SINGLE SOURCE FOR UPSC AND STATE EXAMS

INDIAN
GEOGRAPHY

PAWAN SONI
TERRAQUEST CIVILS
 TerraQuest Civils
Intergrated Preparation for UPSC and
State PCS Exams

Indian Geography
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experience of teaching UEST
GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL)
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CONTENTS
1. General Introduction to India .......................................................................................................................... 6
2. Physical Divisions of India .............................................................................................................................. 7
I. Natural Regions of India ............................................................................................................................... 7
II. Geo-Morphic Regions of India..................................................................................................................... 8
Northern Mountainous Region ........................................................................................................................ 9
Mountain Ranges and Hills of South and Central India .................................................................................10
Western and Eastern Ghats ..........................................................................................................................11
Prominent peaks ...........................................................................................................................................12
Valleys of India ..............................................................................................................................................14
Mountain Passes of India ..............................................................................................................................15
Snow Lines and Glaciers in India ..................................................................................................................16
Plateaus of India ...........................................................................................................................................17
Coastal Regions of India ...............................................................................................................................19
Islands of India ..............................................................................................................................................21
3. State and UT in India .....................................................................................................................................24
4. Tribes and Indigenous Communities of India ................................................................................................25
5. Languages of India ........................................................................................................................................27
06. DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA .................................................................................................................28
I. Ganga Drainage System .............................................................................................................................28
II. BRAHMAPUTRA DRAINAGE SYSTEM................................................................................................................29
III. SOUTH INDIAN RIVERS ................................................................................................................................30
IV. OTHER RIVERS IN INDIA ...............................................................................................................................32
V. CITIES LOCATED ON THE BANK OF RIVERS.......................................................................................................33
VI. WATERFALLS AND LAKES .............................................................................................................................35
7. CLIMATE ......................................................................................................................................................36
I. MONSOON: INDIA'S SEASONAL RAIN SYSTEM ..................................................................................................36
II. RAINFALL IN INDIA: SEASONAL PATTERNS AND REGIONAL VARIATIONS .............................................................. 37

III. WINTER RAINFALL IN INDIA ..........................................................................................................................38

8. NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA .................................................................................................................39
9. SOIL .............................................................................................................................................................40
BLACK SOIL IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................................40
LATERITE SOIL IN INDIA .....................................................................................................................................40
ALLUVIAL SOIL IN INDIA ....................................................................................................................................41
RED SOIL ........................................................................................................................................................41

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 DESERT SOIL ...................................................................................................................................................42
ACIDIC AND ALKALI SOILS IN INDIA ....................................................................................................................42
1. ACIDIC SOIL ................................................................................................................................................42
2. ALKALI SOIL (ALKALINE SOIL) .......................................................................................................................42
SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION ..................................................................................................................43
10. NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA.............................................................................................................43
11. Irrigation and Canals in India ......................................................................................................................44
12. Multi Purpose River Valley Project ..............................................................................................................45
i. Narmada Valley Project .............................................................................................................................45
Bhakra Nangal Dam ......................................................................................................................................46
iii. Dam at the River Cauvery .........................................................................................................................46
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam ...................................................................................................................................47
Hirakud Dam .................................................................................................................................................47
Chambal Valley Project ................................................................................................................................47
Tehri Dam Project .........................................................................................................................................47
Damodar Valley Project ................................................................................................................................48
Miscellaneous Multi-Purpose River Valley Projects in India .........................................................................48
13. Agriculture ..................................................................................................................................................49
Agro-Climatic Zones: ....................................................................................................................................49
Agro-Ecological Regions of India ..................................................................................................................50
14. Green Revolution in India............................................................................................................................52
15. Food Crops .................................................................................................................................................53
Rabi Crops in India ........................................................................................................................................54
Kharif Crops in India ......................................................................................................................................55
16. Cash Crop ..................................................................................................................................................56
Cotton in India ..............................................................................................................................................56
Sugarcane in India.........................................................................................................................................57
17.Oilseeds in India ..........................................................................................................................................58
18. Pulses in India.............................................................................................................................................58
19.Silk Production in India ................................................................................................................................59
20.Plantation Crops .........................................................................................................................................59
Coffee Production in India ............................................................................................................................59
Tea Production in India ..................................................................................................................................60
Rubber Production in India ...........................................................................................................................61
Other Plantation Crops in India .....................................................................................................................61
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21. JhUM Cultivation ........................................................................................................................................62
22. Agriculture : Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................................62
23.Animal Husbandry in India ..........................................................................................................................64
Cattle and Buffalo Breeds:............................................................................................................................64
24.Mineral Resources in India ..........................................................................................................................65
Mineral Production Ranking - India/World ....................................................................................................65
(A) Rock System ...........................................................................................................................................66
B. Metallic Minerals ......................................................................................................................................67
i. Iron-Ore ......................................................................................................................................................67
II.Zinc in India ................................................................................................................................................67
III. Silver ........................................................................................................................................................68
IV. Copper .....................................................................................................................................................68
V. Bauxite ......................................................................................................................................................69
VI. Tin ............................................................................................................................................................69
Non-Metallic Minerals ..................................................................................................................................69
I. Mica ...........................................................................................................................................................69
II. Marble .......................................................................................................................................................70
Energy Mineral ..............................................................................................................................................70
I. Coal in India ...............................................................................................................................................70
II. Petroleum and Natural Gas in India ..........................................................................................................71
Natural Gas...................................................................................................................................................72
Major Pipelines of India .................................................................................................................................74
25. Miscellaneous Minerals in India .................................................................................................................75
26. Electrical Energy .........................................................................................................................................76
I. Thermal ......................................................................................................................................................76
II. Nuclear Energy in India..............................................................................................................................77
III. Hydroelectricity ........................................................................................................................................77
Energy in India: An Overview of Miscellaneous Sources ..............................................................................78
27. Industry ......................................................................................................................................................79
Industrial Production Ranking - India/World .................................................................................................79
I. Iron and Steel Industry in India ...................................................................................................................80
II. Aluminium Industry in India .......................................................................................................................81
Miscellaneous Industries in India: Key Highlights .........................................................................................81
28.Agricultural and Horticultural Research Institutes ......................................................................................83
City Wise: .....................................................................................................................................................84
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29. Transport in India ........................................................................................................................................86
I. Road Transport ...........................................................................................................................................86
II. Rail Transport in India ................................................................................................................................87
Water Transport ............................................................................................................................................88
Airports .........................................................................................................................................................89
Water Transport in India ................................................................................................................................89
Sethu Samudram Project: .............................................................................................................................89
National Waterways in India: ........................................................................................................................89
30. Tourism .......................................................................................................................................................90
31.Miscellaneous .............................................................................................................................................92

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1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO INDIA
• Area: India, the seventh-largest country, spans 3,287,263 sq. km, covering 2.4% of the world's land
area.
• Population: India hosts 17.5% of the global population as per the 2011 Census.
• Geographic Extent: Spanning roughly 30 degrees, India stretches 3,214 km north-south and 2,933 km
east-west.
• Villages: Census 2011 counted 640,932 villages, up from 638,588 in 2001.
• Territorial Waters: Extends 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coastline.
Latitudes and Longitudes
• Latitudes: Imaginary parallel lines; equator at 0º divides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Poles at 90ºN and 90ºS; there are 179 total parallels, spaced 111 km apart.
• Longitudes: Imaginary meridians connect poles; Prime Meridian (0º) at Greenwich, UK, and 180º
longitude is the International Date Line. India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere between latitudes
8º4'N and 37º6'N, and longitudes 68º7'E and 97º25'E.
India and the Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Cancer (23º30'N): Divides India into almost equal
parts and crosses eight states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and
Mizoram. On June 21, the sun is directly overhead here.
Standard Time
Standard Meridian: India's Standard Time (IST) is set at
82º30'E, passing through Mirzapur (UP), and is 5 hours 30
minutes ahead of GMT.
States that the IST meridian approximately passes
through or is very close to:
1. Uttar Pradesh – The meridian passes near Mirzapur,
close to Allahabad (Prayagraj), making Uttar Pradesh
central to IST.
2. Madhya Pradesh – Crosses through central Madhya
Pradesh, close to Rewa and Jabalpur.
3. Chhattisgarh – Passes near Bilaspur, putting eastern
Chhattisgarh close to the IST meridian.
4. Odisha – Crosses through the western parts of Odisha, near Sambalpur.
5. Andhra Pradesh – Passes near Kurnool and
Cuddapah (Kadapa), covering eastern regions of the
state.

Time Zones: Earth has 360 longitudes, dividing into 24 time

zones, each differing by 15º or one hour. Moving eastward,
time advances by one hour per 15º, while moving westward,
time is delayed.
Extreme Points
• Southernmost Point: Indira Point, Great Nicobar (6º4'N); mainland’s southernmost is Kanyakumari
(8º4'N).

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 • Northernmost Point: Indira Col, near Siachen Glacier in Ladakh.
• Westernmost Point: Guhar Moti, Kutch, Gujarat.
• Easternmost Point: Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh.

Bordering Countries
• Neighboring Countries: India shares borders with
Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Maldives, and Sri Lanka.
• Bordering States/UTs:
o Pakistan: Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Gujarat.
o Afghanistan: Ladakh.
o China: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh.
o Bangladesh: Mizoram, Tripura, Assam,
Meghalaya, West Bengal.
o Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Manipur, Mizoram.
o Nepal: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Sikkim.
o Bhutan: West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam.
• Natural Boundaries: Himalayas in the north, Bay of
Bengal in the southeast, Indian Ocean in the south,
Arabian Sea in the southwest.
• Significant Boundary Lines:
o Radcliffe Line: India-Pakistan border (drawn by
Sir Cyril Radcliffe).
o McMahon Line: Separates India and China.
o Durand Line: Separates Afghanistan from
Pakistan.
• Nearest Neighbors: Sri Lanka lies closest to India,
separated by the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.

2. PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF
INDIA
I. NATURAL REGIONS OF INDIA
● Paleomagnetism: The study of ancient magnetic
properties preserved in rocks and sediments. This
branch aids in understanding geological phenomena such as plate tectonics and continental drift.
● Gondwanaland and Continental Drift:
○ The Indian mainland originated as part of Gondwanaland, which included modern-day
Peninsular India, Australia, Africa, South America, and parts of Antarctica.

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 ○ During the Mesozoic era (Jurassic Period, 144-208 million years ago), Gondwanaland split due
to convection currents. The Indian plate drifted northward, eventually colliding with the
Eurasian plate.
● Formation of the Himalayas:
○ The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the folding of sedimentary rocks
from the Tethys Sea, forming the Himalayas and other mountain ranges in West Asia.
○ The Himalayas represent a youthful topography characterized by high peaks, deep valleys, and
fast-flowing rivers, especially in the Terai region where artesian wells are found.
● Formation of the Northern Plains:
○ The uplift of the Himalayas and subsidence of the Peninsular Plateau’s northern flank created
a large basin.
○ This basin filled over time with alluvial deposits from northern rivers, forming the expansive
Northern Plain of India.
● Peninsular Plateau:
○ Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau is India's most ancient and stable landmass.
○ It comprises igneous and metamorphic rocks with hills and broad valleys and extends into the
Meghalaya Plateau, separated by the Malda Gap due to faulting.
○ The Western Coast of India developed
from faulting and the subsidence of the
plateau's western flank.
● Major Natural Divisions of India:
○ Due to significant physical diversity,
India is divided into four major natural
regions:
1. Northern Mountains
2. Northern Plains
3. Peninsular Plateau
4. Coastal Plains & Islands
II. GEO-MORPHIC REGIONS OF INDIA
India is further classified into six geo-morphic regions
based on rock structure, relief, and tectonic activity:
1. The Northern and North-Eastern Mountains:
Encompasses the youthful, high-altitude
Himalayas with their dynamic geological
processes.
2. The Northern Plain: A vast alluvial plain formed by river deposits from the Himalayas and Peninsular
Plateau.
3. The Indian Desert: Also known as the Thar Desert, this arid region lies in the northwest, characterized
by sand dunes and sparse vegetation.
4. The Peninsular Plateau: India's oldest landform, featuring ancient rock structures, including the
Deccan Plateau and the Malwa Plateau.
5. The Coastal Plain: Narrow coastal plains along the Arabian Sea (western coast) and Bay of Bengal
(eastern coast).

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 6. The Islands: Includes Andaman & Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in
the Arabian Sea.

NORTHERN MOUNTAINOUS REGION

The Himalayan range, the highest in the world, stretches 2,400 km in an arc from Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh, with width variations from 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
Structural Divisions of the Himalayas
The Himalayas consist of three parallel ranges formed in different geological epochs:
1. Great Himalaya (Himadri)
○ Formation: Formed
during the Eocene and
Oligocene epochs (24-37
million years ago), this is
the oldest and most
continuous Himalayan
range.
○ Elevation: Hosts the
tallest peaks, including
Mt. Everest (8,848 m) on
the Nepal-Tibet border
and Kanchenjunga (8,586
m) between Nepal and
Sikkim, India. Annapurna
and Dhaulagiri are
prominent peaks in Nepal.
○ Characteristics: The core
of the Great Himalayas is
granite, snow-covered
year-round with numerous
glaciers that feed
perennial rivers.
2. Middle Himalaya (Lesser Himalaya)
○ Formation: Developed during the mid-Miocene epoch (5-24 million years ago).
○ Features: Located south of the Great Himalaya, with elevations between 3,700 to 4,500
meters and an average width of 50 km. Important ranges include Pir Panjal (the longest),
Dhauladhar, and Mahabharat. Key valleys, such as Kashmir, Kangra, and Kullu, are nestled
within this region.
3. Outer Sub-Himalaya (Shiwalik)
○ Formation: The youngest range, formed during the Pliocene epoch (2-5 million years ago).
○ Characteristics: Ranges from 10 to 50 km in width with elevations of about 900 to 1,100
meters. Formed from unconsolidated river sediments, these ranges contain longitudinal
valleys known as duns (e.g., Dehradun, Kotlidun, and Patlidun).
Additional Geographical Features

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 ● Bhabar Plain: A narrow 8-16 km wide strip along the Shiwaliks, made of pebbles and riverine
deposits, extending from the Indus in the west to the Teesta in the east. The eastern section is
broader.
● Tarai Region: A 15-30 km wide marshy belt south of the Bhabar, known for its high water table and
lush vegetation.
Trans-Himalaya and Purvanchal
● Trans-Himalaya: Located north of the Great Himalaya, this region includes the Karakoram Range,
Pamir Knot, and the Kailash Mountains, a sacred Hindu site.
● Purvanchal (Eastern Hills): Extending from the Dihang Gorge southward along India’s eastern border,
encompassing hills in northeastern states. Key sub-ranges include the Dafla, Mishmi, Abor, Patkai,
Naga, Mizo, and Manipur Hills.
Longitudinal Divisions (West to East)
Himalayan sub-regions based on river boundaries:
1. Kashmir/Punjab/Himachal Himalayas: Between the Indus and Sutlej rivers.
2. Kumaon Himalayas: Between the Sutlej and Kali rivers.
3. Nepal Himalaya: Between the Kali and Teesta rivers.
4. Assam/Eastern Himalayas: Between the Teesta and Dihang rivers, where the Brahmaputra marks
the eastern boundary.

MOUNTAIN RANGES AND HILLS OF SOUTH AND CENTRAL INDIA

The Peninsular Plateau, an ancient geological structure with crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rock
formations, covers a vast region in South and Central India and is home to unique geographical features and
indigenous tribes.
Key Features of the Peninsular Plateau
● Formation: The plateau originated from the ancient Gondwana landmass, characterized by broad
valleys, rounded hills, and a diverse geological history. It includes notable outer ranges, such as the
Delhi Ridge (NW), Rajmahal Hills (E), Gir
Range (W), and Cardamom Hills (S), with
Shillong and Karbi-Anglong Plateaus
forming part of its northeastern extent.
Major Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau
1. Central Highlands
○ Location: North of the Narmada
River, covering the Malwa Plateau.
○ Ranges:
■ Vindhyan Range: South of the
Central Highlands.
■ Aravalli Range: One of India’s
oldest mountain ranges, a
residual mountain formed in
the Pre-Cambrian era,
extending 800 km across
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
Haryana, ending in Delhi. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar (1,722 m).
2. Deccan Plateau

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 ○ Location: South of the Narmada River, triangular in shape.
○ Features: Elevated in the west, sloping eastward.
○ Boundaries: Bordered by the Western Ghats (W), Eastern Ghats (E), and Satpura, Maikal
Range, and Mahadeo Hills (N).
○ Satpura Range: Forms the Deccan’s northern boundary, lying between Narmada (N) and Tapi
(S), spanning across Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh, with
Dhupgarh (1,350 m) as its highest peak.
WESTERN AND EASTERN GHATS
● Western Ghats:
○ Local Names: Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri Hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and
Anaimalai (Annamalai) and Cardamom Hills in Kerala.
○ Elevation: Higher and more continuous than the Eastern Ghats, with an average elevation of
1,200 m, increasing southward.
○ Key Peaks: Anaimudi (2,695 m) in the Anaimalai Hills, the highest in the Peninsular Plateau,
and Doddabetta (2,637 m) in the Nilgiri Hills.
○ Significance: Known for biodiversity, this range also includes tea plantations, particularly in
the Nilgiris and Cardamom Hills.
● Eastern Ghats:
○ Major Hills:
■ Nallamalla Hills: Located between the Krishna and Pennar rivers, running parallel to
the Coromandel Coast.
■ Javadi Hills: Located in Tamil Nadu’s North Arcot district.
■ Nilgiri Hills: Known as the "Queen of Hills," the Nilgiris serve as the meeting point of
the Eastern and Western Ghats, with Doddabetta as the highest peak. The Toda tribe,
known for their distinct culture and customs, resides here.
○ Other Hills:
■ Ajanta Range: Located entirely in Maharashtra.
■ Ramgiri Hills: Situated in Telangana's Peddapalli district.
■ Maikal Range: An eastern extension of the Satpura range, located in Chhattisgarh.
■ Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m): The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats, located in Andhra
Pradesh.
Notable Hills, Tribes, and Additional Features
● Anaimalai Hills: Located on the Tamil Nadu-Kerala border, with Anaimudi as its highest peak.
● Shevroy Hills: Part of the Eastern Ghats in Salem, Tamil Nadu, known for Yercaud hill station.
● Mahadeo Hills: Located in Madhya Pradesh, part of the Satpura range.
● Kaimur Hills: Stretching from Madhya Pradesh to Bihar (Sasaram).
● Garhjat Hills: Found in Odisha and Jharkhand, home to the Gond tribes.
● Cardamom Hills: Situated in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, known for the cultivation of cardamom,
conjoined with the Anaimalai and Palni Hills.
● Balaghat Range, Harishchandra Range, and Satmala Hills: Located in Maharashtra.
Additional Information
● Residual Mountains: The Aravalli and Vindhyan Ranges are examples of residual mountains,
remnants of ancient ranges worn down by erosion over millions of years.
● River Valleys: The Narmada and Tapti rivers form rift valleys, running parallel to the Vindhyan and
Satpura ranges.

