-term memory or that he was
unable to consolidate the information to form long-term memories.
t

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 Examples in neuropsychology

Mirror drawing This is a test of implicit knowledge and requires that participants
learn how to trace an image over the course of several days. H.M.’s
performance improved despite the fact that he couldn’t remember
ever doing the task before, suggesting that sensorimotor skills were
intact despite a lack of declarative knowledge.

Rotary pursuit This is also a test of implicit memory in which participants must learn
to maintain contact between a stylus and a moving target. H.M.’s
performance improved, despite the fact that he couldn’t remember
ever doing the task before, suggesting that sensorimotor skills were
intact despite a lack of declarative knowledge.

Incomplete picture In this task participants must complete a drawing in which contours
have been removed. Again, H.M.’s performance improved even
though he wasn’t aware that he had seen the task before.

Conditioned fear H.M. was able to learn a conditioned blink response, which is another
response form of implicit knowledge. However, this response took longer to
learn than it does with healthy control subjects.

Clive Wearing
Clive Wearing experienced total amnesia after contracting Herpes Simplex
Encephalitis. Clive suffered both severe anterograde amnesia and severe
retrograde amnesia, which significantly impaired his ability to function (Campbell
& Conway, 1995). While he experienced islands of memories, these tended
to lack detail and were often incomplete, although his procedural knowledge
was relatively intact. As such, he was only able to process information in his
immediate consciousness and kept a minute-to-minute diary. He also suffered
mood swings due to the emotional turmoil and confusion caused by the
amnesia. Several documentaries have been made about Clive Wearing and
these are freely available on websites such as YouTube if you wish to see the
extent of his amnesia.

Patient A.C.
Patient A.C. experienced a series of strokes which resulted in severely impaired
perceptual object knowledge while non-perceptual knowledge remained
relatively intact (Coltheart, 2001; Coltheart et al., 1998). For example, A.C.
was able to describe any attribute of a stimuli except its visual properties. This
demonstrates how selective memory impairment can actually be.

Patient K.F.
Patient K.F. suffered damage to his left parieto-occipital region in a motorcycle
accident. While K.F.’s short-term memory was severely impaired, his long-term
memory remained largely unaffected. More specifically, his impairments were
primarily to his auditory–verbal short-term memory in that he was unable to repeat
sequences of digits read to him by experimenters (Shallice & Warrington, 1970).

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

? Sample question Essay

How have studies of patients such as H.M. contributed towards understanding

human memory?

Korsakoff’s patients
Patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome demonstrate sensory deficits, motor
problems, confusion, amnesia, personality changes and have an increased risk
of death from liver, gastrointestinal or heart disease due to alcoholism (Carlson,
2004; Pinel, 2003). Post-mortems reveal lesions to the medial diencephalon
(medial thalamus and medial hypothalamus), neocortex, mammalian bodies and
cerebellum. While amnesia is initially anterograde, as the condition progresses
patients also develop retrograde amnesia.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

You have been asked to present a summary of the risks of alcoholism on

memory. What type of information would you include in your report and
how would you present this information in a suitable format? Prepare a short
summary of your report including some of the evidence you would include.

Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease is initially characterised by a mild deterioration of memory
but progresses to dementia where all cognitive functions are impaired and
quality of life is significantly diminished. There are extensive changes in the brain
including the development of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (Haass,
1999). There is also evidence of atrophy in which the brain significantly reduces
in size and mass (Haass, 1999).

Key terms
Alzheimer’s disease: A medical condition which is associated with amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. It is initially characterised by a mild
deterioration of memory but progresses to dementia where all cognitive functions are
impaired and quality of life is significantly diminished.
Korsakoff’s syndrome: A medical condition produced through alcoholism in
which patients demonstrate sensory deficits, motor problems, confusion, amnesia
and personality changes. Patients also have an increased risk of death from liver,
gastrointestinal or heart disease.

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 Examples in neuropsychology

Concussion
Following a blunt force trauma to the head, individuals sometimes experience
retrograde amnesia for events just before the incident and anterograde amnesia
for a period afterwards (Carlson, 2004; Pinel, 2003). However, the duration and
extent of these deficits are dependent upon the extent of the injury. While
most cases of retrograde amnesia are resolved with time, people rarely recover
memories for things which occurred just before the trauma.

Electroconvulsive shock
Patients who undergo electroconvulsive shock (ECS) for conditions such as
obsessive compulsive disorder and major depression experience a degree of
retrograde amnesia and a period of confusion following the treatment. Most
interestingly, ECS appears to be a useful technique for investigating the time
required for memory consolidation in that longer gradients of retrograde
amnesia would suggest that memory consolidation is a longitudinal process.
This appears to be the case, suggesting that memories become gradually more
resilient to damage and interference (Nadel & Moscovitch, 1997; Pinel, 2003).

Medial temporal amnesia

As you will remember from the discussion of patient H.M., damage to the
medial temporal area can result in severe anterograde amnesia, but this pattern
of impairment is not all-encompassing and there are types of knowledge which
can still be acquired. Several studies with laboratory animals have demonstrated
that bilateral surgical removal of the hippocampus and rhinal cortex can severely
impair object recognition memory. For example, rats demonstrate severe deficits
on the delayed non-matching-to-sample task (see Critical Focus box below) after
damage to the hippocampus which has been linked to memory for relationships
between objects (Mumby, Pinel & Wood, 1989).

CRItICAL FoCus

The Mumby box

The Mumby box was developed by Mumby et al., (1989) in an attempt to test rats’ ability
to perform a delayed non-matching-to-sample task after lesions to the hippocampus. Rats
were used because the location of their hippocampus means that only a small section of
the parietal neocortex would also be damaged during the aspiration (suction) of this area,
whereas in other animals the rhinal cortex would also be damaged.
During the experiment, a rat is placed in the middle of a box partitioned into three
sections. One of the sliding doors is lifted to reveal a sample object which hides a food
source. A trained, intact rat will run to the object and push it aside to obtain the food.
The rat returns to the middle section while the first door is closed and the second door
is lifted. The rat finds an object identical to the sample and a new object at the end of
this section. However, the rat must learn to differentiate these objects and go to the
new object to find the food.
t

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

Rats which have damage to the hippocampus are unable to learn the relationship between
the sample, new object and food source. However, you should remember that human
brain damage is rarely as isolated as this and generalisation is difficult across species.

Spatial memory
You should already know that lesions to the hippocampus have a detrimental
effect on memory for spatial locations and that there are specialised ‘place cells’
in the hippocampus which are only activated when in certain locations (Carlson,
2004; Wilson & McNaughton, 1993). This suggests that this structure may
mediate spatial memory. Indeed, Maguire, Frith, Burgess, Donnett & O’Keefe
(1998) identified that activation of the right hippocampal region was associated
with knowing where places were and navigating towards them. Furthermore,
Maguire et al. (2000) identified that after 20 years’ service, London taxi drivers
had significantly more posterior hippocampal grey matter than usual. However,
it is important to remember that these changes may give rise to better spatial
memory or result from these differences in memory, making it difficult to draw
conclusive arguments concerning the role of the hippocampus in spatial memory.
The current general consensus is that the rhinal cortex is associated with object
recognition while the hippocampus is associated with memories concerning the
spatial relationship between them (Henke, 2010).

? Sample question Essay

Critically evaluate two or more theories concerning the role of the hippocampus
in memory for spatial locations.

Further reading Neuropsychology and memory deficits

Topic Key reading
Benzodiazepines Baracochea, D. (2006). Anterograde and retrograde effects of
and amnesia benzodiazepines on memory. The Scientific World Journal, 6,
1460–1465.
Case studies Campbell, R., & Conway, M. (Eds.). (1995). Broken memories: Case
studies in memory impairment. Oxford: Blackwell.
Alzheimer’s disease Haass, C. (1999). Biology of Alzheimer’s disease. European Archives of
Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249(6), 265.
Spatial memory Maguire, E. A., Burgess, N., Donnett, J. G., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Frith,
C. D., & O’Keefe, L. (2000). Knowing where and getting there: A
human navigation network. Science, 280, 291–924.
Memory Nadel, L., Moscovitch, M. (1997). Memory consolidation,
consolidation retrograde amnesia and the hippocampal complex. Current Opinions
in Neurobiology, 7, 217–227.

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 Limitations of neuropsychology

Test your knowledge

8.10 H.M.’s performance may have been intact for which tasks?
8.11 What tests can be used in neuropsychology to assess specific
impairments?
8.12 Medial temporal lobectomy impairs performance on what task?
8.13 What are the limitations of case studies in neuropsychology?
8.14 Which substance is in short supply in the brains of patients with
Alzheimer’s?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Limitations of neuropsychology

While there are numerous significant insights provided by neuropsychology

into meaning and memory, you should also be aware of the challenges and
limitations encountered with this approach:
MM It is difficult to generalise findings which were gained from individual case
studies to other populations and situations (Bear, Connors & Paradiso,
2007; Cohen et al., 2002; Crawford & Garthwaite, 2002; Gazzaniga, 2003).
Neuropsychology attempts to identify how systems would normally operate
by studying what happens when they are impaired.
MM Baseline measures are not obtained prior to brain damage. It is impossible
to say whether the pattern of impairment is due to brain damage, normal
idiosyncratic behaviours or new compensating strategies (Cohen et al., 2002).
MM Neuropsychology assumes that the brain can be organised into isolated
modules which function independently. However, the brain is highly
interconnected and deficits seen in one area may not be restricted to this
region and may not have even originated in that location (Carlson, 2004).
Deficits may be due to the severing of a pathway rather than damage to a
specific region.
MM Brain damage is rarely restricted to one location; the damage is usually
widespread, making it difficult to link impairments with a specific region
(Cohen et al., 2002).
MM One of the main assumptions of neuropsychology is that certain regions serve
specific functions; however this ignores the issues of plasticity in that neural
functions and pathways can be altered to negotiate deficits in one region. You
should be aware that performance may reflect attempts to reorganise systems
and functions rather than the actual brain damage per se (Cohen et al., 2002;
Holdstock et al., 2008).

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8 • The biology of learning and memory

MM Neuropsychology also marginalises the role of individual differences in

determining the degree of impairment and recovery (Holdstock et al., 2008).
Indeed, how the individual responds to the trauma plays a significant role in
determining their subsequent behaviour and their motivation to recover.

Further reading Spatial memory

Topic Key reading
Neuropsychology Cohen, G., Johnstone, R. A., & Plunkett, K. (Eds.) (2002). Exploring
cognition: Damaged brains and neural networks – Readings in
cognitive neuropsychology and connectionist modelling. Hove:
Psychology Press.
Case studies Crawford, J. R., & Garthwaite, P. H. (2002). Investigation of the single
case in neuropsychology: Confidence limits on the abnormality
of test scores and test score differences. Neuropsychology, 40(8),
1196–1208.
Differential effects Holdstock, J. S., Parslow, D. M., Morris, R. G., Fleminger, S.,
of lesions Abrahams, S., Denby, C., Montaldi, D., & Mayes, A. R. (2008).
Two case studies illustrating how relatively selective hippocampal
lesions in humans can have quite different effects on memory.
Hippocampus, 18, 679–691.

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

MCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
MAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
MGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

To what extent have case studies in neuropsychology contributed towards

the understanding of human learning and memory?

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 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to evaluate the methodologies, insights, strengths
and limitations of evidence provided by studies of individuals with brain damage
or other cognitive impairments.

Important points to include

Your essay should begin with a clear and concise summary of the arguments,
evidence and interpretations you will discuss in your response to the question.
Important things to consider include:
MM A description of what neuropsychology is, including its assumptions,
methodologies and participants. This should especially highlight the use
of multiple methods in case studies, including experiments, observations,
interviews and neuroimaging.
MM Insights provided by specific case studies such as patient H.M. These should
evaluate the extent to which the findings from these studies have expanded
the understanding of memory processes and structures.
MM Whether valuable insights have been provided by other biological or
non-biological approaches to studying learning and memory.
MM The strengths of neuropsychology, including that it takes an indepth look at
rare cases, employs a variety of methods, provides valuable insights and has
an applied focus on understanding and rehabilitation.
MM The weaknesses of neuropsychology, including issues surrounding
generalisability, modularity, reductionism, specialism of function, the lack of
baseline measures, plasticity and reorganisation of function, problems with
interpretation and ethics.
MM Your conclusions concerning the validity and reliability of the evidence
provided by neuropsychology.

