Underground Surveying

Introduction to underground surveying

Underground mine surveying involves measuring and documenting the location of points below
the surface to create accurate maps and plans critical to the safety and efficiency of the mine.

Key techniques include traversing, triangulation, and leveling. Traversing measures horizontal
and vertical distances to create a network of lines, while triangulation calculates distances by
measuring angles between points. Leveling determines the elevation of points relative to
common datums, which helps in topographic mapping. Advanced equipment such as total
stations and laser scanners are also used.

Although the principles of underground surveying are similar to surface surveying, unique
challenges arise such as poor visibility in the dark, confined spaces, safety hazards of moving
equipment, and harsh environmental conditions that can damage equipment.

Despite these challenges, underground mine surveying is essential for safe and efficient mining
operations, as accurate maps and plans are vital.

Importance of Mining Surveys in Underground Mining

 Safety: Ensures safe operations by providing accurate data to avoid hazards.

 Navigation and Orientation: Facilitates precise navigation within the complex
underground network.
 Resource Management: Helps in efficient management and allocation of resources.
 Legal Compliance: Ensures adherence to regulatory requirements through accurate
documentation.

Challenges in Underground Mine Exploration

 Limited vision: Poor lighting makes accurate measurements difficult.

 Confined Space: Limited areas restrict movement of personnel and equipment.
 Environmental conditions: Harsh conditions such as dust, heat and humidity can affect
equipment and accuracy.
  Ground Movement: Constant changes in the ground can distort measurements and require
frequent updates.
 Communication barriers: The underground environment often hinders communication,
making coordination difficult.

Underground mine surveying involves the accurate measurement, mapping and documentation of
the layout of the mine. Surveyors create detailed maps and plans of tunnels, shafts, and chambers
that are critical to planning, development, and ensuring safety. This process requires expertise in
survey techniques and a deep understanding of the unique challenges presented by the subsurface
environment.

Instruments used in underground mining exploration

 Theodolites: Accurately measure horizontal and vertical angles.

 Total Stations: Combine electronic distance measurement with theodolite functions for
accurate positioning.
 Tape measures and chains: Ideal for measuring short distances at limited intervals.
 Digital Levels: Provide accurate elevation data.
 Survey Drones: These are used for efficient mapping of large underground areas that are
difficult to reach manually.
Theories and Methodology

Correlation Survey

Overview of Communication Survey

A contact probe in an underground mine connects the underground foundation to the surface
foundation. This alignment is critical to ensure safety, accurate mapping and efficient operations.

Main Objectives:

 Demarcation: Defines mining boundaries to keep underground workings within safe

limits.
 Surface Feature Definition: Refers to rivers, lakes and other features in mine projects to
prevent flooding and other hazards.
 Site Selection: Identify suitable locations for new pits, drifts or boreholes and ensure they
are effectively connected to existing underground infrastructure.

Types of Correlation Survey

 Direct travel: Measuring directly from a surface point to an underground point.

 Optical Transfer: Uses optical instruments to project subsurface points.
 Shaft Plumbing:
o Single wire on two rods: Uses two rods, each with one rod, for vertical alignment.
o Multiple Wires in One Shaft: Improves accuracy within one shaft.
 Precision Magnetic Method: Uses magnetic properties to convert coordinates.
 Gyro theodolite method: Determines true north underground, aligning with surface
azimuths.

Weissbach's Method at Bogala Graphite Mine:

In the Bogala graphite mine, two wire tubes in the same shaft determine subsurface coordinates
relative to surface positions. Weisbach's method calculates subsurface coordinates by measuring
angles and distances from known surface points, ensuring accurate alignment between surface
and subsurface.
The procedure of the Weisbach triangle method

i. Hang the wires as per (3) above.

ii Establish a temporary station at (T). Set the theodolite (T).

iii Read the internal angle of BTR. Three measurements should be observed on each face to
eliminate errors due to residual swing in the plumbline.

iv. Read the interior angle of ATR in a similar manner and the difference between the two angles
is obtained to get the correct value of angle BTA.

v. All distances in the triangle are measured as accurately as possible, normally to the nearest
millimeter. BT distance is also measured. When angle BTA is small then distance AT must be
equal to distance AB + distance BT.

vi. The theodolite is next set up at R and the angle TRS is observed and the distances RS and
distance RT are also carefully observed.

vii. Solve the Weisbach triangles to establish a bearing datum.