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 ● Tea Plantations: Notable tea plantation areas include Nilgiri and Cardamom Hills.
PROMINENT PEAKS
Country/Stat Peak Location Significance
e/Region
Nepal Mount Nepal-China Border Highest peak in the world; also known as
Everest ‘Sagarmatha’ in Nepal (8,848.86)
Kanchenjun Nepal-India Border Third highest peak globally, shared with Sikkim,
ga India.
Lhotse Mahalangur Range Fourth highest in the world; part of the Everest
massif.
Makalu Mahalangur Range Fifth highest in the world; known for its pyramid
shape.
Cho Oyu Nepal-China Border Sixth highest in the world, popular among
climbers.
Dhaulagiri Dhaulagiri Range Seventh highest globally; an isolated peak with
steep inclines.
Manaslu Mansiri Himal Range Eighth highest globally, significant for cultural and
religious pilgrimages.
Annapurna Annapurna Range Tenth highest globally; known for the Annapurna
Circuit, a popular trekking route.
Ladakh K2 (Godwin Karakoram Range Highest peak in India and second-highest in the
Austen) world.
Saltoro Karakoram Range Highest peak in the Saltoro Mountains, part of the
Kangri disputed Siachen region.
Nun Kun Zanskar Range Twin peaks popular for mountaineering in the Suru
Valley.
Stok Kangri Ladakh Range Accessible for trekkers, located near Leh.
Uttarakhand Nanda Devi Garhwal Himalayas Fourth highest in India; UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
Kamet Garhwal Himalayas Known for challenging climbing routes.
Trishul Bageshwar Notable for its trident shape.
Abi Gamin Indo-Tibetan Border Often paired with nearby peaks for trekking.
Kedarnath Garhwal Himalayas Near the famous Kedarnath temple, significant for
Peak trekking.
Chaukhamb Garhwal Himalayas Forms a prominent massif in the Gangotri Glacier
a region.
Tungnath Garhwal Himalayas Highest Shiva temple in the world.
Sikkim Kanchenjun Border of Sikkim and Third highest peak globally and second-highest in
ga Nepal India.
Kabru Kangchenjunga Range One of the southernmost peaks exceeding 7,000
meters in the Himalayas.
Talung Kangchenjunga Range Known for its proximity to Kangchenjunga and its
technical climbing challenges.

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Rajasthan Guru Aravalli Range, Sirohi Highest peak of the Aravalli Range.
Shikhar
Mount Abu Aravalli Range Rajasthan’s only hill station, known for the Dilwara
Temples.
Tamil Nadu Anaimudi Anaimalai Hills, Highest peak in the Western Ghats and South
Kerala-Tamil Nadu India.
border
Doddabetta Nilgiri Hills Second-highest peak in South India.
Kodaikanal Palni Hills Popular hill station in the Western Ghats.
Shevaroy Eastern Ghats Known for coffee plantations and Yercaud hill
Hills station.
Jindhagada Eastern Ghats, Andhra Highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.
Peak Pradesh
Agasthyako Western Ghats, Important pilgrimage site for the indigenous Kani
odam Kerala-Tamil Nadu tribe.
border
Madhya Dhupgarh Satpura Range Highest point in the Satpura Range.
Pradesh
Amarkantak Maikal Range Origin of the Narmada and Son rivers, and a
pilgrimage site.
Mahendragi Eastern Ghats, Odisha Important for religious pilgrimages.
ri
Karnataka Mullayanagi Chikmagalur Highest peak in Karnataka and part of the Western
ri Ghats.
Kudremukh Chikmagalur Known for its horse-face shape and lush Western
Ghats forests.
Pushpagiri Western Ghats, Popular trekking destination and significant wildlife
Kodagu district sanctuary.
Jharkhand Parasnath Parasnath Hills Highest peak in Jharkhand and an important Jain
pilgrimage site.
Dalma Dalma Range Known for Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary and scenic
trekking routes.
Maharashtra Kalsubai Western Ghats Highest peak in Maharashtra, popular for trekking.
Salher Satmala Range Historically significant for Maratha history and
trekking.
Harishchan Western Ghats Known for its ancient caves and challenging treks.
dragad
Kerala Chembra Wayanad Popular for heart-shaped lake and lush scenery.
Peak
Vellarimala Western Ghats Known for trekking and views of the Nilgiris
Biosphere Reserve.
Andhra Arma Konda Eastern Ghats, Highest peak in Andhra Pradesh, rich in flora and
Pradesh Visakhapatnam fauna.
Nagaland Saramati Eastern Himalayas Highest peak in Nagaland with steep, challenging
Peak terrains.
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 Meghalaya Shillong Khasi Hills Highest peak in Meghalaya and offers panoramic
Peak views of Shillong city.
Nokrek Garo Hills Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, known for rich
Peak biodiversity.
Himachal Reo Purgyil Western Himalayas Highest peak in Himachal Pradesh, located in the
Pradesh Kinnaur district.
Shilla Spiti Valley Known for challenging climbs and scenic views of
the Spiti region.
Deo Tibba Pir Panjal Range Popular among trekkers and climbers for its
panoramic views.
West Bengal Sandakphu Darjeeling Highest point in West Bengal, famous for views of
Everest and Kangchenjunga.
Phalut Singalila Range Known for trekking along the Indo-Nepal border
and panoramic mountain views.
Near India Gurla Tibet (near India- Significant for Indo-Tibetan pilgrimage routes.
Border Mandhata Nepal border)

VALLEYS OF INDIA
A valley is a low-lying area between hills or mountains, often with a river or stream flowing through it.
● Kashmir Valley – Located in Jammu & Kashmir, renowned for its scenic beauty and cultural heritage.
● Doon Valley – Situated in Uttarakhand, between the Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks, encompassing
Dehradun.
● Kangra Valley – Found in Himachal Pradesh, known for tea plantations and views of the Dhauladhar
Range.
● Kullu Valley – Also in Himachal Pradesh, lying between the Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal ranges, popular
for tourism and trekking.
● Bhagirathi Valley – Near Gangotri in Uttarakhand, this valley is a pilgrimage site along the Bhagirathi
River.
● Mandakini Valley – Located near Kedarnath in Uttarakhand, known for its religious significance and
natural beauty.
● Nelang Valley – In Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, near the Indo-China border; closed after the 1962 war,
reopened for tourism in 2015.
● Markha Valley – In Ladakh, UT, famous for trekking and located within Hemis National Park.
● Dzukou Valley – Located on the border of Nagaland and Manipur, renowned for seasonal wildflowers.
● Sangla Valley – In Himachal Pradesh, surrounded by mountain peaks with the Baspa River flowing
through.
● Yumthang Valley – In Sikkim, known for its Rhododendron vegetation and hot springs, located near
Gangtok.
● Silent Valley – Located in Palakkad district, Kerala, within the Nilgiri Forests of the Western Ghats,
home to Silent Valley National Park.

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 ● Galwan Valley – Named after
Ladakhi explorer Ghulam
Rassul Galwan, significant for
its strategic importance in
Ladakh.
● Molassis Basin – Located in
Mizoram, known for its
unique geological formations
and river systems.

MOUNTAIN PASSES OF INDIA

Notable Passes in India
● Karakoram Pass – Ladakh
UT; a historic route
connecting India and China in
the Karakoram Range.
● Burzil Pass – Connects
Srinagar to Gilgit.
● Zoji La Pass – Located in the
Zaskar Range, connects
Srinagar to Leh, crucial for
access to Ladakh.
● Pir Panjal Pass – Lies on the
route from Kulgaon to Kothi,
in the Pir Panjal Range.
● Banihal Pass – On the Jammu-Srinagar route, known for the Jawahar Tunnel.
Passes in Himachal Pradesh
● Shipki La Pass – Connects Himachal Pradesh to Tibet; one of the main trade routes.
● Baralacha La Pass – Connects Mandi to Leh; located at the crossroads of routes from Spiti, Ladakh,
and Lahaul.
● Rohtang Pass – A popular pass in the Pir Panjal Range, near Manali, known for tourism and trekking.
Passes in Uttarakhand
● Mana Pass (Chirbitya La) – Links India and Tibet; close to the source of the Saraswati River in the
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
● Lipu Lekh Pass – Located on the Indo-China border, provides a route to Kailash Mansarovar.
● Niti Pass – Important route connecting Uttarakhand to Tibet.
Passes in Sikkim
● Nathu La Pass – Extends to the Chumbi Valley in Tibet, an important trade route between India and
China.
● Jelep La Pass – Connects Eastern Sikkim to Lhasa, Tibet.
Passes in Arunachal Pradesh
● Bomdila Pass – Connects Arunachal’s Western Kameng district to Tibet.
● Yang Yap Pass – Near the point where the Brahmaputra River enters India.
● Diflu and Pangsau Passes – Located on the Indo-Myanmar border, facilitating trade and travel.
Passes in the Western Ghats
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 ● Thalghat Pass – Located in Maharashtra, links Mumbai with Nagpur and Kolkata via road and rail.
● Bhor Ghat Pass – Also in
Maharashtra, connects Mumbai
to Pune and onward to Belgaum
and Chennai.
● Palghat Gap – Connects Kochi
in Kerala to Chennai, located
between the Nilgiri Hills and the
Anamalai Hills.
Other Important Passes
● Chang La – Ladakh; a high-
altitude pass connecting
Ladakh with the Pangong Lake.
● Bum La – Arunachal Pradesh;
connects Tawang in Arunachal
with Tibet.
● Muling La Pass – Seasonal
pass in Uttarakhand connecting
it to Tibet.

SNOW LINES AND GLACIERS IN

INDIA
The snow line is the altitude above
which snow remains year-round.
Glaciers, formed by compacted snow,
are massive ice rivers that move slowly. The snow line varies across the Himalayas due to factors like
latitude, topography, and precipitation. Generally, it lies between 5,500-6,000 meters in the northern Greater
Himalayas and 4,500-6,000 meters in the southern parts.
India’s glaciers span about 40,000 sq. km across the Himalayas from the Karakoram in Ladakh to Arunachal
Pradesh in the east. The largest glaciers are found in the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zanskar ranges.

Key Glaciers in India

● Siachen Glacier (76.64 km) – Located in the Karakoram Range, it’s India’s longest glacier and lies
north of Nubra Valley.
● Gangotri Glacier – Located in Uttarakhand, this is one of India’s most famous glaciers and the
primary source of the Ganges River.
● Milam Glacier – Found in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, it’s the source of the Sharda (Kali
Ganga) River.
● Chorabari Glacier – Located in Uttarakhand near Kedarnath, this glacier forms the Gandhi Sarovar
due to its melting.
● Biafo Glacier (60 km) – In the Karakoram Range, known for its long icy stretch.
● Baltoro Glacier (58 km) – Located in the Karakoram Range, essential for high-altitude expeditions.
● Hispar Glacier (61 km) – Another significant glacier in the Karakoram, known for its immense ice
flow.
● Zemu Glacier – Situated in Sikkim, this glacier is associated with the Teesta River.
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Smaller Glaciers of the Lesser
Himalayas
● Sonapani Glacier –
Largest in the Pir Panjal
Range, located in
Himachal Pradesh's Lahul
and Spiti district.
● Bara Shigri Glacier –
Situated in the Chenab
Valley of Himachal
Pradesh, it contributes to
the Chenab River.

PLATEAUS OF INDIA
The Indian peninsula was formed
approximately 3.6 billion years
ago and was part of the
supercontinent Gondwana. During the Carboniferous period, coal deposits formed in basins like the
Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Wardha, and Godavari. In the Cretaceous period, significant volcanic activity led
to the formation of the Deccan Traps, a vast plateau of basaltic lava in central India, dating back about 66
million years.
1. Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular Plateau, one of the oldest landmasses in India, is an elevated, stable region formed millions of
years ago. Composed primarily of igneous and metamorphic rocks, this plateau features a mix of rounded
hills and broad valleys and can be further divided into two parts:
a. Central Highlands
● Location: North of the Narmada River,
covering the Malwa Plateau and extending
eastward into Bundelkhand and
Baghelkhand regions.
● Geological History: Originated as part of
Gondwana, with coal deposits from the
Carboniferous period in areas like the
Damodar Valley.
● Features: Includes a wide variety of soil
types, with regions sloping gently towards
the northeast.
● Drainage: Major rivers such as the
Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, and Ken flow
from the southwest to the northeast,
indicating the plateau's slope.
● Key Areas:
○ Malwa Plateau: Spans 150,000
sq. km with borders formed by the
Aravalli (north), Vindhya (south),
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 and Bundelkhand Plateau (east). Known for its fertile black soil, crucial for agriculture, and rich
historical heritage.
○ Chotanagpur Plateau: Extends 87,239 sq. km through Jharkhand and parts of West Bengal.
This plateau is particularly notable for its mineral wealth, including coal, iron, and mica,
making it one of India's most economically significant plateaus. The Damodar River drains
this region, with sharp scarped edges around various plateau segments.
b. Deccan Plateau
● Location: South of the Narmada River, stretching to the Southern tip of India, bordered by the
Western and Eastern Ghats.
● Geological Significance: Known for the Deccan Traps, an area formed by massive volcanic eruptions
approximately 66 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. The basaltic lava from these
eruptions weathered into black soil or regur, which is highly fertile.
● Topography: The plateau is triangular in shape, with its broad base bordered by the Satpura Range in
the north and the Mahadeo, Kaimur, and Maikal ranges in the east. This unique structure contributes
to its rich biodiversity and natural resources.
● Key Features:
○ Soil and Vegetation: Known for its black soil, conducive to cotton cultivation, and varied
vegetation that supports diverse ecosystems.
○ Drainage: Major rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri flow eastward, eventually
draining into the Bay of Bengal.
○ Mineral Wealth: The plateau is abundant in minerals, including coal, iron, and manganese,
supporting various industries.
2. Chotanagpur Plateau
● Location: Primarily in Jharkhand, with portions extending into West Bengal, Odisha, and
Chhattisgarh.
● Geology and Structure: Known for rugged terrain with steep scarps and pat lands, the highest
elevations reach up to 1,100 meters. This plateau is home to several smaller plateaus of varying
heights.
● Mineral Richness: Contains some of India's richest coal fields (e.g., Damodar Valley), and also has
significant deposits of iron ore, bauxite, and copper.
● Key River: Damodar River, a significant tributary of the Ganges, flows through this plateau and plays
a vital role in the region's economy.
3. Malwa Plateau
● Location: Situated in central India, primarily covering Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
● Size and Boundaries: Approximately 150,000 sq. km; bordered by the Aravalli Range in the north,
the Vindhya Range in the south, and the Bundelkhand Plateau in the east.
● Soil and Vegetation: Fertile black and red soils support extensive agriculture, making it one of the
major farming regions in India. Known for crops like wheat, soybean, and cotton.
● Historical Significance: Contains numerous historical sites and was historically part of the Malwa
region, rich in cultural heritage.
4. Aravalli Range
● Location: Extends across Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
● Age and Formation: Considered the oldest range in India, dating back to the Precambrian period,
approximately 3.2 billion years old.
● Geological Structure: Composed primarily of quartzite, marble, and schist, with a distinctive eroded
structure. These hills are often called residual mountains due to their heavily weathered condition.
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 ● Key Peak: Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, is the highest point of the Aravalli Range.
● Economic Importance: Contains rich mineral deposits, including copper, zinc, lead, and marble,
supporting regional industries.
5. Meghalaya Plateau
● Location: Northeastern India, covering Meghalaya with parts of Assam and Mizoram.
● Topography: Characterized by three major hill ranges: Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills. The plateau is
separated from the mainland plateau by the Malda Gap due to tectonic activity.
● Climate and Vegetation: Known for its high rainfall, especially in Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the
Khasi Hills, which are among the wettest places on Earth. The vegetation includes dense forests and
rich biodiversity.
● Mineral Resources: Contains limestone, coal, and uranium deposits, significant for the local
economy.
6. Dandakaranya Region
● Location: Spread across Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
● Historical Significance: This region is mentioned in the Ramayana as the Dandaka forest, known for
its dense, forested terrain.
● Size and Features: Approximately 89,078 sq. km, it includes extensive forest cover, hills, and
plateaus, making it important for forestry and biodiversity.
● Mineral Wealth: Known for its deposits of iron, bauxite, and other minerals, which are mined
extensively.
7. Other Notable Plateaus and Features
● Karbi-Anglong Plateau: Located in Assam, it is an extension of the Meghalaya Plateau, with lush
forests and a rich ecosystem.
● North Cachar Hills: Located in Assam, known for scenic landscapes and dense forests.
COASTAL REGIONS OF INDIA
India’s coastline, stretching for 7,516.6 km, borders the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Indian Ocean to the
south, and the Arabian Sea in the west. This coastline spans 13 coastal states and Union Territories and
plays a crucial role in trade, biodiversity, and cultural diversity.