Make your answer stand out

To make an answer stand out in this area you need to demonstrate that you
have an understanding of the broader aspects of learning and memory which
span across both biological and non-biological approaches and also across
clinical and non-clinical samples. This will mean that you will need to be able
to synthesise and critically evaluate a range of evidence while explicitly linking
this to the essay question. For example, how can research with neurologically
damaged patients correspond to research with healthy control subjects? You
will also need to demonstrate that you are aware of (and understand) the
theoretical and practical challenges directed towards neuropsychology.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

149
8 • The biology of learning and memory

Notes

150
9
Biological basis of
psychological abnormality

Historical
context
• Symptoms and diagnosis
Major • Biological aetiology
(unipolar)
depression • Non-biological aetiology
• Treatment

Biological • Symptoms and diagnosis

basis of Bipolar
psychological • Biological aetiology
depression
abnormality • Treatment

• Symptoms and diagnosis

• Biological aetiology
Schizophrenia
• Treatment
• Non-biological considerations
Anxiety and
stress
disorders
• Symptoms and diagnosis
• Biological factors
• Non-biological factors
• Medical consequences of stress and anxiety
• Treatment

A printable version of this topic map is available from

www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

151
9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Introduction

Abnormality is one of the most studied areas in psychology and attracts many
students to the specialism of clinical and counselling psychology. This is partially
due to the fact that everyone encounters some form of psychological distress
during their lifetime, whether this is through personal experience or through
the experiences of someone who is close to us (Carlson, 2004; Carr & McNulty,
2006; Comer, 2007). You should appreciate that abnormal behaviour is not
just studied from a biological perspective but also features prominently in
cognitive, developmental, humanistic and social psychology. Indeed, as you may
already be aware, contemporary approaches tend to endorse the diathesis–
stress model in which biological dispositions to mental illness are triggered by
environmental and cognitive factors (Carlson, 2004). For example, an imbalance
in the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine may predispose an individual
to depression, but this condition may not become evident until a major life
event triggers an episode. It is important that you remember this principle
throughout this chapter as any reports or assignments you write in this field
should demonstrate that you can write critically and that you fully appreciate
that multiple influences shape both normal and abnormal behaviour.
It is also vital that you can understand that the distinction between normal and
abnormal behaviour is constantly changing and is not absolute or universal
(Comer, 2007). Indeed, as with all areas of psychology, theoretical accounts of
abnormal behaviour are proposed, investigated, adapted or potentially rejected
based on theoretical shifts, social norms and emerging evidence. This also
applies to issues concerning which treatments are endorsed at any given time
and how the individual is perceived and treated.

 Revision checklist

Essential things to revise are:

PP Symptoms of psychological and psychiatric disorders
PP How biological factors can produce symptoms
PP How psychological abnormality is treated using a biological perspective
PP How converging operations are often used in holistic treatment

Assessment advice
The following points provide guidance concerning essay writing in abnormal
psychology. These points will help you to organise your responses to essay
questions and to develop an appropriate writing style:

152
 Introduction

MP Read around the topic throughout your module.

MP Make sure you understand everything that the question requires. It might help
to break the question down into the different topics.
MP Make an essay plan or concept map to guide your literature search.
MP Ensure your literature search is designed to answer the question.
MP Stick to the format suggested by your institution. This includes the style for
references both in the text and in the reference section.
MP Adopt an evidence-based approach. This means you need to provide
examples from the literature which support each of your main points.
MP Define all technical terms and explain the principles of all theories and
methodologies you discuss. Remember you should assume that your
readers have no previous experience in the area and demonstrate that you
understand the concepts.
MP Establish a debate. For example, compare and contrast competing theories
and critically evaluate any evidence you present. It is not enough to just
describe studies.
MP Always link back to the essay question throughout your report. This means
explicitly explaining to your reader how the evidence you have just discussed
contributes towards answering the question.
MP Don’t be afraid to draw conclusions; this is expected and often required! You
should decide which theories the majority of the evidence supports and draw
your conclusions accordingly.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could
arise on this topic.

 Sample question Essay

Evaluate the extent to which the distinctions between normal and abnormal
behaviour are universally accepted rather than culturally specific.

Guidelines on answering this question are included at the end of this chapter,
whilst further guidance on tackling other exam questions can be found on the
companion website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Historical context

It was not that long ago that individuals suffering from psychological illnesses
were persecuted and hidden away in mental asylums where they were often
subjected to treatments which would be seen as inhumane, brutal and
reprehensible today (Comer, 2007; Pinel, 2003). Today, several psychological
organisations across the world have developed codes for ethical conduct in
both research and practice and the public’s interest also safeguards against
such maltreatment (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Comer, 2007). While sufferers often
report still feeling isolated, it is significant that mental illness is now discussed
more openly. Although the representation is occasionally inaccurate, mental
illness often features in popular media. In addition, treatment (such as through
psychopharmacology) is often community-based, especially in the case of
minor disorders (Carr & McNulty, 2006; McWilliams & O’Callaghan, 2006).
This should suggest to you that there have been significant developments in
promoting positive attitudes and aims to provide support for individuals who are
experiencing psychological turmoil. However, while mental illness is significantly
less stigmatised than it used to be, prejudice and discrimination often resurface.
Indeed, the view that homosexuality was dysfunctional and should be treated
as a psychological abnormality has only recently been rejected by mainstream
Western psychology. While discrimination has been reduced, it has not yet been
fully eradicated and other cultures often hold different perspectives (Carlson,
2004; Comer, 2007; Pinel, 2003). It is not within the scope of this chapter or
the job of a psychologist to say any cultural perspective is better than another;
you just need to be aware of these cross-cultural differences. Hence, it is
important that you remember that other generations and cultures often define
mental illness differently from that which is adopted in contemporary Western
psychology and that the findings from psychology can be used to both inform
and misinform public opinion. Indeed, Comer (2007) defined psychological
abnormality by the following aspects:
MP deviance from one’s cultural norms and concept of suitable functioning
MP distress experienced as a result of behaviour, emotions or experiences
MP dysfunction characterised by interference to normal life
MP danger to oneself or others.
While you will need to maintain a contemporary understanding of the discipline,
you are also required to understand how this came about and how it varies from
other perspectives. At the same time, you need to be aware of how your own
experiences, attitudes and beliefs will shape your interpretation of the literature
and how you perceive individuals who have psychological problems. Your
reports will require that you write objectively and as such you need to support
any claims with evidence and where possible avoid value judgements. These
factors may form a significant aspect of your critical evaluation of the literature.

154
 Major (unipolar) depression

This chapter will provide an overview of the biological factors associated with
several forms of psychological dysfunction which are experienced in adulthood.
The topics covered are not exhaustive and suggested reading is provided at
the end of each section to guide the expansion of your literature search. For
issues concerning psychological dysfunction in children I recommend Comer
(2007) and Carr (2006). As such, by the end of this chapter you should be able
to understand how biological factors may predispose adults to mental illness or
contribute towards the manifestation or treatment of the disorders. You will also
be reminded of several other influences on human behaviour which may interact
with biological factors.

Further reading General abnormal psychology

Topic Key reading
DSM-IV-TR symptoms APA (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual for mental
and diagnoses disorders (4th ed. – text revision) (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Association.
Symptoms and diagnoses Carr, A., & McNulty, M. (Eds.) (2006). The handbook of adult
clinical psychology: An evidence-based approach. Hove:
Routledge.
Child clinical psychology Carr. A. (2006). The handbook of child and adolescent clinical
psychology: A contextual approach. Hove: Routledge.
General Comer, R. J. (2007). Abnormal psychology (6th ed.). New York:
Worth Publishers.
Biomedical approach McWilliams, S., & O’Callaghan, E. (2006). Biomedical approaches
and the use of drugs to treat adult mental health problems. In
Carr, A. and McNulty, M. (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical
psychology: An evidence-based approach (pp. 220–252). Hove:
Routledge.

Major (unipolar) depression

It is important to remember that 10–25 per cent of women and 5–12 per cent
of men will experience major (unipolar) depression during their lifetime (APA,
2000). It can either be reactive, in which it arises in response to major life events,
or endogenous if there is not a notable preceding trauma. You should already
be aware that major depression can involve either a single incidence or recurrent
episodes and as such can significantly reduce an individual’s quality of life, making
it a prominent area in psychology and psychiatry. As an undergraduate student you
should also understand that psychological disorders often co-occur (a phenomenon
called comorbidity) and it is the practitioner’s responsibility to interpret the
diagnostic criteria appropriately to differentiate these conditions. For example,
patients with major depression often also present with personality disorders,

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

substance dependence and eating disorders. The following sections will provide
you with an overview of the symptoms and aetiology of this condition. You should
also consider issues concerning the validity and reliability of the diagnostic manuals.

Key terms
Major (unipolar) depression: A psychological condition characterised by low mood,
negative thoughts, extreme negativism, reduced interest, lack of pleasure, changes
in appetite and sleep patterns and difficulty concentrating. In extreme cases sufferers
can also experience hallucinations and delusions.
Comorbidity: The presence of more than one condition at a given time.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The diagnosis of a major depressive episode requires the presence of at
least one of the first two items listed below and at least five of the following
symptoms in total for a minimum of two weeks. Remember that the patient
would need to demonstrate significant distress and impaired functioning. You
need to be aware that major depression can take many forms and can also
include psychotic or catatonic features. However, it will not include periods of
mania and will not reflect a personality disorder.
MP depressed mood including feelings of sadness, hopelessness and emptiness
MP reduced interest or pleasure in activities which were previously enjoyed
(anhedonia)
MP changes in appetite and/or weight
MP sleep disturbances including either sleeping too much (hypersomnia) or
inability to sleep (insomnia)
MP fatigue or loss of energy
MP slow and often hesitant movement (psychomotor retardation or agitation)
MP difficulties in concentrating, including during conversations, decision making
or tasks requiring attention
MP excessive or inappropriate guilt
MP extreme negativism
MP suicidal thoughts, intentions or attempts to commit suicide
MP delusions
MP hallucinations
MP catatonic state.

Biological aetiology
There are numerous biological influences which may predispose individuals to
unipolar depression and you should be able to discuss these in detail for any
report or essay in the area. These include genetics, physiology, neurology and

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circadian rhythms. Table 9.1 presents a summary of some of the factors you will
need to understand.

Table 9.1 Biological factors associated with the development of unipolar depression

Factor Description

Genetics A genetic disposition for unipolar depression may be inherited.

Indeed, a monozygotic twin has a 46 per cent chance of
developing depression if their sibling was diagnosed. In contrast,
dizygotic twins have a 20 per cent chance of developing the
condition if their sibling was diagnosed (Comer, 2007).

Physiology: Imbalances of serotonin, Substance P, norepinephrine,

neurotransmitters acetylcholine and dopamine have all been associated with
unipolar depression. Decreased levels of 5-HIAA (a metabolite of
serotonin) are also associated with suicidal impulses.

Physiology: hormones The endocrine system has been found to release abnormal levels of
hormones during major depressive episodes. This is especially the
case for the stress hormone cortisol and the chemical melatonin.

Neurology Unipolar depression has been associated with decreased activity

of monoaminergic neurons which transmit chemicals such as
serotonin and norepinephrine. Drevets (2001) also provided
evidence that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex both exhibit a
50–75 per cent increase in blood flow and metabolism in patients
with unipolar depression. These regions are associated with
modulating emotion and the expression of negative emotion
respectively. Öngür, Drevets and Price (1998) also identified a 24
per cent decrease in glial cells in the subgenual prefrontal cortex
amongst deceased patients with major depression. Silent cerebral
infarctions (strokes) can also result in late onset depression.

Circadian rhythms and Sleep patterns of depressed individuals tend to be shallow and
zeitgebers fragmented with decreased slow-wave delta sleep and increased
stage 1 sleep. Rapid eye-movement (REM) tends to occur earlier
and more frequently. There are also significant seasonal influences
(for example, seasonal affective disorder).

KEY STUDY

Depression and genetics

Harrington et al. (1993) investigated whether there was a genetic predisposition for
unipolar depression. This was accomplished through a family pedigree study in which
people with unipolar depression were recruited as a proband before the other family
members were evaluated for indications of depression. This was subsequently compared
to the prevalence of depression within the general population. Harrington et al. (1993)
observed that 20 per cent of proband relatives exhibited indications of depression,
compared to just 10 per cent in the general population. This suggests that there is indeed
a genetic predisposition for unipolar depression. However, it must not be forgotten that
relatives tend to share similar environments, upbringing, life events and attitudes and
these factors may also contribute towards the aetiology of depression.

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? Sample question Essay

To what extent is unipolar depression purely the exaggeration of normal

emotion? Consider with reference to evolutionary theory, physiology and
neurology.

Non-biological aetiology
Some of the non-biological factors which you will need to consider when revising
unipolar depression include traumatic life events, personality traits, worry,
negative thoughts and observational learning (Carlson, 2004; Carr & McNulty,
2006; Comer, 2007; Pinel, 2003). It is important you remember that individuals
do not exist in a vacuum consisting only of biological factors. Including these
factors in your reports can demonstrate that you are able to synthesise evidence
and write critically if you do it correctly. For example, you may like to compare
the role of biological and environmental factors in endogenous and reactive
depression. Also, how are cause and effect established? Do biological factors
predispose individuals to depression or are they in response to environmental
stressors? Just because an environmental influence cannot be identified does
this mean that one did not occur? It is these types of questions which allow you
to establish a well-rounded and critical account of the literature.