The sine rule is normally used,

sin∠BAT=[BT/AB] sin∠BTA

However, when the angles are less than 0°25’,

∠BAT=[BT/AB] ∠BTA

Once the angle BAT is known, the bearing of lines AT and AB can be easily determined.

viii. The angle BT’A can be calculated and the azimuth of TR’ can be estimated. Finally by
measuring the angle T’R’S’ the azimuth of the underground baseline R’S’ can be deduced.

Observation
Calculation
Traverse

Underground traversing is an important survey technique used to accurately determine and

record the positions of various points in an underground environment such as a mine. The
process begins by establishing a series of fixed points called stations across the area. These
stations serve as reference points to help surveyors measure the horizontal and vertical distances
between them.

The key to this method is to connect these stations to form a network of lines. This network
allows surveyors to locate other locations within the mine, making it possible to create detailed
maps and plans of the underground space.

Steps involved in underground travel:

o Selecting the First Station: The process begins with selecting a suitable location for the
first station. This point serves as the starting point for all subsequent measurements.
o Setting up of equipment: Precision instruments used for measuring angles like theodolite
or total station are set up at the first station. These devices are critical to capture the
required data.
o Sight the second station: From the first station, the surveyor looks at the second station
and records the horizontal and vertical angles. This helps establish the relative position of
the second station.
o Measuring Distances: The next step involves measuring the horizontal and vertical
distances between the first and second stations. These measurements are essential for
accurately mapping the underground structure.

Repeat for additional stations: This process is repeated for each additional station to ensure that
the entire network of points is interconnected and accurately mapped.

Applications of Underground Travel:

 o Once all the stations are set and measured, the coordinates of each station can be used to
create a detailed map or plan of the mine. This technique is very useful for various tasks:
o Mapping the structure of the mine: Understanding the structure and layout of the mine is
essential for safe and efficient operations.
o Determining points in a mine: Specific points, such as ore deposits or structural features,
can be pinpointed using traveling data.
o Locating Underground Structures: Identifying and mapping underground tunnels, shafts
and other structures is critical to planning and conservation.
o Planning Mining Operations: Accurate maps and data are essential to effective mine
planning, ensuring operations are carried out efficiently and safely.

Safety Considerations:

Traveling underground is not without its dangers. Surveyors often work in confined and
dangerous environments. It is essential that they are well trained and equipped with the right
tools to handle the challenges of underground surveying. Safety protocols must be strictly
followed to avoid accidents, especially when handling moving equipment and navigating tight
spaces.

Procedure of traverse

Positioning the theodolite at station A:

o Begin by setting up the theodolite at station A, making sure it is level and properly
secured.
o Align the zero setting of the theodolite with traverse point B, which serves as the initial
reference direction.
o Once aligned, record both face-left and face-right angle measurements to cross point C.
These readings are taken from two opposite faces of the theodolite to minimize
observation errors and increase accuracy.
Moving the theodolite to station C:

o Next, move the theodolite to station C, which is positioned at a junction, where

measurements will be taken along the path of the KST (another traverse line).
o Set the theodolite in this new location and make sure it is leveled and aligned again.

Alignment and Registration at Station C:

o Align the theodolite's zero setting with traverse point B once again to maintain stability in
your reference direction.
o Continue to record the face-left and face-right measurements for the next set of travel
points: D, E, and F. The measurements at each point will help you accurately map the
angles between these points.

Moving the theodolite to station F:

o Move the theodolite to another intersection, station F, this time reading along the path of
KSDW.
o As before, set the theodolite correctly at this new station.
o Final Alignment and Measurements at Station F:
o Align the zero setting of the theodolite with traverse point C to ensure consistency in
measurements.
o Finally, record the face-left and face-right measurements for traverse point G to complete
the observations required for this part of the survey.
Mine ventilation survey – Fixed point method

Mine ventilation is essential to maintain a safe working environment in mines by providing fresh
air and reducing hazardous gases and dust. To evaluate the performance of ventilation systems,
studies are performed to measure key parameters such as airflow, pressure, and gas
concentration.

A common technique used in these studies is the fixed-point method. This method involves
measuring airflow at specific locations within the mine to determine the overall airflow rate. An
anemometer, a wind speed measuring device, is commonly used to measure wind speed at these
fixed points, providing valuable data on the performance of the ventilation system.