Indian Coastline and Coastal States

● Total Length: 7,516.6 km (mainland: 5,422.6 km; island territories: 2,094 km).
● Major Coastal States:
○ Gujarat – 1,214.7 km (Longest
coastline among Indian states).
○ Maharashtra – 652.6 km.
○ Goa – 101 km (Shortest coastline).
○ Karnataka – 280 km.
○ Kerala – 569.7 km.
○ Tamil Nadu – 906.9 km.
○ Andhra Pradesh – 973.7 km.
○ Odisha – 476.4 km.
○ West Bengal – 157.5 km.
● Union Territories with coastal areas:
○ Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman
and Diu.

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 ○ Puducherry – A significant coastal UT with fishing and tourism importance.
○ Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Island territories that add to India’s
strategic maritime boundary.
Maritime Zones of India
● Territorial Sea: Extends 12 nautical
miles from the coastline, within
which India has complete
sovereignty, including fishing rights
and law enforcement.
● Contiguous Zone: Extends 24
nautical miles from the coastline,
where India has the authority to
enforce laws related to customs,
taxation, immigration, and pollution.
● Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Extends 200 nautical miles from the baseline, allowing India the
right to exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources, conduct scientific research, and engage in
maritime economic activities.

Eastern and Western Coasts of India

Western Coast
The Western Coast is a narrow plain that runs between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. It is
generally rocky and less wide compared to the Eastern Coast, with limited river deltas due to the close
proximity of the Ghats.
1. Divisions of the Western Coast:
○ Konkan Coast: Extends from Mumbai in Maharashtra to Goa, known for its scenic beaches,
coconut groves, and red soil.
○ Kanara Coast: Located between Goa and Mangalore in Karnataka, this region has significant
fishing and port activities.
○ Malabar Coast: Extends from Mangalore in Karnataka to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu, known
for backwaters and lush landscapes.
2. Important Harbours:
○ Mumbai (Maharashtra): India’s
largest and busiest port.
○ Janjira (Maharashtra): Known
historically for its fort and port.
○ Udupi (Karnataka): Important for
fishing and local trade.
○ Cochin (Kochi) (Kerala): Major port
and tourist hub with backwater
access.
○ New Mangalore (Karnataka):
Handles significant cargo including
iron ore exports.
3. Economic and Geographical Significance:

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 ○ The Western Coast has limited but fertile plains due to the narrow coastline and is densely
populated, especially in Maharashtra and Kerala.
○ Known for a diverse range of flora and fauna, including mangroves and estuarine ecosystems.

Eastern Coast
The Eastern Coast of India is a wider, low-lying plain that lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal. Unlike the Western Coast, the Eastern Coast has extensive river deltas from several major rivers,
making it highly fertile.
1. Divisions of the Eastern Coast:
○ Northern Circars: The region between the Mahanadi and Krishna rivers, with fertile soil from
the deltas of these rivers.
○ Coromandel Coast: Extends from the Krishna delta in Andhra Pradesh to Kanyakumari in
Tamil Nadu, known for its sandy soil and extensive paddy cultivation.
2. Major Rivers and Deltas:
○ Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri – The deltas of these rivers have developed rich
alluvial plains that support agriculture.
3. Important Harbours:
○ Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): Major commercial port and naval base.
○ Haldia (West Bengal): Handles bulk cargo and serves as an important gateway to Kolkata.
○ Paradip (Odisha): Known for iron ore exports.
○ Ennore (Tamil Nadu): A satellite port of Chennai, handling industrial cargo.
○ Tuticorin (Thoothukudi) (Tamil Nadu): Important for coastal shipping and pearl fishing.
4. Economic and Geographical Significance:
○ The Eastern Coast’s wide, fertile plains support extensive agriculture, including rice, coconut,
and cotton cultivation.
○ Known for high salinity in estuaries, it is also home to a variety of marine biodiversity, including
mangroves in the Sundarbans.

ISLANDS OF INDIA
India's island territories primarily lie in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. They hold ecological,
strategic, and economic importance for the nation.

Island Groups of the Bay of Bengal

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
○ Union Territory: Located in the Bay of Bengal, comprising 836 islands, islets, and rocky
outcrops.
○ Geographical Division: The Andaman Islands are separated from the Nicobar Islands by the
10° Channel, approximately 150 km wide and aligned along the 10° North latitude.
○ Highest Peaks:
■ Saddle Peak – The highest point in the Andaman Islands at 732 meters, located in
North Andaman near Diglipur.
■ Mount Thullier – The highest point in the Nicobar Islands at 642 meters, located in
Great Nicobar Island.
○ Notable Features:

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 ■ Barren Island – Situated
about 135 km northeast of
Port Blair, it is South Asia’s
only active volcano, with
recorded eruptions starting in
1787.
■ Narcondam Island –
Located in the Andaman Sea,
this island features a dormant
volcano.
○ Geological Origin: The islands are
extensions of the Arakan Yoma
Range from Myanmar, featuring
limestone, sandstone, and shale
formations.
2. Sriharikota Island
○ Located within Pulicat Lake, this
island separates the lake from the
Bay of Bengal.
○ Significance: Home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, India’s primary launch site for
satellite missions.
3. Adam’s Bridge (Ram Setu)
○ A chain of shoals connecting Dhanushkodi at the tip of India’s Pamban Island to Mannar
Island in Sri Lanka. Known for its historical and cultural importance, the bridge is partially
submerged and is believed to date back to ancient times.

Island Groups of the Arabian Sea

India’s Arabian Sea coast hosts several notable island groups, mainly Lakshadweep and various offshore
islands scattered along the western coastline. These islands, though smaller in area compared to the Bay of
Bengal islands, play significant roles in
ecology, culture, and strategic maritime
boundaries.

1. Lakshadweep Archipelago
● Location: Situated in the Arabian
Sea, approximately 220-440 km
from the coast of Kerala (Kochi).
● Composition: The archipelago
includes 12 atolls, 3 reefs, 5
submerged banks, and 36 islands
and islets.
● History: Formerly known as the
Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi
Islands, it was renamed
Lakshadweep in 1973.

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 ● Area: Covers a total area of 32 sq. km and is a Union Territory of India.
● Significant Islands:
○ Aminidivi: Northernmost inhabited island.
○ Minicoy: Southernmost island, separated by 90 channels from the main island group; it is the
second-largest island (4.80 sq. km).
○ Andrott (Androth): Largest island in Lakshadweep, with an area of 4.90 sq. km.
○ Kavaratti: Capital of Lakshadweep, located on Kavaratti Island.
● Biodiversity: The islands are rich in coral reefs, marine life, and tropical vegetation, making them a
hub for ecotourism and environmental studies.

2. Offshore Islands along the Arabian Sea

From the Gulf of Khambhat to Gulf of Mannar, numerous smaller islands and islets are located along the
western coastline:
● Prominent Islands:
○ Piram Island – Located in the Gulf of Khambhat.
○ Diu – A well-known tourist destination off the coast of Kathiawar.
○ Elephanta Island – Situated near Mumbai, about 10 km from the Gateway of India, known for
its historic caves.
○ Salsette Island – Part of Maharashtra’s coast, housing Mumbai and Thane.
○ St. Mary’s Islands – Located near Mangalore, famous for unique hexagonal basaltic rock
formations.
○ Vypeen Island – Close to Kochi, Kerala, a key island for tourism and fishing.
● Tidal Creeks and Disputed Areas:
○ Kori Creek and Niveshika Creek – Tidal creeks along Gujarat's coast.
○ Sir Creek – A 96 km tidal estuary in the Rann of Kutch, bordering Pakistan’s Sindh province.
This creek has been the center of a maritime boundary dispute between India and Pakistan,
with India currently administering the area.
States and Union Territories of India
India currently comprises 28 states and 8 Union Territories (UTs). Each state and UT varies significantly in
area, population, geography, and cultural aspects.

Geographical Distribution
1. Largest States by Area (in descending order):
○ Rajasthan: 342,239 sq. km
○ Madhya Pradesh: 308,252 sq. km
○ Maharashtra: 307,713 sq. km
○ Uttar Pradesh: 240,928 sq. km
○ Gujarat: 196,244 sq. km
2. Most Populous States (Census 2011):
○ Uttar Pradesh: 199,812,341
○ Maharashtra: 112,374,333
○ Bihar: 104,099,452
○ West Bengal: 91,276,115

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3. STATE AND UT IN INDIA
State Boundaries and Notable Geographical Features
● Uttar Pradesh: Borders 8 states (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar) and 1 UT (Delhi).
● Madhya Pradesh: Shares boundaries with Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra.
● Andhra Pradesh: Borders Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu; includes
Puducherry’s Yanam region.
● Karnataka: Bordered by Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
● Punjab: Borders Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir.
● Chhattisgarh: Borders Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Telangana.
● Northeastern Region: Includes seven sister
states – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Tripura.
○ Assam: Bordered by 7 states – West
Bengal, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Tripura.
Special Regions and Geographic Characteristics
● National Capital Region (NCR): New Delhi,
along with districts from Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, and Rajasthan, forms the NCR.
● Loktak Lake (Manipur): Known for Phumdis
(floating islands made of vegetation, soil,
and organic matter).
● Rajasthan Desert: Known as the most
densely populated desert in the world, with
a population density of 83 persons/sq. km.
The desert area has increased net sown land
due to irrigation, reducing pasture lands.

Regional Specialties
● Silicon Valley of India: Karnataka (specifically Bengaluru) is known for its technology and IT hub.
● Chota Nagpur Plateau: Located in Jharkhand, known for pat lands and high hilly peaks.
● Kohinoor of India: Andhra Pradesh, where the famous Kohinoor diamond was discovered in Kollur
mines.
● Vidarbha: A region in northeastern Maharashtra with Nagpur and Amravati divisions, including
several districts like Akola, Wardha, Gadchiroli, and Yavatmal.

Union Territory Capital Area (sq. Population Notable Features

km) (Census 2011)
Delhi New Delhi 1,483 16.8 million Capital of India; largest UT by population
Chandigarh Chandigarh 114 1.05 million Joint capital of Punjab and Haryana
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 Dadra & Nagar Daman 491 344,000 Formed by merging two regions; coastal
Haveli and and inland regions
Daman & Diu
Lakshadweep Kavaratti 32 64,473 Smallest UT by area and population; 36
islands in Arabian Sea
Puducherry Puducherry 490 1.25 million Four districts: Puducherry, Karaikal,
Yanam, Mahe, each near a different state
Andaman and Port Blair 8,249 380,581 Located in Bay of Bengal; home to
Nicobar indigenous tribes; divided by 10° N
Islands latitude
Jammu & Srinagar 55,673 12.5 million Union Territory since 2019; renowned for
Kashmir (Summer), (estimated) its natural beauty
Jammu
(Winter)
Ladakh Leh 59,146 290,492 Largest UT by area; high-altitude desert;
split from Jammu & Kashmir in 2019

4. TRIBES AND INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF INDIA

India's tribal communities contribute to the country's rich cultural landscape, each group distinguished by
unique customs, languages, and regional heritage. With Scheduled Tribes making up about 8.6% of the Indian
population, the largest tribal populations are found in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
1. Northern Region
• Tharu: Predominantly in the Terai
regions of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
and Bihar. Tharus follow Hinduism and
consider Diwali a period of mourning.
They are known for joint family
structures and link their ancestry to the
Kirat dynasty.
• Bhotia: Found in Uttarakhand and Terai
areas; of Mongoloid descent, Bhotias
practice migratory pastoralism, herding
animals through Himalayan passes.
• Jaunsari: Located in Uttarakhand,
Jaunsaris rely on agriculture, practice
polyandry, and claim descent from the
Pandavas of the Mahabharata.
• Buksa: Primarily in Nainital, Pauri, and
Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand;
known for Anulom and Pratilom
marriage forms and trace lineage to
Rajputs.
• Gaddi: Reside in Kangra and Chamba
districts of Himachal Pradesh, as well as in J&K and Ladakh. They are pastoralists who believe they
descend from the Garhwal rulers of Rajasthan.
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2. Northeastern Region
• Khasi: Mostly in Meghalaya, Assam, and Mizoram; follow a matrilineal system, practice Jhum
(slash-and-burn) cultivation, and celebrate nature-centered festivals.
• Naga: Inhabit Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, and Meghalaya; known for Jhum cultivation, traditional
attire, and war dance; many have adopted Christianity.
• Kuki: Predominantly in Manipur, the Kukis are known for vibrant festivals like Chapchar Kut and rich
traditional dance and music.
3. Eastern Region
• Santhal: Concentrated in Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, and Assam; agrarian and known
for vibrant music and dance. The Santhals share physical similarities with the Dravidian people and
celebrate the Sohrai and Karam festivals.
• Oraon: Located in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal; practice Sarnaism (nature
worship), with some adopting Christianity. Festivals like Sarhul and Karma highlight Oraon culture.
4. Central Region
• Gond: Spread across Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Odisha, and
Andhra Pradesh. Known for hunting, Gondi art, and animal sacrifices, Gonds are among India's
largest tribal groups.
• Munda: Predominantly in Jharkhand but also in neighboring states; known for festivals like Mage and
Phagu. They speak the Munda language, part of the Austroasiatic family.
• Kol: Found in Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh; primarily agrarian, with
significant agricultural and forest-based traditions.
5. Western Region
• Bhil: Spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Known for their
archery skills, Ghoomar dance, and unique bow symbolism, Bhils are one of India’s largest tribal
groups.
• Meena: Predominantly in Rajasthan; known for their knowledge of medicinal herbs and reverence for
natural landscapes.
• Manganiyar: Reside in the desert areas of Rajasthan; famous for traditional folk music, which is
central to ceremonies and celebrations.
6. Southern Region
• Toda: Found in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu; known for pastoralism, dairy farming, polyandry, and
distinct embroidery patterns.
• Kurumba: Indigenous to Tamil Nadu, known for expertise in medicinal plants and forest produce.
They are also skilled artisans.
7. Island Groups
• Jarawa: Reside in the Middle and South Andaman Islands; an isolated tribe, with territory legally
protected to prevent outside influence.
• Sentinelese: Inhabit North Sentinel Island in the Andamans; known for their isolation, they are
among the last uncontacted tribes.
• Onges: Live on Little Andaman; subsist on fishing, hunting, and gathering, preserving a traditional
way of life.
• Nicobarese: Located on the Nicobar Islands; known for unique language and reliance on coconuts
and fishing for sustenance.

Notable Tribes by Population and Heritage

• Largest Tribes: Bhil (17 million), Gond (13.2 million), Santhal (6.5 million).
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 • Unique Practices:
o Polyandry: Practiced by Jaunsari and Toda tribes.
o Matrilineal System: Followed by the Khasi tribe.
o Pastoralism: Practiced by Toda and Bhotia tribes.
o Jhum Cultivation: A prominent agricultural method among Northeastern tribes like Nagas and
Khasis.
o Gond Art: Internationally recognized for symbolic storytelling.

5. LANGUAGES OF INDIA
India is a linguistically diverse country with several languages spoken across its regions. Hindi is the most
widely spoken language, followed by Bangla, which ranks second in India and sixth globally, with around
267.65 million speakers (Ethnologue, 2021).
Major Language Families in India
1. Indo-European Language Family
o Prominent Languages: Hindi, Bangla, Marathi, Sanskrit, Pali, English, Prakrit, Apabhransa,
Gujarati.
o Characteristics: This family includes many languages spoken across northern, central, and
western India, rooted in ancient Sanskrit and influenced by diverse cultures over centuries.
2. Dravidian Language Family
o Prominent Languages: Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Gond, Oraon, Brahvi.
o Characteristics: Primarily spoken in southern India and parts of central India, Dravidian
languages have a rich
literary heritage,
particularly Tamil and
Telugu, which date back to
ancient civilizations.
3. Austro-Asiatic Language Family
(Austric)
o Prominent Languages:
Khasi, Santhali, Mundari,
Bhumi.
o Characteristics: Mostly
spoken by tribal
populations, these
languages are common in
eastern and central India
and have unique
structures that distinguish
them from other language
families in India.

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06. DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
I. GANGA DRAINAGE SYSTEM
• India's longest river + 2,525 km + originates from the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
rivers at Devprayag + enters the plains at Haridwar
• After flowing through the north of the Rajmahal Hills, it enters Bangladesh at Farakka, where it is
renamed Padma. It eventually joins the Meghna river and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta - world’s largest delta between the Hugli and Meghna
rivers.
Tributaries of the Ganga
1. Left Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, and Mahananda.
2. Right Bank Tributaries:
o Yamuna: The longest right bank tributary, originating from the Yamunotri Glacier on the
Banderpunch Peak. It joins the Ganga at Prayagraj.
o Tributaries of Yamuna:
▪ Right bank: Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, and Ken.
• Chambal: Originates near Dr. Ambedkar Nagar in the Malwa Plateau, known
for the badland topography Chambal Ravines.
▪ Left bank: Tons, Hanuman Ganga, and Sasur Khaderi.
o Son: The major right
bank tributary,
originating from the
Amarkantak Hill and
joining the Ganga near
Patna.
3. Special Features of
Tributaries:
o Damodar: Flows
through a rift valley,
joining the Hugli River.
Known as the "Sorrow of
Bengal."
o Gandak: Originates in
the Nepal Himalayas
and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
o Ghaghara: Originates from the Mapchachungo Glacier, meeting the Ganga at Revilganj in
Bihar.