? Sample question Problem-based learning

You want to investigate whether imbalances in monoamines determine

whether an individual develops unipolar depression or not. How would you
control for the non-biological influences during your investigation and which
variables could confound your results?

Treatment
There are several biomedical treatments used to reduce the symptoms of
unipolar depression. Table 9.2 summarises some of the biological treatments
that you will need to know, although this list is not exhaustive and you
should direct your further reading appropriately. You should also remember
that pharmacological substances are often addictive and are likely result in
withdrawal symptoms if terminated too quickly.

? Sample question Essay

Critically discuss the biomedical approach to diagnosing and treating

depression with reference to both biological and non-biological factors.

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 Major (unipolar) depression

Table 9.2 Biological treatments for unipolar depression

Treatment Description

SSRIs Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) prevent reuptake of

serotonin at the terminal buttons thereby increasing the amount of
serotonin in the synapse which can bind with the receptors. These
medications come in several classes but brand names which you are
probably aware of include Prozac, Paxil, Seroxat and Serlain. You
should remember that these drugs can have serious side-effects and
can be fatal if combined with other substances including alcohol, beta
blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, benzodiazepines and MAOIs.

TCAs Tricyclics inhibit the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine

so increase the levels and transmission of both of these
neurotransmitters. Tricyclics include Clomipramine, Desipramine and
Trimipramine. However, side-effects can include cognitive impairment,
drowsiness, nausea, hypotension, tachycardia and irregular heart
rhythms. The toxic dose is also significantly lower than SSRIs.

MAOIs Monoamine oxidase inhibitors prevent the breakdown of monoamine

neurotransmitters, increasing the level of these substances in the
synaptic gaps and at neuron receptors. MAO-As act primarily on
serotonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine and require a strict diet,
whereas MAO-Bs act on dopamine and phenethylamine and do not
require dietary restrictions.

Sleep deprivation REM sleep deprivation over several weeks or short-term total sleep
deprivation often reduces the symptoms of unipolar depression. It is still
uncertain how this occurs although there has been speculation that a
substance is produced during sleep which has a depressogenic effect.

ECT Electroconvulsive therapy is used in extreme cases of depression to

shock the brain and induce controlled seizures while the patient is
temporarily sedated and paralysed. This has been shown to reduce
the symptoms of major depression. Prolonged use can result in brain
damage and cognitive impairment.

You should always remember that there are many possible sides to an academic
debate and avenues for critical thinking when you are constructing your
assignments and revision plan. For example, there have been several well-
publicised incidences of which you may already be aware where SSRIs such as
Seroxat have been linked to higher suicide rates in adolescents (Wooltorton,
2003). However, while you should understand the evidence which supports this
view you must also consider the alternative perspective. Indeed, the validity
of these reports is still to be determined and other prominent studies have
suggested that this is not the case (Simon, Savarino, Operskalski & Wang, 2006).
Indeed, there is a fine line between childhood and adolescence, and many
changes occur during this period which may explain varying degrees of suicidal
impulses. A question you must consider is whether the benefits of treatment
outweigh the potential harm?

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

If studies are undertaken or funded by pharmacology companies do they have a

vested interest in finding results which suggest their products are useful?

Further reading Unipolar depression

Topic Key reading
Symptoms and Carr, A., & McNulty, M. (2006). Depression. In A. Carr and M. McNulty
diagnosis (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An evidence-based
approach (pp. 291–345). Hove: Routledge.
Neuroscience Davidson, R. J., Pizzagalli, D., Nitschke, J. B., & Putnam, K. (2002).
Depression: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53(1), 545–574.
Neurology Drevets, W. C., Videen, T. O; Price, J. L., Preskorn, S. H., Carmichael,
S. T., & Raichle, M. E. (1992). A functional anatomical study of unipolar
depression. The Journal of Neuroscience, 12(9), 3628–3641.
Monoamine Hindmarch, I. (2001). Expanding the horizons of depression: Beyond the
hypothesis monoamine hypothesis. Human Psychopharmacology, 16(3), 203–218.
SSRIs and suicide Simon, G. E., Savarino, J., Operskalski, B., & Wang, P. S. (2006). Suicide
risk during antidepressant treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry,
163(1), 41–47.
SSRIs and suicide Wooltorton, E. (2003). Paroxetine (Paxil, Seroxat): Increased risk of
suicide in pediatric patients. Canadian Medical Association Journal,
169(5), 446.

Test your knowledge

9.1 Which natural chemicals have been associated with major depression?
9.2 What pharmacological treatments can treat major depression?
9.3 How might circadian rhythms influence mood?
9.4 Which non-biological factors are associated with major depression?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Bipolar depression

It is vital that you can differentiate unipolar and bipolar depression regardless
of whether you are required to answer an essay question, exam question or
analyse a case study (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Comer, 2007). You will also need
to appreciate that bipolar disorder can also take several forms. Indeed bipolar
disorder is characterised by two subtypes. Bipolar I is characterised by manic
episodes, major depressive episodes and often mixed episodes in which
both states occur. In contrast, bipolar II is characterised by hypomania (rapid

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cycle but short-lived mania) and major depressive episodes, but no manic or
mixed episodes. Patients with bipolar disorders often present with personality
disorders, self-harm, substance dependence and anxiety or panic disorders. The
following sections will remind you of the symptoms, diagnoses and treatments
for bipolar disorder.

Key terms
Bipolar disorder: A psychological condition characterised not only with periods of
depression but also by periods of mania.
Bipolar I: Bipolar disorder characterised by manic episodes, major depressive
episodes and often mixed episodes in which both states occur.
Bipolar II: Bipolar disorder characterised by hypomania (rapid cycle but short-lived
mania), major depressive episodes but no manic or mixed episodes.
Hypomania: Rapid cycle but shorted-lived episodes of mania.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The criteria for bipolar depression are the same as those described for major
(unipolar depression). However, the current diagnostic manual (the DSM-IV-
TR) also provides guidance on the diagnosis of mania (APA, 2000). These must
include the first bullet point in the following list and at least three of the other
criteria (or four if the state is only irritable):
MP abnormally elevated, expansive or irritable mood lasting at least a week (or
any duration if hospitalisation is required)
MP inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
MP decreased need for sleep
MP more talkative than normal or unable to stop talking/moving
MP flights of ideas in which the chain of thought constantly jumps
MP Distractibility
MP Increased goal-directed behaviour (e.g. socially or sexually)
MP Excessive involvement in potentially harmful activities
MP Marked impairment in functioning.

Biological aetiology
The biological factors associated with depressive episodes in bipolar disorder
are discussed in Table 9.3. You will need to be able to both differentiate the
symptoms of unipolar and bipolar disorder and also identify their biological
commonalities. However, the same non-biological factors discussed under major
depression can also interact with bipolar condition.

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Table 9.3 Biological factors associated with the development of bipolar depression

Factor Description

Genetics A genetic disposition may be inherited from parents and this

appears to be significantly more pronounced for bipolar disorder
than unipolar depression. Studies have suggested that there may be
a dominant gene for bipolar depression on chromosomes 4, 5, 18,
21 or X (Carlson, 2004).

Physiology: Imbalances of the neurotransmitters discussed in Table 9.1 are also

neurotransmitters influential in the development of bipolar disorder.

Neurology Patients with bipolar disorder tend to present with an increased

volume of the lateral ventricles and globus pallidus. Impairment of
the sodium pump resulting in cyclical periods of impaired neural
activity and hypersensitivity may also explain depression and mania
respectively. There are often abnormalities in the hypothalamic–
pituitary–adrenal axis which may arise due to stress.

Treatment
The biological treatments for the depressive episodes are similar to those used
for major depression, although other treatments which reduce the symptoms
of mania are described in Table 9.4. It is important that you remember that the
nature of bipolar disorder makes it far more likely that patients will forget doses
or choose not to take their medication because they miss the elevated state.
Pharmacological substances are also addictive and are likely result in withdrawal
symptoms if terminated too quickly.

Table 9.4 Biological treatments for bipolar depression

Treatment Description

Lithium Lithium carbonate acts as a mood stabiliser but is more reliable at

treating mania than depression. However, once the cycle is broken,
depression tends to dissipate also. Side-effects and toxic doses
have been associated with significant weight gain, increased thirst,
hypothyroidism, motor unco-ordination, confusion and, in the case
of overdose, medical coma.

Carbamazepine Carbamazepine acts as a mood stabiliser which reduces the

excitability of neurons and as such can reduce both mania and
depression in some cases. However, it can also compete with other
chemicals and may also cause anaemia.

Antidepressants The antidepressants detailed in Table 9.2 can also be used to treat
the depressive symptoms of bipolar disorder.

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 Schizophrenia

? Sample question Essay

Compare and contrast the diagnoses and treatment of unipolar and bipolar
depression.

Further reading Bipolar depression

Topic Key reading
Symptoms and Lam, D. & Jones, S. (2006) Bipolar disorder. In A. Carr & M. McNulty
diagnosis (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An evidence-based
approach (pp. 346–382). Hove: Routledge.
Lithium and Sassi, R. B., Nicoletti, M., Brambilla, P., Mallinger, A. G., Frank, E.,
neurology Kupfer, D. J., Keshavan, M. S., & Soares, J. C. (2002). Increased gray
matter volume in lithium-treated bipolar disorder patients. Neuroscience
Letters, 329(2), 243–245.

Test your knowledge

9.5 What treatments are available in cases of bipolar depression?

9.6 What are the differences between bipolar I and bipolar II?
9.7 How is bipolar disorder diagnosed?
9.8 What are the commonalities between unipolar and bipolar disorders?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a debilitating condition which affects one per cent of the

general population and typically arises in late adolescence or early adulthood
(Carlson, 2004; Carr & McNulty, 2006; Comer, 2007). While it shares some of
the symptoms observed in unipolar and bipolar depression, the symptoms are
often more pronounced, more evident to anyone who encounters an individual
with the condition and it severely impairs normal functioning. It is also associated
with self-harm and suicide due to the typically violent and distressing nature
of the hallucinations and delusions. As such it is likely to result in at least one
incidence of hospitalisation under the Mental Health Act, but this may be
longitudinal or repeated if the severity of the symptoms does not reduce. There
have been several incidences of individuals with schizophrenia posing a danger
to others, although this is actually a rarity and the majority of the danger is to
themselves. You may already be aware that once an individual is diagnosed

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with schizophrenia it is unlikely that they will ever make a full recovery due to
the cerebral factors associated with the condition, although the symptoms are
significantly less pronounced with the correct treatment and during remission.
However, the diagnostic criteria have been highly criticised for lacking validity
and reliability, meaning that several practitioners view schizophrenia as a
‘failed category’ in which many individuals can be placed without successful
differentiation (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Comer, 2007; Kuipers, Peters &
Bebbington, 2006) and you should be aware of this debate.

? Sample question Essay

Evaluate the DSM-IV-TR criteria for the diagnosis of schizophrenia.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The features of schizophrenia are typically divided into positive and negative
symptoms which you should be able to identify and clearly differentiate.
A full description is provided below, but it would be useful to test your
understanding of these symptoms before progressing to later sections. The
positive symptoms can be identified merely by their presence and include
hallucination, thought disorders and delusions. The negative symptoms can be
identified by the absence of normal functioning and include flattened emotional
responses, poverty of speech (alogia), lack of initiative or persistence, inability to
experience pleasure (anhedonia) and social withdrawal. You should remember
that an individual needs to present with two of the following symptoms and
demonstrate dysfunction in social or occupational situations for a month prior to
diagnosis, and disturbance should be evident for at least six months:
MP delusions which may manifest as beliefs that they are being persecuted or
that they are grandiose (for example that they are a martyr or a celebrity)
MP hallucinations which tend to be of a violent or distressing nature
MP disorganised speech including incoherence, frequent derailment, echolalia
(repetition of another’s utterances) or ‘word salad’ in which random words are
strung together without meaning
MP disorganised or catatonic behaviour
MP negative symptoms which can anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), alogia
(impoverished speech) or avolition (lack of desire or motivation).

Key terms
Alogia: Impoverished speech observed in cases of schizophrenia.
Anhedonia: An inability to feel pleasure.
Avolition: A lack of desire or motivation.
Echolalia: Involuntary repetition of other peoples utterances.
t

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 Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia: A severe condition in which sufferers experience hallucinations,

delusions, speech impairment, irrationality, unusual motor activity and impairment in
most aspects of their lives.

Biological aetiology
Several biological factors appear to predispose individuals to schizophrenia or
manifest as a result of the condition (see Table 9.5). While earlier psychologies
believed that schizophrenia resulted from environmental factors such as cold
parenting, this view has been replaced with the diathesis–stress and biomedical
approaches. However, you need to remember you are studying psychology and
not psychiatry and so you should always consider all possible influences on the
individual from each of the main perspectives.