Procedure

o Set up the anemometer: Place the anemometer at the first designated fixed point inside
the underground tunnel.
o Record Initial Measurements: Measure and document airflow at a fixed
point.
o Move to the next fixed point: Ensure that the anemometer is accurately
positioned and carefully moves to the next fixed point.
o Record Airflow Measurements: Measure and record the airflow at the new
fixed point.
o Repeat for all fixed points: Continue the process, measuring and recording
airflow at each designated fixed point in the survey area.
o Ensure Calibration Consistency: Check and calibrate the anemometer
regularly between readings to ensure accuracy.
o Compile and analyze data: After completing measurements at all fixed points, compile
and analyze the data to evaluate the performance of the ventilation system.
Observation and Calculation

Point VMP 77 VMP 78 VMP 79 VMP 80 VMP 81 VMP82

1 2.79 1.07 0.91 2.57 2.42 0.82
2 2.06 1.04 0.88 2.92 2.45 0.76
3 1084 0.97 0.91 2.75 2.68 0.67
4 2.52 1.15 1.25 2.65 2.4 0.8
5 2.51 1.24 1.28 2.81 2.24 0.74
6 3.15 1.33 0.85 2.68 2.58 0.65
7 2.92 1.62 0.97 2.81 2.71 0.68
8 2.82 1.54 0.95 3.03 2.34 0.6
9 2.92 1.45 0.91 2.76 2.8 0.57
Average (ms-1) 2.61 1.27 0.99 2.78 2.51 0.7
Area (m2) 4.94 3.04 4.89 2.93 2.79 3.96
Quantity flow rate (m3s-
1) 12.893 3.861 4.841 8.145 7.003 2.772
Site Description
Bogala Graphite Mine
The Bogala graphite mine, situated approximately 104 km east of Colombo at an average
elevation of 500 feet above sea level, is one of Sri Lanka’s largest graphite mining operations.
The mine features vein-type graphite mineralization, characterized by narrow, elongated, and
somewhat irregular veins. In the mining area, five distinct rock types are identified as mappable
units:
 Biotite-hornblende gneiss
 Garnet gneiss
 Silicified gneiss
 Charnockite
 Pyroxene gneiss
The survey was conducted at bogala mine SriLanka.
Surface Mining

Introduction to Surface Mining Exploration

Surface mine surveying is an important field in the mining industry that focuses on mapping and
managing the surface features of open pit mines and quarries. This division of exploration is
critical to ensuring the safe and efficient extraction of mineral resources from the Earth's crust.

Surveyors in surface mining use advanced tools and technologies such as total stations, GPS,
laser scanners, and drones to accurately measure and document the topography, structures, and
operations of a mine. These accurate measurements and data are essential for mine planning,
design and continuous monitoring throughout the entire mining process.

The main objectives of a surface mining survey are to create detailed topographic maps, estimate
the extent of mineral reserves, monitor mining progress and ensure compliance with safety and
environmental regulations. By using advanced surveying techniques, mining companies can
improve resource extraction, reduce operational risks and improve overall productivity.

This introduction explores the key principles and methodologies of surface mining surveys,
highlighting its significant role in promoting sustainable and responsible mining practices. As
technology evolves, surface mining exploration continues to be at the forefront of modern
mining operations, contributing to the ongoing growth and adaptation of the industry.

Surface mine surveying employs a variety of instruments and techniques to achieve precise
measurements:

 Total Stations
 DGPS (differentiate Global Positioning System)
 Drones
 Theodolite
 Importance of Surface Mine Surveying

Theories and Methodology

Leveling in surface mining

Leveling is an important surveying technique in surface mining, used to determine the relative
elevations of various points on the Earth's surface. This process is critical to creating accurate
topographic maps, planning mining operations, and ensuring excavation is carried out at the
correct elevation.
The key concepts of the equation are as follows:
o Datum: A reference surface, usually sea level, to which all
elevations are referenced.
o Criterion: A permanent reference point with a known elevation,
used as a starting point for leveling.
o Height of Instrument (HI): The height of the line of sight of the
leveling instrument above the datum.
o Backsight (BS): A reading was taken at a known height, often a
gauge or turning point, to establish the height of the instrument.
o Foresight (FS): A reading taken at a point where the elevation is to
be determined.
o Reduced Level (RL): The calculated elevation of the point relative
to the datum.

Applications of leveling in surface mining:

o Making accurate maps: Leveling is used to make maps that accurately depict the
elevation and contours of the mine area.
o Determining Elevations for Infrastructure: Establishing proper elevations for benches,
haul roads and other infrastructure is critical to ensuring safe and efficient mining
operations.
 o Monitoring of Excavation: Leveling helps to maintain proper level of excavation process,
prevent over-excavation or under-excavation.
o Designing drainage systems: It is used to plan drainage systems that manage water flow
and prevent flooding in the mining area.
o Post-mining land remediation: Grading plays a role in planning the post-mining
reclamation of land, ensuring that the final landscape meets environmental and regulatory
standards.