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Confluences - Panch Prayag of Alaknanda
1. Vishnuprayag: Dhauliganga +
Alaknanda.
2. Nandprayag: Nandakini + Alaknanda.
3. Karnaprayag: Pindar + Alaknanda.
4. Rudraprayag: Mandakini + Alaknanda.
5. Devprayag: Bhagirathi + Alaknanda, →
formation of the Ganga.
Trick: DAV NAN of PAK is MAR BAD
(Murdabad kind of)

Geomorphological Characteristics
• Landforms: erosional landforms such
as gorges, waterfalls, and steep-sided
valleys.
• Antecedent River: The Ganga is considered an antecedent river, having maintained its original
course even as surrounding terrain rose.
• Sediment Deposition: Gangetic alluvial soil extends approximately 600 meters below the surface.

Ganga in Bangladesh: referred to as Padma→ joins with the Jamuna (local name for Brahmaputra) before
merging with the Meghna. The confluence of the Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the Sunderban Delta, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Badrinath - situated along the Alaknanda River + The only tributary of the Ganga that originates in the plains
is Gomti.

II. BRAHMAPUTRA DRAINAGE SYSTEM

• Source: Angsi Glacier near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet, running eastward parallel to the Himalayas →
where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo.
• Turning Point: It takes a sharp U-turn around the Namcha Barwa peak, where it descends into
Arunachal Pradesh in India, changing its name to Siang or Dihang.
• Entry into Assam: near Sadiya, where it is joined by the Dibang and Lohit rivers, after which it is
known as the Brahmaputra.
Major Tributaries of the Brahmaputra
1. In Assam:
o Left Bank Tributaries: Dibang (or Sikang), Lohit,
Burhi Dihing, and Dhansiri.
o Right Bank Tributaries: Subansiri, Jiabharali,
Manas, and Sankosh.
2. In Bangladesh:
o Upon entering Bangladesh near Dhubri, it is
joined by the Tista on its right bank and is locally
referred to as the Jamuna.
o Finally, the Jamuna merges with the Padma,
which ultimately flows into the Bay of Bengal.

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Unique Features : Braided Channels + Majuli Island, Assam- world’s largest riverine island and was
designated as the first island district in India.
The Tibetan Plateau: Known as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau or the Roof of the World, this high-altitude region
is the source of many significant rivers, including the Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Hwang Ho, Indus, Mekong, and
Salween rivers.

III. SOUTH INDIAN RIVERS

Key Characteristics
• Water Divide - The Western Ghats run parallel to the western coast, directing major rivers like the
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery eastward into the Bay of Bengal, where they form deltas at
their mouths.
• Westward Flowing Rivers: Rivers such as the Narmada, Tapi, and Mahi flow westward and form
estuaries instead of deltas. These rivers are exceptions due to their courses through rift valleys.
• River Course and Flow: Most peninsular rivers are non-perennial with fixed courses and lack
meandering patterns.

Major Rivers of South India

1. Narmada River
o Source: Amarkantak Hill in the Maikal range, located in Madhya Pradesh.
o Course: Flows westward through a rift valley between the Satpura (south) and Vindhyan
(north) ranges, forming deep ravines along its course.
o Length: Approximately 1,312 km.
o Unique Features: Forms the Dhuandhar Waterfall near Jabalpur, creates an estuary at its
mouth, and is home to the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
o Notable Tributary: Tawa river
2. Tapi River
o Source: Originates from the Satpura
Range near Multai in Betul district,
Madhya Pradesh.
o Length: Approximately 724 km.
o Course: Flows westward through
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and
Gujarat, forming an estuary at its
mouth.
3. Son River
o Source: Amarkantak in the Maikal
range, although Sonmuda in
Chhattisgarh is sometimes cited as
the origin.
o Course: Flows northward and
eventually joins the Ganga River.
o Son is mythologically paired with the
Narmada as "lovers," with origins
symbolizing their separation.
4. Godavari River

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 o Source: Originates near Trimbakeshwar in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.
o Length: Approximately 1,465 km, making it the longest river in Peninsular India.
o Basin: Spans across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Puducherry.
o Unique Features: Known as Vriddha Ganga or Dakshin Ganga, it forms a delta at its mouth,
with major tributaries like the
Indravati, Pranhita, and Manjra.
o Interlinking → Godavari and
Krishna interlinking project.
5. Krishna River
o Source: Originates near
Mahabaleshwar in the Western
Ghats.
o Length: Approximately 1,400 km.
o Basin: Covers Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and
Telangana.
o Tributaries: Includes Koyna,
Tungabhadra, and Bhima.
o Water Disputes: involves Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
6. Mahanadi River
o Source: Rises near Sihawa in Dhamtari District, Chhattisgarh.
o Length: Approximately 851 km.
o Flow: Travels through Odisha, forming a delta near Paradeep as it discharges into the Bay of
Bengal.
o Basin: The Mahanadi Basin is part of the Northern Deccan Plateau as per S.P. Chatterjee’s
physiographic division of India.
7. Cauvery River
o Source: Originates from the
Brahmagiri Hills in Kodagu district,
Karnataka.
o Length: Approximately 800 km.
o Basin: Includes Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, and Puducherry.
o Unique Features: Forms islands
like Srirangam, Shivasamudram,
and Srirangapatna.
o The Shivasamudram Waterfall on
the Cauvery is the largest in India by
volume.
o Cultural Significance: Often referred to as the "Ganga of the South" due to its sacred status in
the region.

Unique Geographical Features

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 Estuaries: An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body where the river meets the sea, transitioning
•
between riverine and marine environments. The Narmada and Tapi are prominent rivers that form
estuaries.
• Largest Estuary: Globally, the Saint Lawrence River in North America forms the largest estuary.
• The "Roof of the World": The Tibetan Plateau serves as the source for major Asian rivers, including
the Indus, Satluj, Brahmaputra, and others.
Noteworthy Details on River Origins
• Amarkantak: A notable source point, with the Narmada, Son, and Mahanadi rivers originating here.
• Trimbak Hills: The Godavari River originates from the Trimbak Hills in Maharashtra.
• Eastern Ghats: Rivers like Nagavali and Vamsadhara rise in the Eastern Ghats.

IV. OTHER RIVERS IN INDIA

River Source Facts
Sutlej Near Rakas Lake by Enters India near Shipki La Pass, forms a deep gorge in the
Kailash Mountain and Himalayas, joins Beas near Harike, Punjab
Mansarovar Lake, Tibet
Son Amarkantak Hills in Flows northward, meets Ganga near Patna, Bihar;
Anuppur, M.P./ Gaurela- Tributaries: Rihand, North Koel
Pendra-Marwahi,
Chhattisgarh
Kosi Confluence of Sun Kosi, Known as "Sorrow of Bihar" due to flooding and shifting course
Arun Kosi, Tamur Kosi
in Himalayas
Damodar Khamarpat Hill in Flows through a rift valley; meets Hugli near Kolkata;
Chota Nagpur Plateau Tributaries: Barakar, Konar, Jamunia; "Sorrow of Bengal"
Hagari Western Ghats Also known as Vedavathi River; flows through Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, joins Tungabhadra
Jhelum Verinag Spring, Kashmir Flows through Srinagar, Wular Lake, enters Pakistan; Tributary:
Kishanganga (Neelum in Pakistan)
Luni Aravalli Range, near Known as Sagarmati at source; terminates in Rann of Kutch,
Ajmer, Rajasthan representing inland drainage
Shyok Karakoram region Known as the "River of Death"; historical trade route connecting
Yarkund in Central Asia to Ladakh
Zanskar Near Sarchu, Himachal Flows north and eastward, joins Indus at Nimu; known for deep
Pradesh/Ladakh border gorges through Zanskar Range
Spiti Kunjum Pass, Himachal Joins Sutlej near Namgia, Kinnaur district
Pradesh
Kali Diggi Village, Uttara Follows an arch-shaped course, flows into the Arabian Sea
Kannada, Karnataka
Sankosh Northern Bhutan Flows into Brahmaputra near Assam-West Bengal border; known
as Puna Tsang Chu in Bhutan
Mahi Madhya Pradesh Flows southwest through Rajasthan and Gujarat, drains into the
Gulf of Khambhat
Mithi Vihar Lake, Mumbai Flows 18 km to Arabian Sea near Mahim Bay; receives inflow from
Powai Lake
Kapili - Important tributary of Brahmaputra; city of Kamrup is situated
(Kopili) along its banks
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Inland Drainage: Luni River exemplifies inland drainage, flowing into the Rann of Kutch rather than reaching
the sea.

V. CITIES LOCATED ON THE BANK OF RIVERS

City River State/Union Additional Notes
Territory
Govindghat Alaknanda Uttarakhand Pilgrimage site and entry point for the trek to Hemkund
Sahib.
Uttarkashi Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Major tributary of the Ganga, originates from Gomukh.
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Assam Known for tea production and educational institutions.
Guwahati Brahmaputra Assam Largest city in Assam, cultural and commercial hub of the
Northeast.
Kota Chambal Rajasthan Known for its educational institutions and thermal power
plants.
Prayagraj Confluence Uttar Known for the Kumbh Mela, one of the largest religious
of Ganga and Pradesh gatherings in the world.
Yamuna
Haridwar Ganga Uttarakhand Religious city, one of the most important pilgrimage sites in
India.
Kanpur Ganga Uttar Industrial hub with significant historical and economic
Pradesh importance.
Patna Ganga Bihar Capital of Bihar, known for its ancient history and
educational institutions.
Varanasi Ganga Uttar One of the oldest inhabited cities in the world, known for
Pradesh its religious and cultural significance.
Nashik Godavari Maharashtra Important religious city, site of the Kumbh Mela.
Rajahmundry Godavari Andhra Known for its cultural heritage and river bridges over the
Pradesh Godavari.
Lucknow Gomati Uttar Capital of Uttar Pradesh, famous for its Mughal-era
Pradesh architecture and cultural heritage.
Jagdalpur Indravati Chhattisgarh Known for waterfalls and rich tribal culture, located in the
Bastar district.
Leh Indus Ladakh Located on the right bank of the Indus; gateway to the
Himalayas and Ladakh region.
Srinagar Jhelum Jammu & Capital of Jammu & Kashmir, known for its beautiful
Kashmir landscapes and Dal Lake.
Vijayawada Krishna Andhra Major city in Andhra Pradesh, significant for its agricultural
Pradesh and cultural contributions.
Ujjain Kshipra Madhya Ancient city known for Mahakaleshwar Temple; important
Pradesh site for Kumbh Mela.
Gaurikund, Mandakini Uttarakhand Religious locations en route to Kedarnath.
Rambara,
Guptakashi
Hyderabad Musi Telangana Known for its heritage and technology sector, located on
(tributary of the banks of the Musi River.
Krishna)

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Jabalpur Narmada Madhya Known for the Dhuandhar Falls and marble rocks on the
Pradesh Narmada River.
Bareilly Ram Ganga Uttar Known for its cultural heritage and industries.
Pradesh
Gorakhpur Rapti Uttar Religious and educational hub, named after Saint
Pradesh Gorakhnath.
Ahmedabad Sabarmati Gujarat Major city and industrial hub, known for Sabarmati Ashram
associated with Mahatma Gandhi.
Ayodhya Saryu Uttar Important pilgrimage site, associated with Lord Rama.
Pradesh
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha Jharkhand Known as the first planned industrial city in India, home to
Tata Steel.
Ludhiana Sutlej (old Punjab An industrial city, Sutlej currently flows 13 km north of the
bank) city.
Surat Tapi (Tapti) Gujarat Major textile city, also known for its diamond processing
industry.
Agra Yamuna Uttar Home to the Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Pradesh
Mathura Yamuna Uttar Known for its association with Lord Krishna and Hindu
Pradesh mythology.
New Delhi Yamuna Delhi National capital, historically important with landmarks like
Red Fort and Qutub Minar.

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VI. WATERFALLS AND LAKES
Feature Type Location River / Additional Facts
Jog Falls Waterfall Karnataka Created by Sharavati River; largest waterfall in
terms of width.
Shivasamudram Waterfall Karnataka Formed by Cauvery River; largest waterfall in terms
of volume.
Hundru Falls Waterfall Jharkhand, near Created by Subarnarekha River; height of 98 m.
Ranchi
Kapil-Dhara Falls Waterfall Madhya Pradesh, Created by Narmada River.
Anuppur
Kunchikal Falls Waterfall Karnataka Previously considered tallest with 455 m; updated
height: 183 m.
Nohkalikai Falls Waterfall Meghalaya Tallest plunge waterfall in India; updated height of
340 m.
Chitrakote Falls Waterfall Chhattisgarh, Located on Indravati River; known as the Niagara
Bastar Falls of India.
Dhuandhar Falls Waterfall Madhya Pradesh, Created by Narmada River.
Bhedaghat
Dudhsagar Falls Waterfall Goa Located on Mandovi River.
Amritdhara Falls Waterfall Chhattisgarh Located on Hasdo River.
Barahi Falls Waterfall - Updated height: 217 m (no specific river noted).
Chachai Falls Waterfall Madhya Pradesh Located on Bihad River.
Sivasamudram Waterfall Karnataka Located on Cauvery River; also known for
Falls hydroelectric power generation.
Vembanad Lake Lagoon Kerala Largest lagoon lake in Kerala, significant Ramsar
site.
Chilika Lake Lagoon Odisha Largest brackish water lagoon in India, located near
the Mahanadi River delta.
Nakki Lake Lake Mount Abu, Popular tourist spot; significant for its historical
Rajasthan myths.
Roopkund Lake Glacial Uttarakhand Known as "Mystery Lake" due to human skeletons
Lake found around it.
Ashtamudi Lake LagoonKerala, Kollam Ramsar site, means "eight branches."
district
Chembarambakk Artificial Tamil Nadu, south Source of Adyar River, supplies water to Chennai.
am Lake Lake of Chennai
Hussain Sagar Artificial Hyderabad, Constructed across Musi River; prominent
Lake Telangana landmark in Hyderabad.
Usman Sagar Artificial Hyderabad, Provides water to Hyderabad; known for scenic
Lake Telangana surroundings.
Renuka Lake Lake Himachal Pradesh Natural freshwater lake.
Nako Lake Lake Himachal Pradesh Known for serene beauty in the mountainous region.
Kolleru Lake Freshwat Andhra Pradesh Largest freshwater lake in Andhra Pradesh.
er Lake
Pushkar Lake Artificial Rajasthan, Ajmer Known for the annual Pushkar Fair; pilgrimage site.
Lake district

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 Sambhar Lake Saline Rajasthan India’s largest inland saline water lake.
Water
Lake
Pulicat Lake Lagoon Border of Andhra Separated from the Bay of Bengal by Sriharikota
Pradesh and Tamil Island; third-largest brackish water lake in India.
Nadu
Wular Lake Freshwat Jammu & Kashmir Largest freshwater lake in India.
er Lake
Dal Lake Lake Srinagar, Jammu & Famous for its houseboats and tourism. Located in
Kashmir Zabarwan mountain valley.
Periyar Lake Lake Kerala Located in Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary.
Loktak Lake Freshwat Manipur Known for Keibul Lamjao National Park, the
er Lake world’s only floating national park.
Fulhar Lake Lake Uttar Pradesh, near Gomti River originates from this lake.
Pilibhit
Naini Lake Lake Uttarakhand, Popular tourist destination.
Nainital
Lonar Lake Crater Maharashtra Formed by meteor impact, contains alkaline and
Lake saline water.
Chapanala Lake Lake Assam Known for picturesque landscapes.
Kanwar Lake Oxbow Bihar Asia's largest freshwater oxbow lake.
Lake
Badkhal Lake Lake Haryana Man-made lake, popular picnic spot.
Sala Lake Lake Assam Known for its natural beauty.
Keoti Falls Waterfall Madhya Pradesh Notable for scenic views; located near Rewa.

Additional Information:
• Ramsar Convention: An international treaty for the conservation of wetlands, adopted in Ramsar,
Iran, in 1971. The convention emphasizes sustainable use of wetlands globally.
• Lagoons in India: Shallow coastal water bodies separated by barrier islands; examples include
Vembanad Lake and Pulicat Lake.
• Unique Geographical Features:
o Chitrakote Falls: Often compared to Niagara Falls due to its shape and flow.
o Loktak Lake: Known for the floating Keibul Lamjao National Park in Manipur.
o Roopkund Lake: Mysterious lake due to skeleton remains dating back to ancient times.

7. CLIMATE
I. MONSOON: INDIA'S SEASONAL RAIN SYSTEM
The Indian monsoon, derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ (meaning season), is a seasonal wind shift that brings
nearly 75% of India’s annual rainfall from June to September.
Origin and Mechanism of the Indian Monsoon
1. Differential Heating: During summer, the sun’s position over the Tropic of Cancer heats the Indian
subcontinent, creating a low-pressure zone over land, while the relatively cooler Indian Ocean maintains a
high-pressure area. This pressure differential draws moist winds toward the land, setting up the southwest
monsoon.