Table 9.5 Biological factors associated with schizophrenia

Factor Description

Heredity Schizophrenia has been associated with all chromosomes except 3, 12, 14,
16, 17, 19, 20, 21, and Y. While an unaffected monozygotic twin is slightly
more likely to subsequently develop schizophrenia than an unaffected
dizygotic twin if their sibling was diagnosed with the condition, this remains
below 50 per cent. These findings suggest that while there may be a
genetic predisposition, other factors also contribute towards the aetiology.
Physiology: The dopamine hypothesis states that schizophrenia may be related to
neurotransmitters imbalances in dopamine (Kuipers et al., 2006). Indeed, it is significant
that dopamine receptor blockers reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia
and the antipsychotic medication Clozapine functions by blocking the
dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Levels of dopamine are
increased through hypofrontality (discussed below).
Cerebral activity Patients with schizophrenia tend to display a phenomenon known as
hypofrontality in which there is significantly less activity in the prefrontal
cortex than in individuals without schizophrenia (Comer, 2007). There
may also be increased dopamine metabolism in the nucleus accumbens.
Cerebral structure CT and MRI scans have identified a general loss of brain grey matter
for patients with schizophrenia, which appears to occur suddenly in
early adulthood and results in enlarged ventricles due to this atrophy
(Wright et al., 2000). However, there also appears to be a loss of volume
in the hair-like branching networks of dendrites and axons in the brain
(Thompson et al., 2001). Patients with schizophrenia also tend to have
a smaller anterior hippocampus and larger lateral and third ventricles
(Carlson, 2004; Comer, 2007). Autopsies reveal that schizophrenic
patients have a greater number of dopamine receptors in the brain.
Other factors Parental age has been associated with schizophrenia as the fathers
of schizophrenic children tend to be older. There are also seasonal
influences with more sufferers being born in late winter or early spring.
Schizophrenia is also more likely if the mother of the sufferer was
RH-negative and the sufferer is RH-positive, possibly due to the mother’s
immune system attacking the foetus. Other factors include vitamin D
deficiency, prenatal malnutrition, population density, viral epidemics and
distance from the equator (Carlson, 2004).

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

? Sample question Essay

Which factors may contribute towards the development and treatment of

schizophrenia?

Treatment
Table 9.6 summarises some of the pharmacological treatments available for
use in schizophrenia which you should be familiar with. However, you should
remember that long-term use of these substances can result in involuntary
movements such as tick-like gestures, rapid movement of arms or legs,
grimacing, rapid blinking and tongue protrusion. This condition, known as
tardive dyskinesia, is mostly irreversible. These medications can also result in
the hypersensitivity of dopamine receptors because long-term blocking causes
irreparable neural damage. The substances are also addictive and are likely
result in withdrawal symptoms if terminated.

Key term
Tardive dyskinesia: Involuntary movements such as tick-like gestures, rapid
movement of arms or legs, grimacing, rapid blinking and tongue protrusion produced
through long-term use of anti-psychotic medications.

Table 9.6 Biological treatment for schizophrenia

Treatment Description

D-Cycloserine Large doses of the glycine agonist reduce negative symptoms in

schizophrenia due to facilitating NMDA activity which is associated
with dopamine transmission.

Chlorpromazine Chlorpromazine reduces the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

because it acts as a dopamine receptor blocker, thereby reducing
the levels of dopamine absorbed by neuron receptors.

Clozapine Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic which blocks dopamine

receptors in the nucleus accumbens.

KEY STUDY

Atrophy of grey matter in schizophrenia

Thompson et al. (2001) conducted a longitudinal investigation assessing the magnitude
and rate for the loss of cortical grey matter in patients with early-onset schizophrenia
and healthy control subjects. MRI scans were undertaken in two-year intervals and the
proportion of grey matter was recorded. While the healthy control subjects lost 0.5–1.0
per cent of grey matter during adolescence (a normal phenomenon), this loss was half
t

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 Schizophrenia

that of patients with schizophrenia. This loss of grey matter began in the parietal lobes
and proceeded to the temporal lobes, somatosensory and motor cortex and dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex. It was also significant that the symptoms presented by the patients
with schizophrenia corresponded to both the area in which the atrophy was occurring
and the extent to which grey matter was lost. Hence, hallucinations occurred when
atrophy began in the temporal lobe and the magnitude of this impairment correlated to
the proportion of grey matter which was lost.

Non-biological considerations
You should always remember to demonstrate that you have considered a
range of influences and not just those from a biological perspective. You must
remember that an individual who suffers from schizophrenia does not exist in a
biological vacuum and you can demonstrate critical thinking by expanding your
knowledge to include alternative factors. For example:
MP Cultural norms concerning acceptable and unacceptable behaviour may
determine whether the individual is categorised as psychologically abnormal,
eccentric or normal.
MP The support network available to an individual with schizophrenia will
determine when treatment is sought and also influence their rate of recovery
and chances of relapse. Also remember that lack of understanding and media
coverage which portrays individuals with schizophrenia as dangerous will also
influence how people perceive and treat them. This can exacerbate their
symptoms and make them socially isolated.
MP Socioeconomic status significantly influences the likelihood that they will be
diagnosed and treated appropriately. This is especially relevant if health care
is not freely available or the individual is homeless and not amongst people
who will notice the changes in their behaviour.
MP The patient’s cognitive strategies and coping mechanisms may influence how
they compensate for their symptoms and how well they recover.

Further reading Schizophrenia

Topic Key reading
Abnormal psychology Comer, R. J. (2007). Abnormal psychology (6th ed.). New York:
Worth Publishers.
Abnormal psychology Kuipers, E., Peters, E., & Bebbington, P. (2006). Schizophrenia.
In A. Carr and M. McNulty, (Eds.). The handbook of adult clinical
psychology: An evidence-based approach (pp. 843–896). Hove:
Routledge.
Neurological Wright, I. C., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Woodruff, P. W. R., David, A. S.,
Murray, R. M., & Bullmore, E. T. (2000). Meta-analysis of regional
brain volumes in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry,
157(1), 16–25.

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Test your knowledge

9.9 What are the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

9.10 Which biological factors may contribute towards the development of
schizophrenia?
9.11 How successful are biomedical treatments for schizophrenia?
9.12 What is the prognosis for an individual diagnosed with schizophrenia?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Anxiety and stress disorders

Anxiety disorders are multifaceted and you are likely to study several types
during your undergraduate studies (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Comer, 2007). These
are likely to include acute stress disorder, agoraphobia (with or without panic
disorder, generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive compulsive disorder
(OCD), panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia), phobias and post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD). However, it is important to remember that stress and
anxiety are normal emotional states which are related to several physiological
factors and were discussed in earlier chapters. The main debates surrounding
anxiety disorders concern determinism (for example, biologically driven
reflexes) versus free will (for example, intentionally changing thought patterns),
the validity and reliability of the diagnostic manuals to differentiate between
conditions and the value of combining treatments to maximise the benefits to
the patient. You should be able to discuss these debates at length.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The descriptions for several stress and anxiety disorders are presented in
Table 9.7 and in the Glossary at the end of this book. You should be able to
differentiate these disorders and identify their commonalities.

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 Anxiety and stress disorders

Table 9.7 Symptoms of anxiety and stress disorders

Disorder Description

Acute stress disorder Arises after the experience of a highly traumatic event which
threatened injury or death and created feelings of fear and
helplessness. Arises within four weeks of the trauma (Brewin,
Andrews, Rose & Kirk, 1999; Bryant & Harvey, 2000). Characterised
by anxiety, irritability, poor concentration, insomnia, restlessness
and dissociative states including detachment, derealisation
or depersonalisation. Patients also re-experience the event in
flashbacks, avoid associated places or people.

Agoraphobia A fear of being in places where escape would be difficult or

embarrassing (such as in public) which can develop out of specific
phobias or be due to a traumatic event. Often arises due to the
fear of having a panic attack in public, hence it is associated with
panic disorder (Taylor & Asmundson, 2006). Characterised by
extreme anxiety, stress, worry and avoidance of public situations.
May arise with or without panic disorder.

Panic disorder A condition which often arises without a discernible cause but may
follow periods of high anxiety or arise due to misinterpretation
of bodily responses (Taylor & Asmundson, 2006). Characterised
by sudden and acute attacks of fear or anxiety resulting in
panic attacks, stress, heart palpitations, rapid breathing or
hyperventilating, blurred vision, dizziness and flights of thought.

Obsessive compulsive An anxiety disorder characterised by excessive worry, persistent

disorder obsessive thoughts, irrationality and overriding compulsions to
perform actions which reduce the patient’s anxiety (Swinson,
Antony, Rachman & Richter, 1998). Repetitive actions are
intended to neutralise the source of the anxiety. May prevent
normal daily functioning

Generalised anxiety A general state of anxiety which is applied across life in general
disorder and may have originated due to the exacerbation of other
anxieties or traumatic events (Wells & Carter, 2006). Characterised
by anxiety, worry, heart palpitations, dizziness and recurrent stress
response across a range of situations.

Post-traumatic stress Anxiety disorder arising after extreme trauma which caused feelings
disorder of intense fear and helplessness which can arise at any point
after the trauma including years later (Creamer & Carty, 2006).
Characterised by flashbacks, nightmares, obsessive thoughts,
avoidance of triggers, heightened anxiety and startle response.

Specific phobias Anxiety disorders often caused by irrational thoughts or a negative

experience with specific stimuli (Bates, 2006). Characterised
by anxiety, worry, avoidance of triggers, obsessive thoughts,
attentional biases and hypervigilance.

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

CrITICAl FoCUS

The relative nature of psychological abnormality

It is important to remember that the criteria we use today to categorise
behaviour as abnormal are not relevant for all cultures, people or times.
Indeed, while the APA (2000) provides a contemporary guide for diagnosing
psychological disorders, this manual is constantly evolving and ‘disorders’
are often removed or combined in later editions. This demonstrates how the
classifications of psychological illnesses are constantly evolving. However,
it is important to remember that you are studying psychology and not
psychiatry and as such you need to understand that there are other non-
biological factors which differentiate abnormal and normal behaviour. It
is also notable that other cultures understand abnormality differently. For
example, in several regions of Africa it is still believed that psychological and
medical problems are caused by the disgruntled spirits of ancestors and that
treatment must initially appease the spirits. Practitioners of several devout
world religions also believe that they can hear the voice of their deity in
altered states such as meditation and prayer. While these beliefs may seem
strange to some people this does not mean that they can be automatically
categorised as psychological abnormalities. Indeed, the classification of
these behaviours as normal or abnormal is dependent upon the culture in
which they occur and the norms and beliefs of individuals within that society
rather than on the universality of biological factors associated with human
behaviour.

Biological factors
From your reading of the earlier chapters in this text, you should appreciate
that stress and anxiety are intrinsically linked to the functions of the central,
peripheral and endocrine systems. Table 9.8 summarises some of the biological
factors which may contribute towards the development of anxiety and stress
disorders with which you should be familiar.

Table 9.8 Biological factors associated with anxiety and stress disorders

Factor Description

Heritability Family pedigree studies have identified that individuals with a

family history of generalised anxiety disorder have a 15 per cent
chance of developing the condition compared to only 6 per cent of
the general population. This suggests that there may be a genetic
predisposition to the condition although it is uncertain whether this
is due to inheriting a lower anxiety threshold or other biological
characteristics (Carlson, 2004; Comer, 2007). It is important to
remember that there is constant interaction between biological and
environmental factors (discussed in Chapter 1).
t

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 Anxiety and stress disorders

Evolutionary factors According to evolutionary theory, stress and anxiety are normal
responses which facilitated the survival of our ancestors and were
therefore transmitted genetically to following generations. Anxiety
and stress disorders would be exaggerations of these normal
behaviours which no longer serve evolutionary functions due to
changing environments (Comer, 2007).

Neurology Functions of the limbic system, basal ganglia, caudate nucleus,

orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, thalamus, ventromedial nucleus of
the hypothalamus and locus ceruleus have all been associated with
the stress and anxiety disorders discussed in this chapter due to
their role in processing and regulating emotion (Bryant & Harvey,
2000; Comer, 2007; Swinson et al., 1998; Wells & Carter, 2006).

Physiology and the Low levels of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid

endocrine system (GABA) can result in increased levels of anxiety due to its role
in stabilising the activity of the CNS and terminating the stress
response. Changes in the levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine
can also result in anxiety, stress and panic (Bates, 2006; Creamer
and Carty, 2006; Swinson et al., 1998). The endocrine system was
covered in Chapter 3 but is explicitly linked to the development and
presentation of stress disorders. The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
(HPA) pathway also produces adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
and corticosteroids (including cortisol) which are actively involved in
the stress response.