Observation and Calculation

Back sight Inter sight Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Level Remarks
1.66 100 BM,0+000m
1.27 0.39 100.39 0+010m
0.89 0.38 100.77 0+020m
4.18 0.1 0.79 101.56 0+030m
3.37 0.81 102.37 0+040m
2.5 0.87 103.24 0+050m
1.815 0.685 103.925 0+060m
0.94 0.875 104.8 0+070m
2 0.08 0.86 105.66 0+080m
1.565 0.435 106.095 0+090m
1.495 0.07 106.165 0+100m
1.385 0.11 106.275 0+110m
1.22 0.165 106.44 0+120m
0.905 0.315 106.755 0+130m
1.13 -0.225 106.53 0+140m
0.882 1.785 -0.655 105.875 0+150m
1.951 -1.069 104.806 0+160m
3.248 -1.297 103.509 0+170m
4.075 -0.827 102.682 0+180m
 2.297 4.572 -0.497 102.185 0+190m
2.234 0.063 102.248 0+200m
11.019 8.771 6.818 -4.57 2.248

DGPS (Differentiate Global Positioning System)

Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an advanced technology that improves the
accuracy of standard GPS (Global Positioning System) measurements. In mining surveys, DGPS
is essential for providing accurate spatial data, which is critical to ensuring that mining
operations are carried out efficiently, safely and in compliance with regulations.

GPS is a satellite-based navigation system that provides global location and time information as
long as there is an uninterrupted line of sight to at least four GPS satellites. However, standard
GPS is subject to errors due to factors such as atmospheric interference, satellite clock errors,
and multipath effects (where signals reflect off surfaces). These factors can result in positioning
errors of approximately 5 to 10 meters, which is insufficient for many mining applications.

DGPS has a wide range of applications in mine

surveying, providing highly accurate positioning data
essential for various tasks:

1. Boundary and Property Surveys

2. Topographic Mapping
3. Machine Guidance
4. Volume Calculations
5. Environmental Monitoring
6. Mine Infrastructure Development

Benefits of DGPS in Mine Surveying

 High Precision
 Real-Time Data
 Increased Efficiency
 Cost Savings
 Improved Safety

Theodolite
A theodolite is a precision optical instrument commonly used to measure angles in the horizontal
and vertical planes. It consists of a telescope mounted on a base that can rotate horizontally and
tilt vertically, allowing for precise angle measurements. The instrument is equipped with
graduated circles, which enable surveyors to take accurate measurements of angles. Modern
theodolites are mostly digital, offering improved accuracy, ease of use, and integration with other
surveying technologies.
In mining exploration, traverse surveying with a theodolite is important for a variety of tasks,
including establishing control networks, conducting boundary surveys, conducting underground
surveys, creating topographic maps, and monitoring deformation. The use of a theodolite in these
applications offers many advantages such as high accuracy, versatility, error detection capability
and seamless integration with electronic distance measurement (EDM) equipment.

Observation and calculations

Total Station
A total station is a highly versatile electronic/optical
instrument commonly used in surveying and construction.
It combines the functions of an electronic theodolite, an
electronic distance meter (EDM), and a microprocessor,
allowing for precise measurement of angles, distances,
and elevations. In mine surveying, total stations play a
critical role in tasks such as area and volume calculations,
which are essential for project planning, resource
estimation, and ensuring operational efficiency.

The total station integrates several key functions into one powerful device:
o Angle Measurement
o Distance Measurement
o Data Processing
o Data Storage and Transfer
This instrument is invaluable for calculating the area of land parcels or other surfaces, a
capability particularly useful in mining for delineating boundaries, planning infrastructure, and
estimating resource extraction zones.
Moreover, total stations are crucial for volume calculations in mining operations. They provide
precise measurements by mapping the surface both before and after excavation, helping
determine the volume of material to be excavated, stockpiled, or backfilled.

Applications in Mining:
o Pit Design
o Stockpile Management
 o Reclamation Planning
o Resource Estimation

Site Description
Metal Mix (Pvt) Ltd operates a quarry site in Galpatha, Kalutara, Sri Lanka. The site is strategically
located to extract high-quality granite and other stone aggregates used in construction. Equipped
with modern machinery, the quarry focuses on sustainable practices, ensuring minimal
environmental impact while meeting regional demand.