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 2. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The ITCZ, a low-pressure belt at the equator, shifts northward over
India during summer, helping channel moist air from the Indian Ocean into the Indian subcontinent.
3. Coriolis Effect: The trade winds from the Southern Hemisphere, crossing the equator, are deflected by the
Coriolis force, causing them to blow from the southwest and bring rain-laden clouds to the Indian
subcontinent.
4. ‘Burst’ of the Monsoon: The arrival of monsoon winds, known as the ‘burst,’ typically occurs in early June over
Kerala, marked by intense thunderstorms and rainfall.
Monsoon Branches
• Arabian Sea Branch: This branch moves up the western coast of India, bringing heavy rainfall to the Western
Ghats and adjoining regions.
• Bay of Bengal Branch: This branch moves towards northeast India, bringing rainfall to West Bengal, Assam,
and other northeastern states, then moving westward to reach the northern plains.
Retreating Monsoon (October-November)
• As the monsoon withdraws, rainfall decreases over North India, and temperatures begin to drop. In southern
India, however, the eastern coast experiences rain from tropical cyclones and depressions over the Bay of
Bengal, contributing to the post-monsoon (or northeast monsoon) season, especially along the Coromandel
Coast.
Climatic Influences on the Indian Monsoon
Phenomenon Explanation Impact on Indian Monsoon
El Niño Warming of the Pacific Ocean near Weakens monsoon, often causing droughts.
South America. Example: 2015's deficient monsoon affected
agriculture.
La Niña Cooling of the Pacific Ocean near Strengthens monsoon, usually resulting in above-
South America. average rainfall. Example: 2020 had well-distributed
rains.
Positive IOD Warmer western Indian Ocean than Strengthens monsoon, brings more rain. Example:
the eastern part. 2019's strong monsoon season.
Negative IOD Warmer eastern Indian Ocean than Weakens monsoon, may worsen El Niño drought
the western part. effects.
Madden-Julian Eastward-moving tropical rainfall Enhances or reduces monsoon rainfall depending
Oscillation (MJO) wave influencing bursts and breaks. on phase.
Modoki El Niño Warming in the central Pacific Delays monsoon onset and causes uneven rainfall,
rather than eastern. with central India often seeing deficits.
Local Winds and Monsoon Patterns
• Mango Showers: Pre-monsoon rains in Kerala and Karnataka.
• Blossom Showers: Beneficial for coffee cultivation in Kerala.
• Kalbaisakhi (Nor'westers): Thunderstorms in West Bengal and Assam.
• Loo: Hot, dry winds sweeping across the northern plains in May and June.
Koppen’s Climate Classification of India
• Tropical Monsoon (Amw): Northeast India, including North Bengal.
• Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw): Characteristic of peninsular India.
• Humid Subtropical (Cwg): Seen in northern plains, including North Bihar.
With 60% of India's cropland rain-fed, any variation in the monsoon affects crop
yields, rural incomes, water resources, and even energy production from
hydroelectric projects.

II. RAINFALL IN INDIA: SEASONAL PATTERNS AND REGIONAL

VARIATIONS
Seasonal Rainfall Patterns

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India’s rainfall is highly variable across regions:
• High Rainfall Regions: The Western Ghats and the northeastern hill regions, particularly Meghalaya, receive
the heaviest rainfall, with Mawsynram holding the record for the highest annual rainfall globally.
• Low Rainfall Areas: Areas such as Leh in Ladakh receive minimal rainfall (around 4.17 cm annually), while
regions in Rajasthan, like Jaisalmer, experience arid conditions.
• Annual Rainfall Variability: According to the Rainfall Statistics of India (2021), East Khasi Hills in Meghalaya
recorded 5160 mm of rain, whereas Leh recorded only 41.7 mm.
Regional Variations in Annual Rainfall
• Western Ghats: Receives heavy rainfall due to the Arabian Sea branch; areas on the leeward side, like the
Deccan Plateau, remain dry.
• Northeastern States: Known for very high rainfall,
especially in Meghalaya’s Khasi and Garo Hills.
• Leh and Ladakh: These cold desert areas receive the least
rainfall.
• Northern Plains and Punjab: These areas receive
moderate rainfall from the Bay of Bengal branch, with
diminishing amounts moving westward.

III. WINTER RAINFALL IN INDIA

Causes and Characteristics
1. Western Disturbances: Originating from the
Mediterranean region, Western Disturbances are
temperate cyclones that bring moisture-laden air over the
Indian subcontinent. As they move eastward, they bring
rainfall to North and Northwest India, particularly Punjab,
Haryana, Delhi, and Western Uttar Pradesh. This rain,
although limited, is essential for Rabi crops, providing
much-needed moisture for wheat and barley.
2. Northeast Monsoon: Affecting the southeastern coast, particularly Tamil Nadu, the northeast monsoon
occurs from October to December. The winds pick up moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and bring
rainfall to Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh, and southeastern Karnataka. Unlike the southwest monsoon,
which mostly affects the western and northern parts of India, the northeast monsoon brings rain specifically to
the Coromandel Coast.
3. Winter Monsoon Winds: During winter, the dominant northeast
trade winds are generally dry as they blow from land to sea. However,
when they cross over water bodies like the Bay of Bengal, they pick
up moisture, leading to rainfall over southern and southeastern India.
Regional Impacts
• Northwest India: Experiences winter rainfall due to Western
Disturbances. This rainfall decreases in intensity from west to east
and north to south.
• Tamil Nadu and Southeastern India: The northeast monsoon
provides a primary source of rain for Tamil Nadu, contrasting with
other areas of India that remain dry during winter.
• Central and Eastern India: Certain parts of central India, including
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, also receive limited winter rain,
influenced by cyclonic systems.

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8. NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA
1. Earthquakes:
o Seismic Zones: India is divided into four seismic zones: Zone II (low intensity), Zone III (moderate
intensity), Zone IV (high intensity), and Zone V (very high intensity).
▪ Zone V, covering 10.9% of India, includes regions like Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Western
and Central Himalayas, North-East India, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
▪ Delhi and the Indo-Gangetic basin fall in Zone IV.
o Peninsular Stability: Although the southern plateau is stable, it has experienced low-intensity
earthquakes, indicating some instability.
o Koyna Dam and Earthquake Activity: Koyna Dam, located on an old fault line, may increase
earthquake frequency with fluctuating water levels.
2. Floods:
o Monsoon Variability: Floods are a significant
result of monsoon variability. The Flood Forecast
& Warning Organisation was established in
1969, with 331 forecasting sites to monitor river
systems in flood-prone areas.
o Flood-prone Areas: Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh,
and parts of West Bengal are highly flood-prone,
with Bihar being the most affected state.
3. Cyclones:
o Bay of Bengal: Cyclones are frequent in the Bay
of Bengal due to high temperatures and humid
conditions, which facilitate cyclone formation.
The Bay’s funnel shape guides cyclones toward
India’s eastern coast, especially impacting
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal.
o Arabian Sea Cyclones: Cyclones in the Arabian
Sea are less frequent but include severe storms
like Cyclone Tauktae.
4. Tsunamis:
o Tsunami Origins: Tsunamis, primarily caused by earthquakes on the ocean floor, have previously
affected India, with the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami severely impacting the Coromandel Coast.
o Tsunami Warning System: The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) in Hyderabad was
established in 2005.
5. Landslides:
o Himalayan Landslides: Frequent in the Himalayan region, landslides are driven by both natural
factors, such as seismic activity, and human activities, including deforestation, road construction, and
mining.
o Western Ghats: Although less frequent, landslides also occur in the Western Ghats, particularly
during heavy monsoon rains.
6. Droughts:
o Drought-prone Areas: Western Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Maharashtra frequently experience
droughts due to low and unpredictable rainfall.
o Impact on Agriculture: Droughts affect agriculture significantly, as most crops in India rely on rain-fed
irrigation.
7. Meteorological Agencies:
o Indian Meteorological Department (IMD): Established in 1875, IMD monitors weather patterns, and
its main office is in New Delhi.
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 o Seismic Code: The Bureau of Indian Standards developed the IS 1893 Seismic Code for earthquake-
resistant design to minimize earthquake damage in vulnerable areas.
Interesting Facts:
• Cherrapunji and Mawsynram: Meghalaya → highest rainfall in the world.
• Coromandel Coast: → rainfall primarily from the northeast monsoon.
• First Disaster Management Institute: India’s first disaster management training institute is located in Latur,
Maharashtra.

9. SOIL
BLACK SOIL IN INDIA
Black soil, also known as "Regur Soil," "Black Cotton Soil,"
"Tropical Black Earth," or "Tropical Chernozem," is a
prominent type of soil in India, especially ideal for cotton
cultivation.
Origin and Formation
• Black soil is primarily formed from the weathering
and erosional processes of basaltic lava. It is most
commonly found in regions with ancient volcanic
activities.
• Major areas covered by black soil include the
Deccan Trap regions of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
parts of Tamil Nadu, spanning approximately 5.46
lakh sq km.
Characteristics of Black Soil
• Mineral Composition: Black soil is rich in lime,
iron, magnesia, and alumina. It contains a good
amount of potash but lacks essential nutrients like
phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.
• Texture and Retention: Generally clayey, deep, and impermeable, black soil retains moisture well, requiring
less irrigation and helping crops thrive even during dry spells.
• Color: Ranging from deep black to chestnut, black soil exhibits a distinct dark color due to its mineral
content.
• Unique Properties: Black soil becomes sticky when wet and forms wide cracks upon drying, a process
termed as “self-ploughing,” which naturally aerates the soil.
• Cotton Cultivation + sorghum, wheat, millets, and pulses
• Krebs’s Classification: According to Krebs, black soil is considered a mature soil type, with its formation
highly influenced by specific climatic conditions and relief.
LATERITE SOIL IN INDIA
Laterite soil, known for its distinct reddish color and brick-like texture upon drying, is prevalent in India's tropical
regions, especially areas experiencing high rainfall and elevated temperatures.

Origin and Historical Research

• First Research: Laterite soil was first studied by F. Buchanan in 1807. The name derives from the Latin word
“Later,” meaning “brick,” due to its hardening properties upon drying.
Formation Process: Laterite soil forms in regions with alternating wet and dry seasons under intense heat and heavy
rainfall, leading to leaching—a process that removes nutrients and leaves only oxides of iron and aluminum. This
unique formation process creates its nutrient-poor profile and distinct reddish color.
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Distribution and Geography
• Spread across India: Laterite soil covers about 1.80 lakh square kilometers across the Malabar Coast
(Kerala), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, and
Assam. It is notably present in the Western and Eastern Ghats, as well as parts of central India.
• Relation with Altitude: → upper layers are typically more acidic than deeper layers, reflecting its leaching
history.

Agricultural Suitability: Due to nutrient leaching, laterite soils are initially infertile + cashew nuts and tapioca are
better suited + Terrace Cultivation in the hilly regions.
pH Management: Laterite soils are often acidic due to leaching. Regular soil testing and the application of lime can
help maintain a balanced pH suitable for agriculture.

ALLUVIAL SOIL IN INDIA

Cover approximately 11 lakh sq. km or 33.5% of India’s total area, primarily in the Indo-Gangetic plains extending
from Punjab to West Bengal and Assam + found in the deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and
Cauvery.
1. Formation: Alluvial soils are formed from the sediments deposited by Himalayan rivers and sea retreats,
creating fertile plains ideal for agriculture.
2. Types of Alluvial Soil:
o Khadar: Newly deposited alluvium by annual floods, very fertile and rich in fine silts.
o Bangar: Older alluvium, located away from floodplains, with pale reddish-brown color and frequent
lime nodules.
o Bhabar: Coarse, stony soil found at the base of Shiwalik hills where streams disappear into the
sediment.
o Tarai: Marshy area below Bhabar, rich in nitrogen and organic matter but low in phosphate,
extending into Rarh Plains at higher altitudes.
3. Characteristics: Alluvial soils range from sandy to clayey textures and are typically rich in potash, lime, and
organic matter, but poor in phosphates and nitrogen.
4. Agricultural Suitability: This soil is highly productive and supports crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute,
and various vegetables and fruits.

RED SOIL
Red soils are formed through the weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks, primarily under low
rainfall conditions. The weathering process, combined with the high iron content, gives red soil its distinctive color.
• Iron Content: The presence of iron oxides gives red soil its typical red hue, and it can appear yellow in its
hydrated form.
• Chemical Composition: Red soils are generally low in phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter but have
moderate amounts of potash. They are also deficient in lime, making them less fertile than other soils
without supplementation.
• Structure and Texture: Red soils are often sandy to loamy in texture, with good drainage but limited water
retention.
Distribution
Red soils cover a large portion of India, approximately 8.7 lakh square kilometers, and are found in regions with
lower rainfall, typically in the following states:
• Western Tamil Nadu and Southern Karnataka
• Northeast Andhra Pradesh
• Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana, and the Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand
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Agricultural Suitability: low fertility + suitable for crops like pulses, groundnuts, millets, and certain types of cotton,
with additional fertilization.
DESERT SOIL
found in arid and semi-arid regions + less than 10-50 cm of annual rainfall + high temperatures+ very low nitrogen
and organic matter levels, but they are rich in calcium carbonate. They tend to be sandy, with low moisture
retention.
Distribution : Rajasthan and the Thar Desert + Parts of Saurashtra and Kutch in Gujarat + Southern Punjab
Nitrogen Fixation: Legume crops like soybeans, peanuts, alfalfa, and certain pulses improve nitrogen content
through atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
Crops: With proper irrigation, crops such as millet, barley, and wheat can be cultivated in desert soil regions.

ACIDIC AND ALKALI SOILS IN INDIA

1. ACIDIC SOIL
• pH below 7, often falling between 4 and 6, which can be unsuitable for many crops. The ideal soil pH for
most crop growth is between 6.0 and 7.0; however, strongly acidic soils can hinder nutrient availability and
affect plant health.
• Formation : found in regions with a humid climate, high temperatures, and heavy rainfall → the leaching
process → removing essential bases (like calcium, potassium, and magnesium) and leaving acidic elements
such as iron and aluminum.
• Geological Origin: Acidic soils are sedimentary and commonly consist of mixed laterite, ferrous red, and
other red soil components.
• Distribution: high-rainfall regions of India, such as: Western Ghats + Northeastern states like Assam and
Meghalaya + Parts of Odisha, Kerala, and West Bengal
• Causes of Soil Acidity : Leaching + Use of Acidic Fertilizers like ammonium sulfate + Organic Matter
Decomposition + acid-forming minerals or substances in the parent rock.
• Management Techniques: Application of Lime: Lime (calcium carbonate) is often added to increase the pH +
Adding Organic Matter

2. ALKALI SOIL (ALKALINE SOIL)

Characteristics and pH Levels : pH above 7, often ranging from 8 to 10. High pH levels interfere with nutrient uptake,
affecting plant growth. + contain high concentrations of cations like sodium (Na⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), and magnesium
(Mg²⁺), which are often visible as a white crust on the soil surface due to salinization.
Formation
• Dry and Semi-arid Conditions →slows the leaching process, allowing salts and other alkaline compounds to
accumulate.
• Capillary Action: In dry regions, groundwater containing salts rises to the soil surface by capillary action and
evaporates, leaving behind alkali compounds.
• Geological Factors: High mineral content in parent rock also contributes to alkalinity.
Distribution: dry and semi-arid regions of India, especially in: Southern Punjab + Southern Haryana + Western
Rajasthan + Parts of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh
Causes of Alkalinity
• Evaporation: In arid regions, high evaporation rates concentrate salts at the soil surface.
• Poor Drainage: Waterlogging and poor drainage increase soil alkalinity.
• Irrigation Practices: Excessive or improper irrigation can lead to salt accumulation in the soil.
Management Techniques

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 • Gypsum Application: Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is used to reduce alkalinity and salinity, helping to replace
sodium ions with calcium ions, which improves soil structure and water penetration.
• Leaching with Good Quality Water: Leaching salts out of the soil with freshwater helps reduce alkalinity.
• Organic Amendments: Adding organic matter, such as compost, can improve soil structure and lower pH
slightly.
SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION
Types of Soil Erosion
• Splash Erosion: Caused by raindrop impact, breaking soil aggregates.
• Sheet Erosion: Removal of thin soil layers across a slope.
• Rill Erosion: Formation of small channels on slopes, which deepen over time.
• Gully Erosion: Deep channels created by water runoff, as seen in Chambal ravines.
• Stream Channel Erosion: Erosion along riverbanks due to continuous water flow.
Soil Conservation Methods
• Terrace Farming: Reducing runoff on slopes.
• Shelter Belts: Using windbreaks to reduce wind erosion.
• Reduced Tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance to conserve moisture.

10. NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
• Characteristics: Located in warm, humid areas with
over 200 cm of rainfall and annual temperatures
above 22°C. These forests are dense, tall, and remain
green throughout the year.
• Distribution: Assam, Kerala, West Bengal, Andaman-
Nicobar Islands, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, and the
western coastal plains.
• Flora: Major species include Cinchona, Rubber,
Coconut, Bamboo, Mahogany, and Ebony.
2. Tropical Deciduous or Monsoon Forests
• Characteristics: These trees shed leaves in the dry
season to conserve water and thrive in areas with
rainfall between 70-200 cm.
• Types:
o Moist Deciduous: Found in areas like the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats,
northeastern Indian peninsula, and the Terai
region.
o Dry Deciduous: Found in Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
• Flora: Includes Sal, Teak, Neem, Shisham, Mango, Rosewood, and Mahua, valuable for timber and furniture-
making.
3. Arid Forests (Tropical Thorn Forests)
• Characteristics: Found in areas receiving less than 70 cm of rainfall, primarily in the semi-arid regions of
southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. These forests have scattered trees and shrubs, often
leafless for most of the year.
• Flora: Species like Babool, Ber, Wild Date Palm, Khair, Neem, Khejri, and Palas are prominent.
4. Deltaic or Mangrove Forests

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 • Characteristics: These forests, also called swampy or littoral forests, grow in coastal salt marshes, tidal
creeks, and estuaries.
• Distribution: Found in the deltas of rivers like the Ganga, Godavari, Brahmaputra, and Krishna.
• Example: The Sundarbans, home to extensive mangroves.
• Flora: Known for Sundari trees in the Sundarbans, among other species adapted to saline conditions.
5. Montane Forests
• Characteristics: Located in mountainous regions where temperature drops with altitude, resulting in a
variety of vegetation zones.
• Types:
o Northern Montane Forests: In the Himalayas, showing vegetation succession from tropical to tundra
with altitude. Deciduous forests occur in lower altitudes, while coniferous trees like Pine, Deodar,
Silver Fir, and Spruce are found higher up.
o Southern Montane Forests: Found in the Western Ghats, Vindhyas, and Nilgiris. Known as Shola
forests in the Nilgiris, they are temperate at higher altitudes and sub-tropical in the lower regions.
• Flora: Includes species like Oak, Chestnut, Cedar, and the endemic Deodar.
Notable Facts
• Butea Monosperma, commonly known as the "Flame of the Forest" or Palash, is the state flower of Uttar
Pradesh and recognized for its vibrant red flowers.

11. IRRIGATION AND CANALS IN INDIA

Irrigation and Canal Systems in India
Irrigation Sources in 2018-19
• Tubewells: The primary source, covering 48.51% of India’s irrigated area.
• Wells (including tubewells): Account for 63.94% of total irrigation.
• Canals: Cover 22.96% of irrigated land, mostly in northern states.
• Tanks: Represent 2.33% of irrigation, common in peninsular India.
• Other Sources: Small contributions from lift irrigation, drip systems, etc.
Classification of Irrigation Projects
1. Minor Irrigation Projects: Serve areas <2000 hectares, including wells, tubewells, ponds, pumpsets,
drip irrigation, and sprinklers, fulfilling approximately 62% of irrigation needs.
2. Medium Irrigation Projects: Cater to 2000-10,000 hectares, using medium-sized canals.
3. Major Irrigation Projects: Support >10,000 hectares, covering about 38% of India’s irrigation
requirements.
Prominent Canal Systems
• Gang Canal (1927): Constructed by Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner, starting near Hussainiwala,
Sutlej River, serving regions in Bikaner.
• Eastern Yamuna Canal: Originates from Yamuna at Tajewala; stretches 197 km, providing irrigation
to the Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Ghaziabad districts.
• Upper Ganga Canal (1842-1854): Extends 298 km from Bhimgoda in Haridwar, with a total canal
network of 6496 km, irrigating districts like Haridwar, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,
Bulandshahr, and Agra.
• Sharda Canal: Begins at Banbasa, near the Sarda River in Nainital, with a main canal of 44.3 km and
total canal length 9961.3 km, covering major districts in Uttar Pradesh.
• Lower Ganga Canal: Begins from Narora (Bulandshahar), with a main canal of 98.8 km and total
canal length 8278 km.

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 • Indira Gandhi Canal: The world’s longest canal (649 km), sourced from the Harike Barrage, irrigates
Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur, and Jaisalmer districts.
• Gandak Project: Includes a 740-meter barrage near Triveni Ghat on the Gandak River.
Key Irrigation Infrastructure and Developments
• Farakka Barrage (1975): Redirects 40,000 cusecs of Ganga water to the Hooghly River to reduce silt
buildup.
• Mangalam Irrigation Project (Kerala): Part of the ten projects on the Bharathapuzha River.
• Garland Canal System: Proposed by Captain Dinshaw J. Dasthur for inter-basin water transfer; K.L.
Rao and Vishweshvaraya were also key proponents.
• PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) (2015): Aims to “provide water to every farm,” reducing
agricultural dependency on monsoon.
Watershed Development Programs
The Ministry of Rural Development integrated several initiatives—such as the Integrated Wastelands
Development Programme, Drought Prone Areas Programme, and Desert Development Programme—into the
Integrated Watershed Management Programme to enhance water conservation in rural areas.
Pond Irrigation in Peninsular India
Peninsular India, with its rocky terrain and seasonal rivers, heavily relies on ponds as the primary irrigation
source. This practice compensates for the scarcity of perennial rivers, which limits the feasibility of wells and
large canals.
Water Resources in Key States
• Uttar Pradesh: Leads in irrigation water resources (40.72 billion cubic meters), with 74.6% of its net
irrigated area served by tubewells, followed by canals (15.2%), wells (8.8%), tanks (0.6%), and other
methods (0.8%).
• Punjab: 26.69 billion cubic meters for irrigation.
• Madhya Pradesh: 17.39 billion cubic meters.
• Maharashtra: 15.29 billion cubic meters.

12. MULTI PURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PROJECT

I. NARMADA VALLEY PROJECT
Overview:
• Narmada River: The fifth-largest river in India, flowing across Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Gujarat.
• Project Purpose: Established in 1945-46 to support irrigation, hydroelectricity generation, and
flood management across the Narmada Basin.
Key Dams and Structures:
• The project encompasses the construction of 30 large, 135 medium, and 3000 small dams along
the Narmada and its tributaries.
1. Sardar Sarovar Project (Gujarat)
• Location: On the Narmada River near Navgaon, Gujarat.
• Height: 163 meters.
• Hydroelectric Capacity: 1450 MW.
• Electricity Distribution: 57% of generated power supplies Madhya Pradesh.
• Beneficiary States: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.

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 • Controversy: Opposed by the Narmada Bachao Aandolan (NBA) led by Medha Patkar, initially
organized as ‘Narmada Dharanagrast’ in 1986 and formalized as NBA in 1989.
2. Indira Sagar Dam (Narmada Sagar Project)
• Location: Near Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh, in Narmada Town.
o Targets: Irrigation: 1.23 lakh hectares. + Electricity Production: 1000 MW.
Additional Dams and Projects in the
Narmada Basin:
• Tawa Project: Produces 13.50
MW.
• Barna, Kolar, Sukta, and
Matiyari Projects: Together,
these projects irrigate
approximately 398,300 hectares
of land.
Other Projects on Narmada
Tributaries:
• Man Project on the Man River.
• Chandra Shekhar Azad Project
on the Hathani River.
• Upper Veda Project on the Veda
River.
BHAKRA NANGAL DAM
Overview:
• Type: Multi-purpose project for
irrigation, hydroelectricity, and
flood control.
• Joint Venture States: Punjab,
Haryana, and Rajasthan.
Construction and Location:
• Location: On the Sutlej River,
approximately 80 km north of Ambala.
• Dams: Two main dams, Bhakra Dam and Nangal Dam.
• Completion: Bhakra Dam construction was completed in 1963.
Command Region and Water Storage:
• Irrigation Coverage: Expands across Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
• Reservoir: Water is stored in Gobind Sagar Lake, a crucial resource for irrigation and power
generation.
III. DAM AT THE RIVER CAUVERY
The development of hydroelectricity in India began in the last decade of the 19th century, with the first plant
established in 1897 at Sidrapong to supply electricity to Darjeeling. Following this, the second oldest
hydropower plant was built in Shivasamudram on the Cauvery River in Karnataka in 1902.
Shivasamudram, a historical location in the Cauvery Doab, is about 50 km northeast of Mysore. Here, the
Cauvery river creates a large lake-like appearance due to the surrounding mountain morphology.
Key Dams on Cauvery River

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 • Krishna Sagar Dam: Also located on the Cauvery River in Karnataka, with its project report prepared
by M. Vishweshwaraiya.
The Cauvery River water dispute involves the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the Union
Territory of Puducherry.
NAGARJUNA SAGAR DAM
The Nagarjuna Sagar multi-purpose project, established on the Krishna River, was completed in 1967 and
is located on the border of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The project provides irrigation facilities to the
Nalgonda, Prakasham, Khammam, and Guntur districts.
• Key Specifications:
o Height: Approximately 125 meters
o Water Storage Capacity: 11,472 million cubic meters
o Dam Structure: 1,450 meters long masonry dam

HIRAKUD DAM
The Hirakud Dam, a multipurpose project, is built on the Mahanadi River in Odisha. Initiated in 1948 and
completed in 1957, it stands as the longest dam in the world.
• Location: 15 km north of Sambalpur district, Odisha
• Height: Approximately 61 meters (200 feet)
• Length: Main Dam: 4,801 meters + Total Length (including dykes): 25.8 km
• Irrigation Capacity: Covers approximately 1 million hectares of land

CHAMBAL VALLEY PROJECT

The Chambal Valley Project is a joint initiative of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh on the Chambal River,
which originates from the Janapav hills near Mhow in Madhya Pradesh and merges with the Yamuna River
near Itawa.
Key Dams in the Project
1. Gandhi Sagar Dam (Madhya Pradesh)
o Location: Mandsaur district, Madhya Pradesh
o Height: 62.17 meters
o Construction: Began in 1957, completed in November 1960
2. Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (Rajasthan)
3. Jawahar Sagar Dam (Rajasthan) - Location: 30 km from Kota, Rajasthan
TEHRI DAM PROJECT
The Tehri Dam Project is built at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Bhilangana rivers near Tehri in
Uttarakhand. The primary objectives of this project are irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power
generation.
• Approval and Construction: Initially approved in 1972 by the Planning Commission, construction
began in 1978. The Tehri Hydroelectric Development Corporation (THDC) was established to
oversee the project.
• Height and Specifications: Standing at 260.5 meters, Tehri Dam is the highest dam in India.
• Controversy and Protests: The project faced opposition due to its location in an earthquake-prone
area, its environmental impact, and the displacement of local communities.

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DAMODAR VALLEY PROJECT
The Damodar Valley Project was established along the Damodar River, a major tributary of the Hugli, in
1948. Known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" due to its history of severe pollution and frequent floods, the project
aimed at flood control, irrigation, and power generation.
• Dams on Tributaries:
o Tilaiya Dam on the Barakar River in Koderma district, completed in 1953.
o Konar Dam on the Konar River in Hazaribag district, completed in 1955, located 24 km from
the confluence with the Damodar.
o Maithon Dam on the Barakar River, completed in 1957.
o Panchet Hill Dam on the Damodar River, situated 20 km south of Maithon Dam, completed in
1959.
• Canal System: Two major canals originating from the Durgapur Barrage irrigate agricultural lands in
Howrah, Hugli, and Vardhman districts.
MISCELLANEOUS MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS IN INDIA
Project River Location/Region Key Features & Benefits
Chukka Dam Raidak Bhutan Built with Indian assistance (1974-1991),
(Wang Chu) height 40m, 336 MW capacity, funding split
60% grant and 40% loan.
Bhakra Nangal Dam Sutlej Punjab, Haryana, Multipurpose dam serving water and
Rajasthan electricity needs of three states.
Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha Multi-dam project with Hirakud, Tikar Pada,
and Naraj dams, irrigation, flood control.
Idukki Dam Periyar Kerala Primarily hydroelectric generation.
Telugu-Ganga Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh, Supplies water to Chennai, joint project
Karnataka, between 4 states.
Maharashtra
Mettur Dam Cauvery Tamil Nadu Significant irrigation and hydroelectric
project.
Mayurakshi Project Mayurakshi West Bengal, Includes Massanjore (Canada) Dam,
Jharkhand irrigation for agriculture in the two states.
Baglihar Power Project Chenab Jammu & Kashmir Hydroelectric power generation.
Daman Ganga Irrigation Daman Gujarat (Valsad) Irrigation for agriculture in southern
Ganga Gujarat.
Pamba Irrigation Project Pamba Kerala Irrigation for local agriculture.
Dulhasti Hydropower Chenab Jammu & Kashmir Power generation for the region.
Station
Rajghat (Lakshmibai) Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Irrigation and hydroelectric power.
Dam Madhya Pradesh
Kishau Dam Tons Himachal Ongoing project; benefits both states.
Pradesh,
Uttarakhand
border
Babhali Project Godavari Maharashtra, Disputed project for irrigation.
Telangana
Tapovan & Vishnugarh Dhauliganga Uttarakhand Hydroelectric power generation.
Projects (Chamoli)

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 Mahakali Treaty Mahakali India-Nepal Water-sharing agreement including Sharda
(Sharda) border and Tanakpur Barrages and Pancheswar
Project.
Gandak Barrage Gandak India-Nepal Treaty for irrigation benefits in UP, Bihar,
and Nepal.
Kalpong Hydropower Kalpong Andaman & First hydropower project in the islands.
Nicobar Islands
Rihand Dam (Govind Rihand Uttar Pradesh Largest dam in UP, capacity of 300 MW,
Vallabh Pant Sagar) (Sonbhadra) created Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar lake.
Ukai Dam Tapti Gujarat Multi-purpose dam for irrigation and
electricity.
Kalagarh Dam Ramganga Uttarakhand Used primarily for irrigation, 715m long,
128m high.
Koyna Dam Koyna Maharashtra Hydropower and irrigation.
Tawa Project Tawa Madhya Pradesh Located near Satpura National Park, used
(Hoshangabad) for irrigation.
Pong Dam (Beas Dam) Beas Himachal Created Maharana Pratap Sagar lake, a bird
Pradesh sanctuary.
Meja Dam Kothari Rajasthan Primarily for irrigation.
(Bhilwara)
Tulbul Navigation Jhelum Jammu & Kashmir Supports navigational improvements along
Project the river.

13. AGRICULTURE
• Economic Significance: Agriculture is a major contributor to India's economy. As per the Economic
Survey 2021-22, approximately 54.6% of the workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sectors.
These sectors contributed about 18.8% to India's Gross Value Added (GVA) for 2021-22.
• Historical Development: The first agricultural university in India was established in 1960. Named
Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University (later Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology), it was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru on 17 November 1960 in Pantnagar.
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES:
India is divided into 15 Agro-Climatic Zones.
S.N. Agro-Climate Zone State/U.T.
1 Western Himalayan Region Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
2 Eastern Himalayan Region Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, West Bengal
3 Lower Gangetic Plains Region West Bengal (FAO; 2022)
4 Middle Gangetic Plains Region Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
5 Upper Gangetic Plains Region Uttar Pradesh
6 Trans-Gangetic Plains Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan
7 Eastern Plateau & Hills Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West
Bengal, Maharashtra
8 Central Plateau & Hills Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
9 Western Plateau & Hills Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
10 Southern Plateau & Hills Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
11 East Coast Plains & Hills Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry
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 12 West Coast Plains & Hills Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
13 Gujarat Plains & Hills Gujarat, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu
14 Western Dry Zone Rajasthan
15 Islands Zone Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

The classification by the National Bureau of Soil Survey divides India into 20 Agro-Ecological Regions and
60 Agro-Ecological Sub-regions, based on soil, climate types, and geographical conditions.
Ecosystem Agro-Ecological Region
Arid Ecosystem 1. Western Himalayas
2. Western Plain, Kachchh and part of Kathiawar Peninsula
3. Deccan Plateau
Semi-Arid Ecosystem 4. Northern Plains (Upper Ganga Plain)
5. Northern Plains (Rajasthan Highlands and Gujarat Plain)
6. Northern Plains (Middle Ganga Plain)
7. Deccan Plateau (Malwa Plateau, Gujarat Plain and Kathiawar Peninsula)
8. Deccan Plateau (Mixed red and Black soil)
9. Deccan Plateau (Red Sandy Soil)
Subhumid Ecosystem 10. Eastern Plateau (Satpura Range and Mahanadi Basin)
11. Eastern Plateau (Bundelkhand Highlands)
12. Eastern Plateau (Red and Laterite Soil)
13. Northern Plains (Lower Ganga Plains)
14. Western Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir warm region, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand)
15. Bengal Basin
Humid-Perhumid 16. Assam and North Bengal Plains
Ecosystem 17. Eastern Himalayas
18. Purvanchal Hills (North-Eastern Hills)
Coastal Ecosystem 19. Eastern Coastal Plains and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
20. Western Ghats (Coastal Plains and Western Hills)