Non-biological factors
Non-biomedical factors which you should research also include irrational or
obsessive thoughts, negative experiences, occupational status (if the occupation
is particularly stressful), sociocultural factors, personality types such as trait
anxiety, observational learning, operant conditioning and classical conditioning.
These topics are covered in other texts in this series and in the suggested
further reading.

Medical consequences of stress and anxiety

As an undergraduate student you should also understand that stress and
anxiety have an effect on an individual’s general health and wellbeing, which
can be lasting if the state is at a clinical level. The following points will refresh
your memory concerning how these prolonged and exaggerated states
influence the body:
MP Lowering of the immune system makes people with high levels of stress or
anxiety more prone to viruses, diseases and infection.
MP High and prolonged levels of stress are linked to the development of gastric
ulcers due to the functions of the endocrine system.
MP Susceptibility to other mood disorders including depression.

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Treatment
Table 9.9 summarises some of the biomedical treatments available to reduce
anxiety. However, you should remember that all of these treatments, with the
exception of biofeedback, only offer temporary relief from the symptoms and
will not eradicate the individual’s beliefs about and attitude towards the source
of their anxiety. For this reason you should also consider cognitive behavioural
approaches which could be combined with biomedical treatments to maximise
the benefits of the treatment and reduce the chance of using medication
long-term. For example, medication can be used to reduce the physiological
responses but cognitive-behavioural therapy would challenge and replace
unhealthy beliefs (such as obsessions) and behaviours (such as avoidance or
compulsions) resulting in lasting effects.

Table 9.9 Biological treatment for anxiety disorders

Treatment Description

Benzodiazepines These substances include Valium and Xanax which function as a

GABA agonist and therefore binds to GABA receptors reducing
the physiological responses associated with anxiety.

SSRIs The SSRIs discussed in the sections on unipolar depression also

reduce levels of anxiety and stress due to their influence on
norepinephrine.

Biofeedback This is a technique in which individuals are trained to control and

correctly interpret bodily responses. This means that they are able
to employ coping mechanisms upon seeing or feeling themselves
becoming anxious which consequently lowers their levels of
anxiety and stress.

Further reading Anxiety and stress disorders

Topic Key reading
Social phobia Bates, T. (2006). The clinical management of social anxiety disorder. In A.
Carr and M. McNulty (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An
evidence-based approach (pp. 558–590). Hove: Routledge.
Acute stress Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (1999). Acute stress disorder
and PTSD and posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of violent crime. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 360–366.
ASD Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of
theory, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
PTSD Creamer, M., & Carty, J. (2006). Post-traumatic stress disorder. In A. Carr and
M. McNulty, (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An evidence-
based approach (pp. 523–557). Hove: Routledge.
OCD Swinson, R. P., Antony, M. A., Rachman, S., & Richter, M. (1998). Obsessive
compulsive disorder: Theory, research and treatment. New York: Guilford
Press.
t

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 Chapter summary – pulling it all together

Panic disorder Taylor, S., & Asmundson, J. G. (2006). Panic disorder and agoraphobia. In A.
Carr and M. McNulty (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An
evidence-based approach (pp. 458–486). Hove: Routledge.
GAD Wells, A., & Carter, K. (2006). Generalized anxiety disorder. In A. Carr and
M. McNulty (Eds.), The handbook of adult clinical psychology: An evidence-
based approach (pp. 423–457). Hove: Routledge.

Test your knowledge

9.13 What are the differences between acute and post-traumatic stress
disorders?
9.14 How would OCD be treated from a biomedical perspective?
9.15 When would generalised anxiety disorder prevent normal functioning?
9.16 Which methodological approaches can be used to investigate the
aetiology of psychological conditions?
Answers to these questions can be found on the companion website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

Chapter summary – pulling it all together

PCan you tick all the points from the revision checklist at the beginning of
this chapter?
PAttempt the sample question from the beginning of this chapter using the
answer guidelines below.
PGo to the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress
to access more revision support online, including interactive quizzes,
flashcards, You be the marker exercises as well as answer guidance for the
Test your knowledge and Sample questions from this chapter.

Answer guidelines

 Sample question Essay

Evaluate the extent to which the distinctions between normal and abnormal
behaviour are universally accepted rather than culturally specific.

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9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Approaching the question

This question is asking you to discuss the extent to which the criteria for (and
distinction between) normal and abnormal behaviour are universal or mediated
by cultural factors. Therefore, it is asking you to discuss whether psychological
abnormality arises solely due to universal biological factors or whether it is a
matter of interpretation within a culture.

Important points to include

Your essay should begin with a summary concerning the distinction between
normal and abnormal behaviour. This may be easier if you mention the distinctions
provided by the psychiatric diagnostic manuals. You should also briefly summarise
the perspective you are going to adopt and which psychological disorders you
are going to discuss. It would be useful to choose two conditions which are
differentially influenced by biological and social factors because this will encourage
you to establish a debate in your essay. It would also be useful to select conditions
which may be acknowledged in one culture but not in another. Your essay should
subsequently discuss these conditions with reference to evidence concerning
whether the symptoms, causes and treatments for these conditions are universal.
You should also discuss both biological and non-biological factors. Your conclusion
should be balanced and supported with evidence.

Make your answer stand out

To make your answer stand out you will need to demonstrate that you
have considered biological factors, non-biological factors, arguments that
psychological abnormality is universal and arguments that psychological
abnormality is defined by cultural norms and expectations. You will need to
synthesise a range of evidence while writing clearly and critically. You will also
need to support all of your arguments with evidence.

Explore the accompanying website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

 Prepare more effectively for exams and assignments using the answer
guidelines for questions from this chapter.
 Test your knowledge using multiple choice questions and flashcards.
 Improve your essay skills by exploring the You be the marker exercises.

Notes

174
 Notes

Notes

175
9 • Biological basis of psychological abnormality

Notes

176
 And finally, before the exam . . .

How to approach revision from here

You should be now at a reasonable stage in your revision process – you should
have developed your skills and knowledge base over your course and used this
text judiciously over that period. Now, however, you have used the book to
reflect, remind and reinforce the material you have researched over the year/
seminar. You will, of course, need to do additional reading and research to that
included here (and appropriate directions are provided) but you will be well on
your way with the material presented in this book.
It is important that in answering any question in psychology you take a research-
and evidence-based approach to your response. For example, do not make
generalised or sweeping statements that cannot be substantiated or supported
by evidence from the literature. Remember as well that the evidence should
not be anecdotal – it is of no use citing your mum, dad, best friend or the latest
news from a celebrity website. After all, you are not writing an opinion piece
– you are crafting an argument that is based on current scientific knowledge
and understanding. You need to be careful about the evidence you present: do
review the material and from where it was sourced.
Furthermore, whatever type of assessment you have to undertake, it is important
to take an evaluative approach to the evidence. Whether you are writing an
essay, sitting an exam or designing a webpage, the key advice is to avoid
simply presenting a descriptive answer. Rather, it is necessary to think about
the strength of the evidence in each area. One of the key skills for psychology
students is critical thinking and for this reason the tasks featured in this series
focus upon developing this way of thinking. Thus you are not expected to simply
learn a set of facts and figures, but to think about the implications of what we
know and how this might be applied in everyday life. The best assessment
answers are the ones that take this critical approach.
It is also important to note that psychology is a theoretical subject: when
answering any question about psychology, not only refer to the prevailing
theories of the field, but also outline the development of them as well. It is also
important to evaluate these theories and models either through comparison
with other models and theories or through the use of studies that have assessed
them and highlighted their strengths and weaknesses. It is essential to read
widely – within each section of this book there are directions to interesting and
pertinent papers relating to the specific topic area. Find these papers, read
these papers and make notes from these papers. But don’t stop there. Let them

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And finally, before the exam . . .

lead you to other sources that may be important to the field. One thing that an
examiner hates to see is the same old sources being cited all of the time: be
innovative and, as well as reading the seminal works, find the more obscure and
interesting sources as well – just make sure they’re relevant to your answer!

How not to revise

MM Don’t avoid revision. This is the best tip ever. There is something on the TV,
the pub is having a two-for-one offer, the fridge needs cleaning, your budgie
looks lonely . . . You have all of these activities to do and they need doing
now! Really . . . ? Do some revision!
MM Don’t spend too long at each revision session. Working all day and night
is not the answer to revision. You do need to take breaks, so schedule your
revision so you are not working from dawn until dusk. A break gives time for
the information you have been revising to consolidate.
MM Don’t worry. Worrying will cause you to lose sleep, lose concentration and
lose revision time by leaving it late and then later. When the exam comes,
you will have no revision completed and will be tired and confused.
MM Don’t cram. This is the worst revision technique in the universe! You will not
remember the majority of the information that you try to stuff into your skull,
so why bother?
MM Don’t read over old notes with no plan. Your brain will take nothing in. If you
wrote your lecture notes in September and the exam is in May is there any
point in trying to decipher your scrawly handwriting now?
MM Don’t write model answers and learn by rote. When it comes to the exam
you will simply regurgitate the model answer irrespective of the question –
not a brilliant way to impress the examiner!

Tips for exam success

What you should do when it comes to revision

Exams are one form of assessment that students often worry about the most.
The key to exam success, as with many other types of assessment, lies in good
preparation and self-organisation. One of the most important things is knowing
what to expect – this does not necessarily mean knowing what the questions will
be on the exam paper, but rather what the structure of the paper is, how many
questions you are expected to answer, how long the exam will last and so on.
To pass an exam you need a good grasp of the course material and, obvious as
it may seem, to turn up for the exam itself. It is important to remember that you

178
 And finally, before the exam . . .

aren’t expected to know or remember everything in the course, but you should
be able to show your understanding of what you have studied. Remember as
well that examiners are interested in what you know, not what you don’t know.
They try to write exam questions that give you a good chance of passing – not
ones to catch you out or trick you in any way. You may want to consider some of
these top exam tips.
MM Start your revision in plenty of time.
MM Make a revision timetable and stick to it.
MM Practise jotting down answers and making essay plans.
MM Practise writing against the clock using past exam papers.
MM Check that you have really answered the question and have not strayed off
the point.
MM Review a recent past paper and check the marking structure.
MM Carefully select the topics you are going to revise.
MM Use your lecture/study notes and refine them further, if possible, into lists or
diagrams and transfer them on to index cards/Post-it notes. Mind maps are a
good way of making links between topics and ideas.
MM Practise your handwriting – make sure it’s neat and legible.
One to two days before the exam
MM Recheck times, dates and venue.

MM Actively review your notes and key facts.

MM Exercise, eat sensibly and get a few good nights’ sleep.
On the day
MM Get a good night’s sleep.

MM Have a good meal, two to three hours before the start time.
MM Arrive in good time.
MM Spend a few minutes calming and focusing.
In the exam room
MM Keep calm.

MM Take a few minutes to read each question carefully. Don’t jump to conclusions
– think calmly about what each question means and the area it is focused on.
MM Start with the question you feel most confident about. This helps your morale.
MM By the same token, don’t expend all your efforts on that one question – if you
are expected to answer three questions then don’t just answer two.
MM Keep to time and spread your effort evenly on all opportunities to score
marks.

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And finally, before the exam . . .

MM Once you have chosen a question, jot down any salient facts or key points.
Then take five minutes to plan your answer – a spider diagram or a few notes
may be enough to focus your ideas. Try to think in terms of ‘why and how’ not
just ‘facts’.
MM You might find it useful to create a visual plan or map before writing your
answer to help you remember to cover everything you need to address.
MM Keep reminding yourself of the question and try not to wander off the point.
MM Remember that quality of argument is more important than quantity of facts.
MM Take 30–60-second breaks whenever you find your focus slipping (typically
every 20 minutes).
MM Make sure you reference properly – according to your university requirements.
MM Watch your spelling and grammar – you could lose marks if you make too
many errors.

 Final revision checklist

PM Have you revised the topics highlighted in the revision checklists?

PM Have you attended revision classes and taken note of and/or followed up
on your lecturers’ advice about the exams or assessment process at your
university?
PM Canyou answer the questions posed in this text satisfactorily? Don’t
forget to check sample answers on the website too.
PM Have you read the additional material to make your answer stand out?
PM Remember to criticise appropriately – based on evidence.

Test your knowledge by using the material presented in this text or on the
website: www.pearsoned.co.uk/psychologyexpress

180
 Glossary

action potential An electrical signal which is transmitted along neurons.

acute stress disorder Arises after the experience of a highly traumatic event which
threatened injury or death and created feelings of fear and helplessness. Arises within
four weeks of the trauma. Characterised by anxiety, irritability, poor concentration,
insomnia, restlessness and dissociative states including detachment, derealisation
or depersonalisation. Patients also re-experience the event in flashbacks, avoid
associated places or people.
adoption study The comparison of siblings reared together or apart to assess heredity.
agoraphobia A fear of being in places where escape would be difficult or
embarrassing (such as in public) which can develop out of specific phobias or be due
to a traumatic event. Often arises due to the fear of having a panic attack in public,
hence it is associated with panic disorder. Characterised by extreme anxiety, stress,
worry and avoidance of public situations. May arise with or without panic disorder.
agrammatism Deficits in understanding or employing grammatical devices.
agraphia An inability to write while still able to read.
alexia An inability to read while still able to write.
alogia Impoverished speech observed in cases of schizophrenia.
alpha activity The pattern of brain activity observed when an individual is in a state
of relaxation. It is observed while the eyes are closed, implying that the individual
is also in a state of relative inactivity. This activity is considerably slower at 8–12
Hz and the levels of activity observed in the various areas of the brain is relatively
synchronised.
Alzheimer’s disease A medical condition which is associated with amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. It is initially characterised by a mild
deterioration of memory but progresses to dementia where all cognitive functions are
impaired and quality of life is significantly diminished.
anhedonia An inability to feel pleasure.
anomia Deficits in remembering an appropriate word.
anterograde amnesia Inability to learn and remember information encountered after
brain damage.
anxiety disorder A psychological condition characterised by high levels of stress and
anxiety, usually elicited by an external stimuli but also influenced by internal processes.
aphagia A condition in which a neurologically damaged individual ceases to eat.
aphasia A deficit in language usually produced through brain damage.
apraxia of speech Deficits in the ability to programme movements of the lips,
tongue and throat to produce normal speech sounds.

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Glossary

aromatisation The process by which sex steroids derived from cholesterol are
converted into other sex steroids.
atrophy The decay or wasting of a structure, organ or system.
attention The allocation of cognitive resources to stimuli.
autobiographical memory Memory for events, experiences and personal
information from one’s own life.
autonomic nervous system A division of the peripheral nervous system which is
responsible for governing responses which are largely beyond conscious control.
autotopagnosia The inability to name and identify body parts.
avolition A lack of desire or motivation.
behavioural genetics An approach in psychology which attempts to identify what
proportion of the variance in a trait or behaviour can be attributed to genetics and to
the environment.
behaviourism A school of thought concerned with purely observable and
measureable human and animal behaviour.
beta activity A pattern of activity observed when actively engaging in mental
activity, characterised by 13–30 Hz (cycles per second). Activity is desynchronised in
that areas of the brain vary in their levels and pattern of activity.
bipolar disorder A psychological condition characterised not only with periods of
depression but also by periods of mania.
bipolar I Bipolar disorder characterised by manic episodes, major depressive
episodes and often mixed episodes in which both states occur.
bipolar II Bipolar disorder characterised by hypomania (rapid cycle but short-lived
mania), major depressive episodes but no manic or mixed episodes.
bloodletting An ancient technique of releasing blood from the body in an attempt
to restore balance.
Broca’s aphasia A deficit in language production caused by damage to Broca’s area
in the prefrontal cortex. Characterised by anomia, agrammatism and difficulties in
articulation. Also known as expressive aphasia.
bruxism A condition in which individuals grind their teeth and clench their jaw while
asleep, potentially resulting in a sore jaw, damaged teeth and headaches.
cataplexy The sudden loss of muscle tone which can be anything from slight
paralysis of a body part to complete collapse.
central nervous system A complex system which governs all top-down processes
and consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
circadian clock A hypothetical biological mechanism which is theorised to control
sleep–waking patterns and the other biological prerequisites for sleep (such
as temperature change, the release of growth hormones and the secretion of
neurotransmitters).
circadian rhythm A behavioural or physiological process which changes daily
according to a set pattern, such as the sleep–wake cycle.
clinical trial The procedure by which medications are tested and legalised.

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 Glossary

cognitivism A school of thought concerned with human cognition.

comparative psychology An approach in psychology which is concerned with the
general biology of behaviour and performs comparisons across species.
conduction aphasia Inability to repeat words which are heard while still being able
to speak normally. Caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus which connects
Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.
connectionist A computational model used to simulate human performance and
neural activity.
consolidation The physiological process by which a memory becomes gradually
more resilient to forgetting and interference with time, repeated activation of
neurons, rehearsal and entrenchment in the brain.
converging operations Combining two or more different approaches or techniques
to study the same phenomenon at different levels of analysis.
comorbidity The presence of more than one condition at a given time.
corpus callosum A bundle of neural fibres connecting the left and right hemispheres
of the brain.
cross-cultural study The study and comparison of groups of people from different
cultural backgrounds.
declarative memory Knowledge which is easily vocalised, including knowledge about
oneself and the world. Includes semantic, autobiographical and episodic memory.
delta activity This is brain activity at less than 3 Hz but with higher amplitude than
the earlier stages of sleep. Observed during stages 3 and 4 of sleep.
dextral Right-handed.
diathesis–stress A theoretical model which states that behaviour and experience are
produced by both biological and environmental factors.
dichotic listening test A task in which dual messages are presented to the left and
right ears and participants must try to recite both messages.
direct dyslexia The ability to read words despite lacking an understanding of them.
dizygotic twins Non-identical twins who only share half of their DNA.
double dissociation Observed when one brain-damaged patient shows one pattern
of impairment while another shows a different pattern of impairment. Potentially due
to the damage of different specialised cerebral structures.
dualism/dualist A perspective which states the mind and body both exist as
separate entities which contribute toward the sense of reality.
echoic memory Short-term memory for information in the auditory field.
echolalia Involuntary repetition of other people’s utterances.
emotion A positive or negative feeling in response to an internal or external stimulus
which is characterised by physiological changes and species-typical behaviour.
encoding How information is converted into a physiological signal which changes
the connections and pattern of activation in the brain.
endocrine glands Glands which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
having fast-acting and concentrated effects.

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Glossary

endocrine system The network of glands and organs which release and regulate
hormones.
enteric nervous system A division of the autonomic nervous system which is
responsible for maintaining the gastrointestinal system.
enuresis Persistent bedwetting occurring after a child has been potty trained.
episodic memory Memory for specific events including times, places, emotions
experienced during the event.
ethological research A research technique in which animals are studied in their
natural environment with little intervention by the researcher.
eugenics A school of thought in which intelligent people are encouraged to
reproduce in an attempt to improve the species.
evolutionary theories Theories that behaviour and experience have developed
through centuries of genetic mutation, evolution and survival of the fittest.
exocrine glands Glands which secrete substances into ducts, from which they pass
from cell to cell through diffusion.
explicit memory Knowledge which is easily vocalised, including knowledge about
oneself and the world.
exteroceptive sensory systems The structures and processes responsible for the
senses of touch, smell, taste, hearing and vision.
family study A research technique in which the prevalence of a trait or type within a
family is assessed in regards to heredity.
functionalism An approach which is concerned with identifying the functions which
behaviour and experience serve.
generalised anxiety disorder A general state of anxiety which is applied across life
in general and may have originated due to the exacerbation of other anxieties or
traumatic events. Characterised by anxiety, worry, heart palpitations, dizziness and
recurrent stress response across a range of situations.
genetic engineering The manipulation or cloning of the genome within laboratory
settings.
heredity The proportion of variance in a given trait or type which can be accounted
for by genetics and the environment.
homeostasis The naturally balanced state of the body. This is the ideal state
and the parasympathetic nervous system strives to restore this equilibrium when
physiology is imbalanced.
hormones Endogenous substances produced by the glands of the body.
humorism An ancient school of thought concerned with the balance of the body’s
naturally produced substances: bile, blood and phlegm.
hypomania Rapid-cycle but shorted-lived episodes of mania. Common in bipolar II.
iconic memory Short-term memory for information in the visual field.
idealism A perspective which states that the only reality is that created by the mind.
implicit memory Memory which cannot be easily articulated, such as in the case of
procedural knowledge.

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 Glossary

insomnia This condition is characterised by the difficulty in falling asleep or only

sleeping for brief intervals of time.
interoceptive system The structures and processes responsible for processing
information concerning the position of the body.
introspection A technique developed by Wundt (1902) to study the subjective
experience of patients based on their description of their thoughts and feelings.
James–Lange theory A theory in which emotional behaviour and physiological
responses are directly elicited by situations and that ‘feelings’ are the result of
feedback from these behavioural and physiological responses.
K complexes Large spikes of activity initially observed during stage 2 sleep and
declining in stage 3.
Korsakoff’s syndrome A medical condition produced through alcoholism in
which patients demonstrate sensory deficits, motor problems, confusion, amnesia
and personality changes. Patients also have an increased risk of death from liver,
gastrointestinal or heart disease.
lateralisation The theory that one hemisphere of the brain is dominant in a given
process while the other serves only minor roles.
learning Learning is concerned with the process in which our experiences of the
environment change the pattern and structure of activation in brain.
lesions The severing of connections or damage to structures in the brain.
linguistic universals The 13 principles of language which Hockett (1960) argued
could be observed across all languages.
localisation The theory that specialised structures of the brain facilitate specific
functions.
long-term memory Information which is stored in the brain for a long period of
time and retrieved at a later date, despite lacking continuing rehearsal in the interval
between encoding, storage and retrieval. These memories can be elaborated over
time as new information is encountered and processed.
long-term potentiation When pre- and post-synaptic neurons are activated
simultaneously upon exposure to a stimulus. This enhances the transmission of
both action potentials and neurotransmitters, facilitating learning by altering the
connections between neurons and lowering their activation thresholds.
major (unipolar) depression A psychological condition characterised by low mood,
negative thoughts, extreme negativism, reduced interest, lack of pleasure, changes
in appetite and sleep patterns and difficulty concentrating. In extreme cases sufferers
can also experience hallucinations and delusions.
materialism A perspective which states that the only reality is that experienced by
the body.
memory How the changes in the brain experienced during learning are stored
and subsequently reactivated during the retrieval of information. Memory has been
subdivided into various forms, including autobiographical, semantic, episodic,
implicit, explicit and prospective memory.
mind–body problem A philosophical debate concerning the relationship between
and dominance of the mind and the body.

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Glossary

monist/monism A perspective which states that either the mind or the body exists
independently. There is only one reality and that may be through the mind (idealism)
or the body (materialism).
monozygotic twins Identical twins who share the same DNA.
narcolepsy A condition in which individuals are unable to control their sleep
patterns, suffer from excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), fall asleep at inappropriate
times or in inappropriate places and enter REM sleep after only ten minutes.
nature–nurture A theoretical debate surrounding the topic of whether an individual’s
behaviour and experience are determined and inevitable due to biological factors or
undetermined and changeable due to environmental factors.
neuroimaging A procedure in which neurological imaging technology is used to
visualise and record the activity of the brain.
neuropsychology An approach in psychology which attempts to identify both normal
and impaired human function, usually through studying the effects of brain damage.
neuroscience An approach in psychology which attempts to identify the neural
correlates of cognition using a combination of physiological, experimental and
computational measures.
neurotransmitter A naturally occurring chemical produced in the body at the
terminal buttons of neurons which facilitates the transmission of action potentials
across synaptic gaps. The activation threshold and compatibility of the post-synaptic
receptor cells will determine their efficiency. Neurotransmitters can have excitatory or
inhibitory effects.
nocturia Frequency waking due to the need to urinate, which can result in sleep
deprivation.
non-REM sleep Constituting stages 1–4 of normal sleep which is not characterised
by rapid eye movements.
normal wakefulness Full consciousness and engagement with the environment.
obsessive compulsive disorder An anxiety disorder characterised by excessive
worry, persistent obsessive thoughts, irrationality and overriding compulsions to
perform actions which reduce the patient’s anxiety. Repetitive actions are intended to
neutralise the source of the anxiety. May prevent normal daily functioning.
orthographic dysgraphia A writing disorder in which individuals are unable to spell
irregularly spelled words while still being able to spell regularly spelled words.
panic disorder A condition which often arises without a discernible cause but may
follow periods of high anxiety or arise due to misinterpretation of bodily responses.
Characterised by sudden and acute attacks of fear or anxiety resulting in panic
attacks, stress, heart palpitations, rapid breathing or hyperventilating, blurred vision,
dizziness and flights of thought.
parasomnias Parasomnias include sleep walking, night terrors and bruxism.
pavor nocturnus Night terrors. A condition which arises during slow-wave sleep and
is characterised by extreme fear, gasping and often screaming.
parasympathetic nervous system A division of the autonomic nervous system which
promotes the conservation of resources.