Overview of Indian Agriculture

1. Historical Background and Importance
o The book History of Indian Agriculture, authored by M.S. Randhawa (Mohinder Singh
Randhawa), is a comprehensive resource on the evolution of agriculture in India.
o Agriculture plays a pivotal role in India’s economy, providing employment to more than half of
the population and contributing significantly to the Gross Value Added (GVA) of the country.
2. Standards and Storage: According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the ideal
relative humidity for secure storage of food grains should be maintained at 14% to prevent spoilage
and ensure longevity.
3. Agricultural Practices
o Double Cropping: Growing two or more crops in a single crop year on the same land. This
helps in maximizing the productivity of agricultural land.
o Intercropping: Involves cultivating two or more crops in proximity. This approach is designed
to utilize space more efficiently and protect crops from pests and diseases.
o Mixed Farming: This is a system that combines growing food and fodder crops with rearing
livestock. It is an income-boosting practice for farmers as it diversifies sources of income.
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 4. Regional Specializations and Production Statistics
o Punjab leads in Contract Farming, allowing companies to enter agreements with farmers for
the production of specific crops.
o Sikkim, a hilly North-Eastern state, has over 90% of its area under forests, with less than 10%
of land available for agriculture.
o Major grain-producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, with Uttar
Pradesh having the largest share in total food grain production in India.
o Net Sown Area in India is 45.64%, Forest Area is 23.40%, and Other Practices account for
30.96% (Ministry of Agriculture, 2019-20).
o India ranks second globally in rice production after China, with about 35.81% of the gross
area of food grain in India under rice cultivation (FAO, 2022).
5. Fertilizer Consumption
o Top States in Fertilizer Use (kg per hectare, 2020-21): Punjab > Haryana> Andhra Pradesh >
Bihar > Telangana
o Highest Fertilizer Use (per hectare): Puducherry (312.04 kg/hectare).
o Top States in Fertilizer Consumption (Thousand Tonnes, 2020-21):
▪ Uttar Pradesh: 5628.99 thousand tonnes > Maharashtra > Madhya Pradesh >
Karnataka > Andhra Pradesh
6. Balanced Fertilizer Usage
o Balanced fertilizers are promoted to improve food grain quality, boost production, and
maintain soil productivity. They help maintain the nutrient balance in the soil, supporting
sustainable farming practices.
7. Seed Village Concept
o The Seed Village Concept aims to enable trained groups of farmers in a village to produce
seeds of various crops, which are then supplied to themselves and neighboring farmers. This
ensures timely access to affordable quality seeds.
8. Certification and Quality Standards
o Agmark is a quality certification mark issued by the Government of India under the
Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act of 1937. It certifies the quality of
agricultural products.
9. Government Schemes for Agricultural Development
o Soil Health Card Scheme: Supports soil fertility by enabling farmers to test soil health and
use fertilizers accordingly.
o Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchayi Yojana: Aims to increase water capacity and improve access
to irrigation.
o Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Supports organic farming.
o Integrated National Agriculture Market (eNAM): A unified online trading platform to help
farmers get better prices and increase income by providing market linkages.
10. Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
o The KCC Scheme operates nationwide with support from commercial banks, cooperative
banks, and regional rural banks, providing credit to farmers for agricultural expenses.
11. Green Manure
o Green Manure involves growing plants like sun hemp or guar before sowing crops. These
plants are ploughed back into the soil to enrich it with nitrogen and phosphorus, essential
nutrients for crop growth.
o Nitrogen Content in Green Manure: Dhaincha: 0.42% + Sanai: 0.43% + Guar: 0.34%
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 o Nitrogen Enrichment through Green Manure: Sun Hemp or Sanayi: 86-129 kg/hectare +
Dhaincha: 84-105 kg/hectare +Guar: 68-85 kg/hectare + Cobia: 74-88 kg/hectare

14. GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

1. Global Pioneer
o Norman Ernest Borlaug is considered the Father of the Green Revolution globally. Born on
March 25, 1914, in Iowa, USA, Borlaug's work in developing high-yielding wheat varieties led
to a dramatic increase in wheat production in India, Pakistan, and Mexico.
o He is one of only seven individuals worldwide who have received the Nobel Prize,
Presidential Medal of Freedom, and Congressional Gold Medal. In 2006, Borlaug was
honored with India’s Padma Vibhushan.
2. Indian Pioneer
o Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is recognized as the Father of the Green Revolution in India. Under his
leadership, high-yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat were successfully developed and
implemented. This effort was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation (USA), which
contributed to agricultural advancements in India.
o The program emphasized using HYV seeds, increased use of fertilizers, and improved irrigation
facilities.
3. Phases of Green Revolution in India
o First Phase (1966-1981): Initiated to introduce high-yielding seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation
techniques.
o Second Phase (1981-1995): Expanded efforts in the use of advanced technology and seeds.
o Third Phase (1995 onwards): Broadened to cover most of India’s agricultural areas, improving
food security across the country.
4. Impact on Crop Production
o Wheat: Wheat production was the most benefited crop in the Green Revolution. Before the
Green Revolution, India's wheat production was 12.3 million tons. This number surged to
69.68 million tons in 2000-01 and further increased to 106.8 million tons in 2021-22 (4th
A.E.). The yield per hectare reached 3507 kg by 2021-22.
o Rice: The second most impacted crop, rice production also saw a substantial increase due to
the Green Revolution.
5. Main Components of the Green Revolution
o High-Yielding Variety (HYV) Seeds: Primarily wheat from Mexican species developed at
Borlaug’s International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT).
o Fertilizer Use: Significant increase in the use of chemical fertilizers.
o Irrigation: Development of robust irrigation facilities.
o Technology: Modern agricultural machinery and methods.
o Marketing and Industrialization: Enhanced distribution channels and commercialization of
agriculture.
6. National Agricultural Policy and Rainbow Revolution
o On July 28, 2000, the Government of India launched the National Agricultural Policy
proposing the Rainbow Revolution. This policy included various agricultural revolutions
focusing on different aspects of agricultural and allied activities.
7. Various Revolutions and Their Focus Areas
o Green Revolution: Food and crop production.
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 o Golden Revolution: Fruit and vegetable production.
o White Revolution: Milk production.
o Brown Revolution: Fertilizer production and non-conventional energy.
o Blue Revolution: Fish production.
o Red Revolution: Meat and tomato production.
o Black Revolution: Petroleum production.
o Round Revolution: Potato production.
o Yellow Revolution: Oilseed production.
o Pink Revolution: Onion production and meat export.
8. Technological Advancement
o The National Zero Till Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill, developed by G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology, allows direct sowing after the paddy harvest without requiring
prior seedbed preparation. This machine is a significant innovation, helping save time and
resources in the agricultural process.

15. FOOD CROPS

Top 3 States and Countries for Agricultural Production

Crop/Vegetable Top 3 States in India Top 3 Countries in the World

Rice Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal China, India, Indonesia

Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab China, India, USA

Maize Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra USA, China, Brazil
Chickpea Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh India, Canada, Myanmar
Pigeon Pea Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan India, Myanmar, Tanzania
Groundnut Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu China, India, USA
Rapeseed & Mustard Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana China, India, Canada
Soybean Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan USA, Brazil, China
Sunflower Karnataka, Telangana, Odisha Ukraine, Russia, Argentina
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka Brazil, India, China
Cotton Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana China, USA, India
Jute West Bengal, Assam, Bihar Bangladesh, India, China
Onion Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka China, India, Spain
Tomato Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka China, India, USA
Banana Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka India, China, Philippines
Potato Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar China, India, Russia
Coconut Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala Philippines, Indonesia, India
Tea Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu China, India, Kenya
Coffee Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia
Milk Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh India, USA, China
Eggs Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra China, USA, India
Fish (Inland) Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh China, India, Bangladesh
Fish (Marine) Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala China, Peru, Indonesia

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RABI CROPS IN INDIA
Overview of Crop Cycles in India
Due to ecological variations, India has adopted different crop cycles suited to specific regions and climates.
There are three main cropping seasons in India: Rabi Crops + Kharif Crops + Zaid Crops
Rabi Crops: General Characteristics
• Sowing Season: Winter (October-November)
• Harvesting Season: Summer (March-April)
• Major Crops: Wheat, Mustard, Potato, Gram, Pea, Lentil, Barley
• Weather Requirement: Winter rains due to temperate western disturbances are beneficial for Rabi
crops.
Wheat: The Key Rabi Crop
• Importance: Wheat is the second most important food crop in India, mainly cultivated in the northern
and north-western regions.
• Ideal Conditions:
o Temperature: 10°C to 25°C
o Rainfall: 50-75 cm, evenly distributed throughout the growing season
• Cultivation Area: According to the Economic Survey 2022-23, wheat is cultivated on approximately
30.5 million hectares (2021-22 data, 4th Advance Estimates).
Varieties of Wheat
• High-Yielding Varieties:
o Sonalika, Arjun, Kundan, Amar
(HW-2004), Bhawani (HW-1085),
Chandrika (HPW-184), Deshratna
(BR-104), Kanchan (DL-803),
Gomti (K-9465)
• Dwarf Varieties: Developed to enhance
productivity, including:
o Lerma Rojo 64-A, Sonora-63,
Sonora-64, Mayo 64, S-227
o Norin-10: A gene for dwarfism in
wheat that has contributed
significantly to productivity.
• Other Varieties:
o Macaroni Wheat: Suitable for dry,
unirrigated areas.
o Kalyan Sona (Kalyan Gold): An
advanced type of wheat.
Wheat Diseases
• Rust Diseases: Three main types of rust
can affect wheat crops: Yellow Rust + Brown Rust + Black Rust
• Karnal Bunt: A fungal disease caused by Tilletia indica, first recognized in 1931.
• Hybrid Varieties:
1. Triticale: A hybrid of wheat and rye, combining characteristics of both crops.

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KHARIF CROPS IN INDIA
Definition: Kharif crops are typically sown with the onset of the monsoon season across different regions in
India and harvested in October-November.
Major Kharif Crops: Paddy (rice), Millet, Soybean, Peanut, etc. Among these, Paddy is the most prominent
crop.

Paddy (Rice) – Key Kharif Crop

1. Primary Cultivation Regions:
o Traditional Areas: Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Konkan
coast (Maharashtra), Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
o Expansion: Due to improved irrigation, paddy cultivation has expanded to Punjab and
Haryana.
2. Growing Conditions:
o Climate: Tropical crop requiring temperatures above 25°C.
o Rainfall: Needs an average annual rainfall of more than 100 cm.
3. Cultivation Area:
o As per Agricultural Statistics at a
Glance 2022, India has 46.38
million hectares dedicated to rice
cultivation.
4. Top States by Area (2021-22, 4th
Advance Estimate):
o Uttar Pradesh: 5.70 million
hectares (largest area)
o West Bengal: 5.60 million hectares
(second largest)
o Odisha: 3.94 million hectares (third
largest)
5. Productivity:
o Highest Productivity: Punjab, with
4,340 kg per hectare (2021-22).
o National Average: 2,809 kg per
hectare.
6. "Rice Bowl of India":
o Region: Krishna-Godavari delta,
primarily in Andhra Pradesh.
o Key Producing Regions: Telangana and Rayalaseema, situated in the Krishna-Godavari delta.
7. Popular Varieties of Paddy:
o Conventional Varieties: Jamuna, Cauvery, Jaya, Kanchi, Jagannath, Krishna, Hansa, Vijaya,
Padma, Annapurna, Bala, and Ratna.
o Seasonal Type: Aman rice, sown in June-July and harvested in November-December.
8. Special Varieties:
o Aromatic Varieties: Pusa-sugandh.
o Hybrid Varieties: Pusa RH-10 (Hybrid Basmati), PHB-71, Ganga, Suruchi, KRH-2, Sahyadri-4.
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 o Basmati Seed Rate: Ideal for transplanting at 15-20 kg per hectare.
o Drought-Resistant Varieties: Barani Deep, Narendra Shankar, Narendra Shuska Samrat,
Lalmati.

Fertilizers for Paddy

1. Bio-Fertilizers: Key bio-fertilizers supporting rice cultivation:
o Blue Green Algae + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + Azola

16. CASH CROP

COTTON IN INDIA
Overview
• Cotton is the second major commercial crop in India, serving as the primary raw material for the
cotton textile industry.
• Botanical Classification: Cotton belongs to the Malvaceae family.
• Varieties: There are two main types of cotton globally:
1. Old World Cotton (indigenous to regions like India)
2. New World Cotton
Historical Significance
• Indigenous Crop: Cotton is native to India and is referenced in Rigveda and Manusmriti.
• Hybrid Development: India was the first country to develop hybrid cotton, significantly boosting its
production.
Ideal Conditions for Cultivation
• Soil Type: Black soil is optimal for cotton
cultivation.
• Climate Requirements:
o Temperature: 25°C to 35°C
o Frost-Free Days: 210 days
o Clear skies and bright sunshine
o Annual Rainfall: 75-100 cm
Major Cotton-Producing Regions
• Geographic Focus: Cotton is predominantly
grown in North-Western and Western India.
• Top Cotton-Producing States (2021-22, 4th
Advance Estimate) (Agricultural Statistics at a
Glance, 2022):
1. Gujarat: 7.48 million tonnes
2. Maharashtra: 7.12 million tonnes
3. Telangana: 6.07 million tonnes
Highlights by State
1. Maharashtra:
o Soil: Mostly covered with black soil, ideal for cotton.
o Nickname: Cotton is often referred to as "White Gold" in Maharashtra.
o Key Cotton Region: Khandwa-Khargone, also called the "White Gold" region.
2. Madhya Pradesh:

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 o Primary Areas: Western Madhya Pradesh, particularly the Malwa Plateau and Narmada
Valley.
o Major Cotton-Producing Districts: East and West Nimar, Dhar, Dewas, Shajapur, Ujjain,
Ratlam, Khandwa, Hoshangabad, and Rajgarh.
Harvesting
• Cotton Fibres: These are extracted from the cotton seeds, which are the main product collected in
cotton cultivation.
SUGARCANE IN INDIA
Overview
• Climate Requirements: Sugarcane is a tropical and sub-tropical crop that thrives in hot and humid
conditions.
o Temperature Range: 21°C to 27°C
o Annual Rainfall: 75-100 cm
o Irrigation: Needed in areas with low rainfall
Leading Sugarcane-Producing States (2021-22, 4th Advance Estimate)
1. Uttar Pradesh: 177.43 million tonnes
2. Maharashtra: 110.54 million tonnes
3. Karnataka: 61.15 million tonnes
Innovations and Initiatives
• Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI): Launched in 2009 as a joint effort by ICRISAT and WWF, the
SSI is a set of agronomic practices designed to increase sugarcane yields sustainably.
Research and Development
• Sugarcane Breeding Institute: Established in 1912 in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Since April 1, 1969,
it operates under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Global Standing
• Largest Consumer of Sugar: According to the International Sugar Organization (ISO), India is the
world’s largest consumer, followed by the European Union and China.
• Largest Producer of Sugar: Brazil > India > Thailand ( as of Oct 2024)
Industry Significance
• Sugar Industry: After the textile industry, sugar is India’s second-largest agriculture-based industry.
• Sucrose Content: South India is notable for high productivity and higher sucrose content in
sugarcane.
Historical Facts
• First Sugar Mill: Established in 1903 at Pratappur, Deoria district, Uttar Pradesh.

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17.OILSEEDS IN INDIA
Key Oilseeds
• Major Oilseeds: Toria, Mustard, Sesame, Linseed, Castor seed, Sunflower, and Soybean.
• Yellow Revolution: Associated with increased oilseed production.
Oilseed Production (2021-22)
• Total Production: 37.7 million tonnes (Economic Survey 2022-23)
• Top Producing States:
1. Rajasthan
2. Maharashtra
3. Madhya Pradesh

Specific Oilseeds
1. Peanut (Groundnut)
• Characteristics: Known as the "Cashew of the Poor" and a major source of protein.
• Climate Requirements: Tropical climate, 50-125 cm annual rainfall, and 15°C-25°C temperature.
• Cultivation Process:
o Pegging: After fertilization, the pods penetrate the soil and mature underground, close to the
taproot.
o Soil Requirement: Gypsum-enriched soil.
• Top Producing States (2021-22): Gujarat > Rajasthan > Tamil Nadu
2. Soybean
• Nutritional Value: Rich in protein and a significant food oil source.
• Climate Requirements: 15°C-25°C temperature, 40-60 cm annual rainfall, and loamy soil with a pH
of 6-6.5.
• Growing Season: Kharif crop, sown in June and harvested in October, requiring irrigation 3-4 times.
1. Top Producing States (2021-22): Maharashtra > Madhya Pradesh > Rajasthan
• SOPA Data (2023): 52.05 lakh hectares in Madhya Pradesh, representing 43.9% of India's total
soybean area.
3. Mustard
• Type: Rabi crop, sown in October-November, harvested in February-March.
• Climate Requirements: 15°C-25°C temperature, 75-100 cm annual rainfall.
1. Top Producing States (2021-22): Rajasthan > Madhya Pradesh >Haryana
• Popular Varieties: Pusa Bold, Pusa, Jai Kisan, Varuna. Pitambari (RYSK-05-02) is a notable yellow
mustard variety.

18. PULSES IN INDIA

Key Characteristics of Pulses
• Nitrogen Fixation: Pulses have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, thanks to symbiotic
relationships with microorganisms such as Rhizobium.
• Cobalt Requirement: Essential for the synthesis of vitamin B12 and supports symbiotic nitrogen
fixation.
Major Pulse Varieties
• Common Pulses: Gram (chickpeas), Urad (black gram), Moong (green gram), Mash (black lentil), Tur
(pigeon pea), and Lentils.
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 • Special Varieties: Includes 'Malviya Chamatkar' (a variety of Tur dal) among others like Amar, Azad,
Bahar, Malviya Vikas, MA6, and Paras.
Production Statistics (2021-22)
• Top Producing States:
1. Madhya Pradesh - Leading producer of total pulses and specifically gram.
2. Maharashtra
3. Rajasthan
Agricultural Practices
• Fertilizer Use: The recommended NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) ratio for pulses varies
depending on specific crop needs, typically seen as 0:1:1, 1:2:2, or 1:2:3, reflecting the minimal need
for nitrogen due to their nitrogen-fixing ability.