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perception Higher-order processes of integrating, reorganising and interpreting a

complete pattern of sensation.
perimetry task A task which identifies the location and scope of a scotoma by
asking participants to identify when they are able to see a series of dots presented in
the visual field.
peripheral neuropathy A condition in which the nerves that stimulate muscles to
move are damaged and can result in muscle atrophy and facial palsy.
peripheral nervous system A complex system which governs all bottom-up
processes and consists of all of the nerves, muscles and organs beyond the CNS.
pheromone A chemical substance transmitted from one animal to another via smell
or taste, usually to signal receptivity, availability, challenge or threat.
phonological dysgraphia A writing disorder in which individuals are unable to sound
out words and write them phonetically.
phonological dyslexia Ability to read familiar words but deficits in the ability to read
unfamiliar words and pronounceable non-words.
physiological psychology An approach in psychology which attempts to identify the
neural correlates of behaviour and experience, often in laboratory animals.
polysomnography The measurement of physiological activity during sleep.
post-traumatic stress disorder Anxiety disorder arising after extreme trauma which
caused feelings of intense fear and helplessness which can arise at any point after
the trauma, including years later. Characterised by flashbacks, nightmares, obsessive
thoughts, avoidance of triggers, heightened anxiety and startle response.
procedural memory Knowledge including all non-declarative skills and abilities. This
is concerned with how to do things.
proprioceptive system The structures and processes responsible for processing
information concerning conditions within the body.
prosopagnosia A neuropsychological condition in which people are unable to
recognise faces.
prospective memory Remembering to perform a planned action at the intended time.
psychopharmacology An approach in psychology which is concerned with the
effects of medication on behaviour and experience.
psychophysiology An approach in psychology which investigates the correspondence
between physiological activity, behaviour and experience in human subjects.
pure alexia An inability to read without the loss of the ability to write produced by
brain damage.
pure word deafness The ability to speak, hear, write and read without being able to
comprehend the meaning of speech. Caused by damage to Wernicke’s area and the
disruption of auditory input.
reductionist/reductionism Attempting to explain a higher-order function based on
lower-order processes.
rehearsal A process which can result in the transition of a memory from the short-
term to long-term memory. Rehearsal can be through maintenance, in which

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individuals rehearse the original information, or elaboration, in which the individual

adds to the existing memory.
REM sleep Stage 5 of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement.
retrieval The reactivation of neural networks and the information contained within
them.
retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve memories which were acquired before
brain damage.
schizophrenia A severe condition in which sufferers experience hallucinations,
delusions, speech impairment, irrationality, unusual motor activity and impairment in
most aspects of their lives.
scotoma An area of blindness produced through damage to the primary visual cortex.
semantic memory Knowledge about categories, objects, concepts and meanings.
sensation The process of detecting a stimulus.
serendipitous Findings which were observed but were not originally the subject of
the investigation.
short-term memory Information which is held in consciousness for a brief amount of
time, usually through immediate and continuous rehearsal. This includes iconic and
echoic memory. Also reconceptualised as working memory.
sinestral Left-handed.
sleep apnoea A condition in which individuals temporarily cease breathing while
asleep.
sleep paralysis A condition in which the muscle atonia, which normally occurs
during REM sleep, actually occurs when going to sleep (hypnagogic) or waking up
(hypnopompic). It can cause states of extreme panic and in severe cases it can occur
in conjunction with terrifying hallucinations.
sleep spindles Bursts of faster activity initially observed during stage 2 sleep and
declining in stage 3.
slow-wave sleep This is the activity observed during stage one sleep and is
characterised by a frequency of 3–7.5 Hz.
sodium amytal test A test in which one hemisphere of the brain is anaesthetised to
test the performance of the other hemisphere.
somatic nervous system A division of the peripheral nervous system which is
responsible for monitoring and interacting with the external world.
somatosensory Information derived from the bodily senses.
somnambulism Sleep walking. A condition in which individuals are able to
unconsciously interact with their environment while sleeping for a short interval of time.
specific phobias Anxiety disorders often caused by irrational thoughts or a negative
experience with specific stimuli. Characterised by anxiety, worry, avoidance of
triggers, obsessive thoughts, attentional biases and hypervigilance.
split-brain study A study which examines the performance of people who have had
their hemispheres surgically separated.

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storage How information is stored in the brain as connections between neural

networks and their respective patterns of activation.
stress response The physiological, cognitive and behavioural response to threat and
anxiety characterised by action readiness for ‘fight-or-flight’.
structuralism An approach which is concerned with studying how the structure and
organisation of the mind influence behaviour and experience.
surface dyslexia Ability to read words phonetically but deficits in the ability to read
irregularly spelled words.
sympathetic nervous system A division of the autonomic nervous system which
promotes action readiness.
tardive dyskinesia Involuntary movements such as tick-like gestures, rapid
movement of arms or legs, grimacing, rapid blinking and tongue protrusion
produced through long-term use of anti-psychotic medications.
targeted mutation Intended genetic mutations are produced in a laboratory and
injected into laboratory animals to produce the desired mutation.
theta activity This is brain activity observed during stage 1 sleep and is
characterised by a frequency of 3–7.5 Hz.
topic The term assigned to hormones which stimulate or inhibit the release of
other hormones.
transcortical sensory aphasia Deficits in comprehending and producing meaningful
spontaneous speech while being able to repeat speech. Caused by damage to the
posterior region of Wernicke’s area.
trepanning An ancient technique in which holes are drilled in the skull in an attempt
to relieve pressure.
twin study The comparison of siblings on a specific measure to assess heredity.
unipolar depression A psychological condition characterised by unusually low
mood, lethargy, negative thoughts and negative emotions.
visual agnosia A neuropsychological condition characterised by deficits in perception.
Wernicke’s aphasia Deficits in the ability to comprehend speech and/or the
production of fluent but meaningless speech. Produced by damage to Wernicke’s
area in the auditory association cortex in the left temporal lobe. Also known as
receptive aphasia.
word form dyslexia An individual is only able to read words after spelling out the
individual letters. Also known as spelling dyslexia.
working memory Manipulation and use of information in short-term memory.
zeitgebers Stimuli which can reset the circadian clock and circadian rhythms. These
usually come in the form of changing light.

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Note: Note: page entries in bold refer to glossary definitions

abnormal psychology 15, 151–74 depression 157

anxiety disorders 15, 16, 161, 168–73, emotional responses 124, 125, 126, 131
183 memory 140, 142
bipolar disorder 160–3, 184 androgens 42, 48, 51, 54, 129
cultural conceptions of abnormality 17, anger 120, 123, 126–8, 129, 130
154, 170, 173–4 anhedonia 156, 164, 183
historical context 154–5 animal communication 64, 65, 67–8, 79
schizophrenia 15, 16, 19, 34, 163–8, animal experimentation 15, 16, 19–20
190 hormones and sexual behaviour 56, 57
see also depression memory 145
acetylcholine 35–6, 39, 41, 107–8, 125, 157 physiological psychology 10, 11
action potentials 35–6, 40, 90, 139, 140, sleep 107, 112, 113
183 anomia 74, 183
action readiness 36, 37–8, 39, 123 anosmia 94
acute stress disorder 168, 169, 172, 183 anterograde amnesia 141–2, 143, 144,
adoption studies 17, 18, 183 145, 183
adrenal glands 50, 53, 162, 171 antidepressants 159, 162
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 49, anxiety 39, 123, 168, 169
125, 171 anti-anxiety medications 125, 172
ageasia 95 endocrine disorders 58
aggression 124, 126–8, 129, 130 evolutionary theory 171
agnosia, visual 84, 191 hormones 128
agoraphobia 168, 169, 183 anxiety disorders 15, 16, 161, 168–73, 183
agrammatism 74, 183 aphagia 10, 183
agraphia 74, 183 aphasia 74, 76, 183
alcoholism 144 Broca’s 14, 73, 74, 76, 184
alexia 74, 183, 189 conduction 74, 76, 185
alogia 164, 183 transcortical sensory 75, 191
alpha activity 103, 104, 183 Wernicke’s 14, 73, 75, 191
Alzheimer’s disease 144, 146, 183 apraxia of speech 74, 183
American Psychiatric Association 170 arachnoid mater 28
amino acids 42, 51 aromatisation 54–5, 184
amnesia 141–6 arousal 33, 41, 92, 124, 127
anterograde 141–2, 143, 144, 145, 183 atrophy 29, 42, 43, 144, 166–7, 184
concussion 145 attention 33, 82–3, 96, 179, 184
electroconvulsive shock 145 auditory 89–91
Korsakoff’s syndrome 144 brain damage 34
medial temporal 145 central nervous system 28
retrograde 141–2, 143, 144, 145, 190 general properties 83–6
amygdala 32, 33, 39, 94 visual 86–9
anxiety and stress disorders 171 auditory perception (hearing) 33, 89–91

201
Index

autism 34 sensory systems 84–5

autobiographical memory 138, 184 visual perception 88
autonomic nervous system 33, 36–40, 42, Broca’s aphasia 14, 73, 74, 76, 184
122, 184 Bruce effect 57
autotopagnosia 74, 184 bruxism 115, 184
avolition 164, 184
carbamazepine 162
basal forebrain 107, 124 case studies 14, 15, 142–3, 146, 147,
behavioural genetics 2, 17–19, 179, 184 148–9
behaviourism 4, 5, 125, 184 cataplexy 115, 184
benzodiazepines 125, 146, 159, 172 central nervous system (CNS) 26, 27–35,
beta activity 103, 104, 184 43–4, 179, 184
biofeedback 172 anxiety and stress disorders 170
biomedical approach 155, 165, 172 endocrine system 53, 55
bipolar disorder 160–3, 184 fear response 125
bipolar I 160, 161, 184 restorative theories of sleep 109
bipolar II 160–1, 184 see also brain
blind-sight 5, 85, 87 chemical senses 94–5
blindness 87, 130 chloropromazine 166
block tapping task 142 circadian clock 106, 113, 184
bloodletting 7, 8, 184 circadian rhythms 106, 113, 157, 184
brain 10–11, 27, 30–5 clinical trials 15–16, 184
anger and aggression 126, 127 clozapine 165, 166
anxiety and stress disorders 171 cognitive-behavioural therapy 172
auditory perception 90–1 cognitive neuroscience see neuroscience
bipolar disorder 162 cognitivism 4, 185
chemical senses 94–5 cohort studies 15
depression 157 communication
emotional expression 130–1 of emotion 130–2
fear responses 124–6 non-verbal 65, 66
function 32–3 comorbidity 155–6, 185
gender differences 54–5 comparative psychology 2, 19–20, 185
lateralisation of language 69–73 concussion 145
localisation 72, 73–5 conditioned fear response 143
memory 139–41, 142, 143, 146, 147 conduction aphasia 74, 76, 185
perception and attention 96 connectionism 13, 185
schizophrenia 165, 166–7 consolidation 139, 142, 145, 146, 185
sensory systems 84 converging operations 9–10, 13–14, 185
sleep 100, 103, 104–5, 106–7 coping mechanisms 39, 42, 167, 172
somatosensation 92–3 corpus callosum 31, 69–70, 71, 185
structure and organisation 30–2 cortisol 50, 157, 171
visual perception 86–9 cross-cultural studies 20, 185
Wernicke–Geschwind model 75–6 cryogenic blockade 11
see also lesions; neuropsychology; culture
neuroscience abnormality 17, 154, 170, 173–4
brain damage 13–14, 15, 34, 76 communication of emotion 130
amnesia 141–6, 147 cross-cultural studies 20, 185
auditory perception 91 cultural transmission of language 65
language deficits 73–5 influence on physical development 55

202
 Index

D-Cycloserine 166 anger and aggression 120, 123, 126–8,

Darwin, Charles 130 129, 130
declarative memory 138, 185 brain damage 34
delta activity 103, 105, 185 communication of 130–2
depression 5, 15, 171 defining 120
bipolar 160–3, 184 fear 39, 120, 123–6, 128–9, 130, 143,
diathesis–stress model 7 169
endocrine disorders 58 hormones 128–30
major (unipolar) 7, 8, 155–60, 187, 191 James–Lange theory 121–3, 187
neurotransmitter imbalances 152, 157 encephalons 32
determinism 17, 168 encoding 137, 138, 185
dextral 70, 72, 185 endocrine glands 49, 50, 185
diabetes 58, 59 endocrine system 26, 33, 42, 47–61, 179,
diagnosis 155, 170 186
anxiety and stress disorders 168–9 anxiety and stress disorders 170, 171
bipolar disorder 161, 163 depression 157
depression 156, 160 developmental aspects 54–6
schizophrenia 164 disorders 58–9
diathesis–stress model 7, 17, 152, 165, 185 neurotransmitters 41
dichotic listening test 70, 72, 185 regulation of 52–3
digit span task 142 restorative theories of sleep 109
direct dyslexia 74, 185 sexual behaviour 56–8
discrimination 17, 154 see also hormones
dizygotic twins 17, 18, 157, 165, 185 enteric nervous system 36, 39–40, 186
DNA 17, 19 enuresis 104, 116, 186
dopamine 39, 41, 42, 49, 124 epilepsy 142
depression 7, 152, 157 epinephrine 37, 41, 171
schizophrenia 165, 166 episodic memory 138, 186
dorsal stream 88 estrogen 48, 50, 51, 54, 58
double dissociation 14, 185 ethical issues 16, 17, 20, 113, 154
dreams 100, 109, 110–11, 117 ethological research 19, 186
drugs see medication; substance eugenics 17, 18, 186
dependence evolutionary theories 6, 17, 186
dualism 4, 5, 6, 185 anxiety and stress disorders 171
dura mater 28 comparative psychology 19, 20
dysgraphia 74, 188, 189 emotional expression 130
dyslexia sleep 109
direct 74, 185 exams, preparation for 177–81
phonological 74, 189 exocrine glands 49, 50, 186
surface 75, 191 explicit memory 138, 139, 186
word form 75, 191 exteroceptive sensory systems 83, 84,
91–2, 186
ears 90
echoic memory 137, 185 facial expressions 122, 125, 130, 131
echolalia 164, 185 facial paralysis 131
electroconvulsive shock (ECS) 145, 159 family studies 17, 18, 186
electroencephalogram (EEG) 10, 11, 102, fear 39, 120, 123–6, 128–9, 130, 143, 169
103, 104 ‘fight-or-flight’ response 36, 39, 123, 124
emotions 33, 119–33, 185 foetal development 54–5

203
Index

Freud, Sigmund 110 hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

functionalism 5–6, 186 50, 53, 162, 171
hypothalamus 32, 33, 49, 52, 53, 57
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 42, 171, anxiety and stress disorders 171
172 emotional responses 124, 126
gate-theory of pain 93, 94 sleep 106, 108
gender 48, 53, 56, 60–1, 70–1, 129
generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) 168, iconic memory 137, 186
169, 170, 173, 186 idealism 4, 5, 186
genetic engineering 18, 186 immune system 50, 109, 111, 165, 171
genetics implicit memory 138, 139, 140, 143, 186
behavioural 2, 17–19, 179, 184 incomplete picture task 143
bipolar disorder 162 insomnia 107, 113, 115, 156, 169, 187
comparative psychology 19, 20 intelligence 17, 18–19, 30
depression 157 interactionism 5
schizophrenia 165 interoceptive system 91–2, 187
see also heredity introspection 5, 6, 187
glands 35, 37, 48, 49–51
glutamate 42, 140 James–Lange theory 121–3, 187
Greece, ancient 4, 7 jet lag 113, 114
grey matter, loss of 166–7
growth disorders 58 K complexes 103, 105, 187
gustation (taste) 95 Korsakoff’s syndrome 144, 187

hallucinations 115, 116, 156, 163, 164, 167 language 33, 34, 44, 63–79, 85
handedness 70, 73 cognitive neuroscience 76, 77–8
‘helping-hand’ phenomenon 71 defining 65–9
heredity 17, 18–19, 165, 170, 179, 186 lateralisation 69–73, 187
see also genetics localisation 72, 73–5, 187
hippocampus 32, 124 units of 67
memory 139, 140, 142, 145–6, 148 Wernicke–Geschwind model of 75–6
REM sleep 104 see also aphasia
schizophrenia 165 lateralisation 69–73, 187
homeostasis 39, 40, 106, 186 learning 111, 136–7, 138, 187
homosexuality 57, 154 Lee–Boot effect 57
hormones 26, 35, 42, 48–9, 51–2, 186 lesions 7, 8, 11, 15, 57, 127, 187
circadian clock 106 emotional expression 130–1
depression 157 hippocampus 145, 146, 148
emotion 128–30 Korsakoff’s syndrome 144
foetal development 54–5 sleep 100
gender differences 53, 60–1 somatosensation 93
growth 102–3, 109 lexicon 67
hypothalamus 33 linguistic relativity 67
imbalances 58, 59 linguistic universals 65–6, 187
sexual behaviour 56–8 lithium 162, 163
humorism 4, 7, 186 localisation 72, 73–5, 187
hypofrontality 165 long-term memory 137, 142, 187
hypomania 160–1, 186 long-term potentiation 139, 140, 187

204
 Index

major (unipolar) depression 7, 8, 155–60, morphemes 67

187, 191 movement 28, 33, 35, 41, 42
mania 160–1, 162 Mumby box 145–6
materialism 4, 5, 187 mutations, targeted 18, 191
medial temporal amnesia 145
medication 15–16, 107 narcolepsy 115, 116, 188
anti-anxiety 125, 172 nature–nurture 6–7, 19, 20, 64, 78–9, 188
bipolar disorder 162 nerves 35, 42, 90, 92
depression 158–60 neural networks 137, 138
insomnia 115 neuroactive peptides 42
schizophrenia 165, 166 neurobiological theories of sleep 109
serotonin 127 neuroimaging 8, 12–13, 15, 73, 77–8, 149,
see also psychopharmacology 188
medicine 7–8 neurons 26, 28, 35, 36, 40
melatonin 49, 106, 114, 157 chemical senses 94, 95
memory 33, 34, 136–49, 179, 187 depression 157
autobiographical 138, 184 long-term potentiation 139, 140
central nervous system 28 sleep 106
neuropsychology 2, 8, 13–15, 179–80, 188
declarative 138, 185
brain structure 32
echoic 137, 185
lateralisation of language 70–1
effects of emotion on 124
limitations of 14, 147–8
episodic 138, 186
localisation of language 73
explicit 138, 139, 186
memory 141–8, 149
iconic 137, 186
somatosensation 93
implicit 138, 139, 140, 143, 186
visual perception 89
long-term 137, 142, 187
Wernicke–Geschwind model 75–6
procedural 138, 189
neuroscience 2, 8, 11–12, 179–80, 188
prospective 138, 189
brain structure 32
REM sleep 104
depression 160
semantic 138, 190 language 76, 77–8
short-term 41, 137, 142, 143, 190 neurotransmitters 35, 39, 40–2, 106, 188
spatial 146 anxiety and stress disorders 171
storage in the brain 139–41 bipolar disorder 162
verbal 70 depression 7, 152, 157
working 109, 111, 138, 139, 140, 141, fear response 125
191 long-term potentiation 139, 140
see also amnesia schizophrenia 165
meninges 28, 30 sleep 107–8, 109
menstrual cycle 53, 56, 57, 58 night terrors (pavor nocturnus) 104, 115,
mental illness see abnormal psychology 116, 188
mind–body problem 4–5, 123, 187 nocturia 116, 188
mirror drawing task 143 nonadrenaline 37, 41, 107–8, 171
monism 4, 5, 6, 188 non-REM sleep 103, 188
monoamines 42, 157, 159, 160 non-verbal communication 65, 66
monozygotic twins 17, 18, 157, 165, 188 normal wakefulness 100, 103, 188
mood 41, 42, 122
anxiety and stress disorders 171 object recognition 140, 145, 146
bipolar disorder 161 obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) 7, 8,
depression 156 145, 168, 169, 172, 188

205
Index

olfaction (smell) 94 polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) 58, 59

orthographic dysgraphia 74, 188 polysomnography 103, 189
osteoporosis 58, 59 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 129,
ovaries 50, 54, 57, 58 168, 169, 172, 189
prefrontal cortex
pain 5, 33, 44, 92, 93–4, 124 Broca’s aphasia 74
pancreas 50, 58 depression 157
panic disorder 161, 168, 169, 173, 188 emotional responses 125, 127, 128, 131
parallel processing 85, 86, 88, 93 memory 140
parallelism 5 schizophrenia 165, 167
paralysis 29 ‘Problem Solving Theory of Dreaming’ 111
facial 131 procedural memory 138, 189
sleep 116, 190 progesterone 50, 51, 53, 54, 60
parametric tests 17 proprioceptive system 91–2, 189
parasomnias 115, 188 prosopagnosia 88, 189
parasympathetic nervous system 36, 37, prospective memory 138, 189
38–9, 124, 188 proteins 51
parathyroid gland 50 psychopharmacology 2, 15–16, 154, 189
pavor nocturnus (night terrors) 104, 115, see also medication
116, 188 psychophysiology 2, 10–11, 123, 189
peptides 42, 51 pure alexia 74, 189
perception 82–91, 96, 179, 189 pure word deafness 74, 189
auditory 33, 89–91
brain damage 34 reductionism 11, 13, 189
central nervous system 27, 28 reflexes 28, 29, 33, 39, 85
general properties 83–6 rehearsal 137, 138, 189–90
visual 33, 86–9, 140 REM sleep 103, 104, 107–8, 109, 112, 115,
perimetry task 87, 189 116, 157, 190
peripheral nervous system (PNS) 26, 27, restorative theories of sleep 109
35–43, 179, 189 retinas 27, 86
anxiety and stress disorders 170 retrieval 137, 138, 190
endocrine system 53 retrograde amnesia 141–2, 143, 144, 145,
fear response 123–4, 125 190
restorative theories of sleep 109 reverse learning theory 109
peripheral neuropathy 42, 43, 189 revision 177–81
personality 17, 19, 30, 34, 158 reward systems 41, 42
personality disorders 15, 155–6, 161 rotary pursuit task 143
pheromones 56–7, 130, 189
philosophy 4–7 schizophrenia 15, 16, 19, 34, 163–8, 190
phobias 168, 172 science, psychology as a 6
specific 169, 190 scotoma 87, 190
phonemes 67 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
phonological dysgraphia 74, 189 (SSRIs) 159, 160, 172
phonological dyslexia 74, 189 self-harm 161, 163
physiological psychology 10–11, 179, 189 semantic memory 138, 190
pia mater 28 semantics 67, 76
pineal body 49 sensation 42, 82–3, 190
pituitary gland 32, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 162, chemical senses 94–5
171 conscious experience 87

206
 Index

general properties 83–6 stress 50, 123, 124, 168

somatosensation 91–4 evolutionary theory 171
senses 33, 83, 94–5 hormones 128, 129
serendipitous findings 16, 190 stress response 36, 39, 191
serotonin 39, 41, 42, 126–7 stress disorders 168–73
depression 7, 152, 157, 159 strokes 70–1, 143, 157
REM sleep 107–8 structuralism 5–6, 191
sexual behaviour 56–8 substance dependence 155–6, 161
sexual development 51, 54–5 suicide 156, 157, 159, 160, 163
shift work 113, 114 suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) 106
short-term memory 41, 137, 142, 143, 190 surface dyslexia 75, 191
sinestral 70, 72, 190 sympathetic nervous system 36–8, 124,
sleep 33, 41, 99–117 191
biological correlates 102, 105–8 synapses 35, 40–1, 90, 92, 94, 95, 126,
depression 157 159
disorders 114–16 syntax 67
functions of 108–11
non-REM 103, 188 tardive dyskinesia 166, 191
REM 103, 104, 107–8, 109, 112, 115, targeted mutations 18, 191
116, 157, 190 taste 95
sleep deprivation 109, 110, 112–14, 159 technology 7, 8–9
stages of 102–5 testes 50, 54, 57
sleep apnoea 115, 190 testosterone 42, 50, 54, 56–7, 58, 60, 129
sleep paralysis 116, 190 thalamus 32, 33, 92, 95, 124, 131, 171
sleep spindles 103, 105, 190 theta activity 103, 105, 191
sleep walking (somnambulism) 104, 115, threat, perception of 39
116, 190 thymus 50
slow-wave sleep 104, 105, 107, 190 thyroid disorders 58
smell 94 thyroid gland 49, 50, 52, 55
social and cultural norms 55, 127, 167 topics 53, 191
social phobia 172 touch 85, 131
socioeconomic status 167 transcortical sensory aphasia 75, 191
sodium amytal test 70, 72, 190 trauma
solitary tract 107 depression 158
somatic nervous system 35–6, 190 post-traumatic stress disorder 168, 169,
somatosensory information 28, 29, 33, 35, 172, 189
42, 91–4, 100, 131, 190 trepanning 7, 8, 191
somnambulism (sleep walking) 104, 115, tricyclics (TCAs) 159
116, 190 twin studies 17, 18, 191
somnolence 103 twins 17, 18, 157, 165, 185, 188
spatial memory 146
specific phobias 169, 190 unipolar (major) depression 7, 8, 155–60,
speech 69, 73 187, 191
apraxia of 74, 183
disorganised 164 vagus nerve 37, 38, 39
spinal cord 27, 28–30, 37, 92 Vanderbergh effect 57
split-brain studies 71, 72, 85, 190 ventral stream 88
steroids 42, 51, 52, 54–5 visual agnosia 84, 191
storage 137, 138, 139–41, 191 visual perception 33, 86–9, 140

207
Index

Wearing, Clive 143 word form dyslexia 75, 191

Wernicke–Geschwind model of language working memory 109, 111, 138, 139, 140,
75–6 141, 191
Wernicke’s aphasia 14, 73, 75, 191
Whitten effect 57 zeitgebers 106, 157, 191
word deafness 74, 189

208