19.SILK PRODUCTION IN INDIA

India ranks as the second-largest silk producer globally, primarily producing four types of natural silk:
Mulberry, Tasar, Muga, and Eri, each with distinctive characteristics and production regions.
Types of Silk and Production Process
• Mulberry Silk: The most common type, primarily produced in Karnataka, which accounts for 42.75%
of India's Mulberry Silk and 32.33% of its total raw silk as of 2021-22.
• Tasar Silk: Known for its rich texture, it is divided into Tropical Tasar (mainly in Jharkhand) and Oak
Tasar (predominantly in Manipur).
• Muga Silk: Exclusive to Assam, representing 80.84% of its production, renowned for its natural
golden sheen.
• Eri Silk: Also largely produced in Assam, which contributes to 74.66% of India's Eri Silk, known for its
durability and warmth.
Silk Production Process
• Lifecycle of Silkworm: Consists of four stages—Egg, Caterpillar, Pupa, and Moth. Commercial silk is
harvested at the pupa stage.
• Harvesting Method: To preserve the continuous fiber essential for weaving, silkworms are prevented
from maturing into moths by being placed in boiling water, a process that allows the cocoon to be
unraveled as a single thread.
Major Silk Producing States (2021-22 Data)
1. Karnataka: Top producer of Mulberry Silk and overall raw silk.
2. Andhra Pradesh: Second largest producer of raw silk.
3. Assam: Dominant in Muga and Eri silk production.
4. Jharkhand and Manipur: Key states for Tasar Silk production.

20.PLANTATION CROPS
COFFEE PRODUCTION IN INDIA
India, known for its high-quality coffee, contributes 3.56% to global coffee production as of the 2022-23
period. The coffee industry in India is predominantly based in its southern states, with specific geographical
and climatic conditions favoring its cultivation.
Varieties of Coffee

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 • Arabica and Robusta: These are the two main varieties of coffee cultivated in India. Arabica is known
for its sweet, soft taste and higher acidity compared to Robusta, which is more robust and has a
stronger, harsher taste.
Ideal Conditions for Coffee Cultivation
• Temperature: The ideal average annual temperature for coffee cultivation ranges between 15ºC to
18ºC.
• Rainfall: An average annual precipitation of 150-250 cm is most suitable.
• Soil: Loamy soil or volcanic soil is preferred, typically found on hilly slopes where most coffee in India
is grown.
Leading Coffee Producing States (2022-23)
• Karnataka: Top producer with 248,020 metric tonnes (MTs), making it the most significant contributor
to India's coffee output.
• Kerala: Second highest with 72,425 MTs of coffee produced.
• Tamil Nadu: Third, producing 18,700 MTs.
Institutional Support
• Coffee Board of India: Established under the "Coffee Act, 1942" and managed by the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, it regulates and promotes coffee production in India.
• National Horticulture Board: Established in April 1984, it functions under the Societies Registration
Act of 1860, focusing on the development and promotion of horticulture including coffee, with
headquarters in Gurugram, Haryana.
Distribution and Growth
• Coffee production is detailed by state contributions with Karnataka leading significantly, followed by
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This distribution underscores the regional specialization in coffee cultivation
due to favorable climatic conditions and well-adapted agricultural practices.

TEA PRODUCTION IN INDIA

India is a leading global player in the tea industry, with a rich history and robust production that cater to both
domestic and international markets.
Origin and Requirements
• Origin: Tea originally came from the 'Yunnan' plateau in South China.
• Climate: Tea thrives in tropical climates, requiring temperatures between 25ºC to 30ºC.
Temperatures below 15ºC and frost conditions are harmful to the crop.
• Rainfall: Optimal growth occurs with 150-200 cm of annual rainfall.
• Terrain: Tea is predominantly grown on hilly slopes, which facilitate drainage and provide the
necessary environmental conditions for growth.
Types of Tea in India
• Bohea or Chinese: Known for its distinct flavor and traditionally smaller leaves.
• Assamica or Assamese: Characterized by larger leaves, it is commonly grown in the northeastern
regions of India, especially Assam.
Leading Tea Producing States (2022-23)
• Assam: The largest tea-producing state in terms of both area and output.
• West Bengal: Notably around the Darjeeling region, famous for its unique black tea.
• Southern States: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka also contribute significantly to India's tea
production, with notable estates in the Nilgiris and other parts.
Global Context

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 • Consumption Trends: The consumption of tea has seen a significant increase globally, particularly in
emerging economies like China and India, propelled by rising incomes and a growing interest in
specialty and organic teas.
• Production Ranking (2021): China, India, Kenya, and Sri Lanka.
• Export Leaders (2022): The top tea exporting countries are Kenya, China, Sri Lanka, and India.

RUBBER PRODUCTION IN INDIA

Rubber is a crucial agricultural product derived from the latex of the rubber tree. India is one of the leading
producers of natural rubber, with specific climatic requirements that limit its cultivation to certain regions.
Climatic Requirements for Rubber Cultivation
• Temperature: Rubber trees thrive in temperatures ranging from 25ºC to 28ºC.
• Rainfall: They require an average annual rainfall of about 300 cm, necessitating a humid environment
for optimal growth.
Major Rubber Producing States in India
• Kerala: Historically the largest rubber-producing state in India, contributing 87.56% to the national
output in 2012-13, though this figure has decreased to 75.68% by 2018-19. Major districts include
Ernakulam, Kottayam, Kozhikode, and Kollam.
• Leading States (2018-19P): Kerala > Tripura > Karnataka > Assam >Tamil Nadu
Global Context
• India's Position: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2022, India ranks 5th
globally in natural rubber production.
• Global Leader: Thailand is currently the world's largest producer of natural rubber, according to FAO
2022 data.
OTHER PLANTATION CROPS IN INDIA
Tobacco Production
• Leading State: Gujarat is the largest producer, accounting for 47.72% of India's tobacco production
as of 2020-21.
• Major Tobacco Producing States: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• Area Under Cultivation: Largest areas are in Gujarat (170.45 thousand hectares), Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
Coconut Production
• Top Producers (2021-22, 3rd A.E.): Kerala (36%), Karnataka (28%), Tamil Nadu (21%). Kerala leads
in coconut production.
• Global Context: Major global producers include Indonesia, the Philippines, and India.
Spices
• Spice Garden of India: Kerala, known historically and presently for its extensive spice cultivation.
• Leading Producer of Spices: As of 2021-22, Madhya Pradesh tops spice production in India,
followed by Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Cloves : Cloves are cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
• Black Pepper:
o Black pepper, known as "black gold," is suited to a hot and humid climate with heavy rainfall,
thriving in areas with altitudes of 1100 to 1300 meters.
o India ranks as the second largest producer of black pepper following Vietnam.
• Areca Nut Top Producers: Karnataka, Kerala, and Assam are leading in arecanut production.

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• Cashew Production Leaders: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha are foremost in cashew
production.

21. JHUM CULTIVATION

Region Local Name for
Shifting
Cultivation

North-east India Jhum

Western Ghats Kumari

Rajasthan Waltre

Madhya Pradesh Dahiya, Mashan,

Bewar

Odisha Podu,
Koman/Bringa

Kerala Poonam

Andhra Pradesh Podu/Penda

Jharkhand Kuruwa

Himalayan Belt Khil

22. AGRICULTURE : MISCELLANEOUS

Overview of Agricultural Production in India (2021-22)
Record Food Grain Production
• Total Food Grain: 315.7 million tonnes
o Rice: 130.3 million tonnes
o Wheat: 106.8 million tonnes
o Coarse Grains: 50.9 million tonnes
o Pulses: 27.7 million tonnes
Top Foodgrain Producing States
• Uttar Pradesh: 17.77% share in total production
• Madhya Pradesh: 12.37%
• Punjab: 8.94%
Focus on Banana Production
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 • National Research Centre for Banana: Established by the ICAR on August 21, 1993.
• Leading Banana Producing States: Andhra Pradesh > Maharashtra > Gujarat

Maize:
Botanical Profile
• Botanical Name: Zea Mays
• Common Name: Maize, often referred to as the “Queen of cereals” globally.
Utilization
• Starch Production: Used to produce starch powder, Dextrin, Seatex, etc.
• Oil Production: Maize oil is utilized for Bio-Diesel production.
• Alcoholic Beverages: Ingredients in beverages like American whiskey and Brazilian Cauim (a type of
beer).
Cultivation in India
• Ranking: Third largest food grain in production and consumption, following rice and wheat.
• Maturity Period: Ranges from 90 to 150 days, with states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya
Pradesh seeing periods of 90 to 105 days.
Leading Production States (2021-22, 4th A.E.) : Karnataka > Madhya Pradesh >Maharashtra
Genetically Hybrid Varieties: Shaktiman-I , Shaktiman-II

Potato Production
• Fredrick Wilson: Credited with introducing kidney bean and potato farming in the Bhagirathi Valley
during the 19th century. He is affectionately nicknamed the "Pahadi" and the "King of Harshil."
• Leading Producer: Uttar Pradesh with 16,161.97 thousand tonnes in 2021-22 (3rd A.E.), followed by
West Bengal and Bihar.
• Special Varieties: Kufri Chipsona-2 and Chipsona-3 for processing in plains; Kufri Him Sona for hilly
areas.
Jute Production
• Favorable Conditions: Lower Ganga plains with high temperature and humidity.
• Major Producers: West Bengal (largest area of cultivation), followed by Assam and Bihar. Known for
producing 'Mesta,' a variety of Jute.
Other crops:
• Saffron Production: Commercially produced in Jammu and Kashmir. Known globally as Zafran.
• Millet: Leading producing states are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana. Notable for the 'Green
hair disease.'
• Onion: Leading producers are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• Mango: Major varieties include Sindhu (world's only seedless mango), Aamrapali (hybrid of Dasahari
and Neelam), Lalit, and Banarsi. Main producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
• Guava Varieties: Lalit and Banarsi, developed by the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research.
• Indian Gooseberry (Amla): Known for its medicinal properties and rich Vitamin C content. Varieties
include Kanchan, Krishna, and Banarasi.
• Ginger: Cultivated for its rhizome, which is used both as a spice and for its storage properties.
• Legumes and Oilseeds: Lobia, Moong, and Arhar are versatile crops used for food, fodder, and as
pulses. Groundnut, sesame, and bajra thrive in dry agricultural regions, relying on rainfall for irrigation.

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 • Cluster Bean (Guar): India and Pakistan produce about 80% of the world's total. The demand for
Guar Gum has surged due to its role in extracting shale gas.
National Food Security Mission
• Objective: To increase the production of rice, wheat, and pulses through area expansion and
productivity enhancement in identified districts, thus enhancing soil fertility, creating employment,
and boosting farm-level economy.
Fisheries Production (2021-22)
• Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2022: Data from the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and
Dairying highlight the top fish-producing states:
• Andhra Pradesh > West Bengal > Karnataka > Odisha > Gujarat
Organic Farming Innovations
• Sikkim: Recognized as India's first biological/organic state, Sikkim promotes crop production using
organic fertilizers exclusively, avoiding synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
Agricultural Awards
• Borlaug Award: Established in 1972, this award is named after Nobel Prize Winner Norman E.
Borlaug. It is presented in the field of agricultural science, celebrating significant contributions to the
sector.

23.ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA

CATTLE AND BUFFALO BREEDS:
• Total Cattle Population: As per the 20th Livestock Census in 2019, India's total cattle population is
193.46 million.
• Types of Cattle Breeds:
o Milch Breeds: Known for high milk production; includes Gir, Sahiwal, Sindhi, Devni,
Tharparkar. Predominantly found in Rajasthan and Pakistan's Sindh province.
o Draught Breeds: Used primarily for labor; includes Nagauri, Bhalavi, Hallikar. Famous breeds
like Tharparkar and Rathi are found in Rajasthan.
• Buffalo Breeds: Key breeds include Murra, Bhadawari, Zafara badi, Suttari, Mahsana, Nagpuri, Neeli,
Pandharpuri.
Sheep and Goat Farming:
• Sheep Breeds: Best breeds are from Kashmir, Kullu, Chamba, and Kangada. Telangana recorded the
highest sheep population in 2019.
• Goats: Known as the "cow of the poor." Main source of meat and also provide milk, leather, and wool.
Jamnapari is notable for high milk yield.
Dairy Production (White Revolution):
• Initiator: Dr. Verghese Kurien, known as the father of the White Revolution.
• Operation Flood: Launched in July 1970 to increase milk production through cooperative dairy
farming. It had three phases spanning from 1970 to 1996.
• Top Milk Producing States (2022-23): Uttar Pradesh leads, followed by Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh.
• Milk Production: India is the top global milk producer, contributing 24% to global production as of
2021-22. Daily per capita milk availability is 459 grams.
Institutional Framework:
• National Dairy Research Institute: Located in Karnal, Haryana; gained Deemed University status in
1989.

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 • Indian Dairy Corporation: Established in 1970 in Anand, Gujarat, to support Operation Flood.
• National Dairy Development Board: Founded by Dr. Kurien in 1965 to promote dairy farming
nationwide.
Statistics and Facts:
• Animal Density: Bihar has the highest animal density in India.
• Livestock Numbers (2019): Uttar Pradesh has the highest livestock count, with Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh following.
• Cattle Stock: West Bengal leads in cattle stock, with Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh also ranking
highly.

24.MINERAL RESOURCES IN INDIA

MINERAL PRODUCTION RANKING - INDIA/WORLD
Mineral Top 3 States in India Top Country in World

Coal Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh China

Iron Ore Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka Australia

Bauxite Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand Australia

Manganese Odisha, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh South Africa

Copper Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand Chile

Gold Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand China

Zinc Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya China

Pradesh

Limestone Rajasthan, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh China

Mica Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar India

Chromite Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra South Africa

Lead Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Australia

Pradesh

Natural Gas Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh USA

Petroleum Rajasthan, Gujarat, Assam USA

(Crude)

Nickel Odisha, Jharkhand, Nagaland Indonesia

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(A) ROCK SYSTEM
Geological and Mineral Distribution:
• Richness and Variation: India possesses a diverse array of mineral resources, which are distributed
unevenly across the country primarily due to geological variations.
• Primary Locations:
o Peninsular India: Houses significant reserves of coal, metallic minerals, and non-metallic
minerals.
o Sedimentary Regions: Areas like Gujarat and Assam are rich in petroleum deposits due to
their sedimentary rock formations.
o Rajasthan: Known for its non-ferrous mineral reserves, located within the peninsular rock
systems.
o Northern Plains: The vast alluvial plains are largely devoid of economic minerals.
Specific Rock Systems and Their Mineral Content:
• Vindhya Range: Comprised of sedimentary rocks yielding limestone, sand, and china clay.
• Dharwar System: Rich in metallic minerals like iron, manganese, gold, and copper, found across
various regions including the Aravallis and Chotanagpur plateau.
Economic Significance:
• Peninsular Region: Often referred to as the "Heart-place of Indian minerals," this region is the core
area for India's mineral wealth.
• Mineral Production and Economic Value:
o Total Mineral Production (2022-23): Estimated at ₹107446 crore, marking a 19% decrease
from the previous year.
o Metallic Minerals: Dominated the economic value with ₹95838 crores, accounting for 89% of
the total mineral production value.
o Non-Metallic Minerals: Contributed ₹11608 crores, representing 11% of the total value.
National Mineral Production Distribution (2021-22):
• State Contributions:
o Odisha: Led with 44.11% share in total mineral production value.
o Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan: Contributed 17.34% and 14.10% respectively.
o Other Key Contributors: Karnataka, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
Minerals and Geology:
• Definition: Geologists define a mineral as a homogenous naturally occurring substance with a
definable internal structure.
• Mineral Types Produced in India: Includes 4 fuel minerals, 10 metallic, 23 non-metallic, 3 atomic,
and 55 minor minerals.

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B. METALLIC MINERALS
I. IRON-ORE
Geographical Distribution
• Dharwar Rock System: The primary geological structure in India containing significant iron ore
deposits. It is considered the most
economically important rock system for iron
mining in the country.
Major Iron Ore Production Regions
State Major Iron Ore Mines
Andhra Pradesh Obulapuram
Chhattisgarh Dalli-Rajhara, Bailadila
Goa North Goa, South Goa
Gujarat Ghavd
Jharkhand Gua, Noamundi, Palamau,
Hazaribagh
Karnataka Bellary, Chitradurga, North Kannada,
Shimoga, Kudremukh,
Maharashtra Chandrapur, Ratnagiri
Odisha Sundargarh, Rairangpur, Mayurbhanj,
Keonjhar, Cuttack
Rajasthan Jaipur
Tamil Nadu Salem, Tiruchirappalli
Key Mines and Ore Types
• Bailadila Mine, Chhattisgarh: Known for high-
quality hematite and magnetite ores. This is the largest mechanized mine in India, with ores primarily
exported to Japan via Vishakhapatnam Port.
• Kudremukh Mine, Karnataka: Renowned for its substantial magnetite iron ore deposits.
• Nathara ki Pal and Thoor - Hundera, Rajasthan: Recognized for their iron ore resources.
Iron Ore Types
• Hematite: Constitutes approximately 79% of the ore found mainly in the Eastern sector including
Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Magnetite: Represents about 93% of the ore primarily located in the Southern sector covering Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Reserve Statistics
• Magnetite Reserves: Largest reserves are found in Karnataka (notable sites include Baba Budan,
Kudremukh, Bellary), followed by Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Goa.
• Hematite Reserves: Predominantly located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Goa.
National and Global Position
• According to the Indian Minerals Year Book 2021, India ranked fourth globally in iron ore production as
of 2020, illustrating its pivotal role in the global iron ore market.
II.ZINC IN INDIA
Overview: Zinc, a crucial metal used in a variety of applications including corrosion protection, alloys, and
batteries, is typically found in combination with lead in zinc sulfides.
Main Production Region:
• Rajasthan: Dominates zinc production in India, holding a monopoly on both production and reserves.
Key Zinc Deposits in Rajasthan:
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 1. Rampura Agucha (Bhilwara District): Hosts the best quality zinc and lead reserves in Asia, making it
the largest zinc-producing mine in India.
2. Zawar Mines (Udaipur District): Historically significant, this region is a primary zinc producing area.
3. Other Regions: Additional deposits are located in the Rajpur Dariba (Udaipur), Dungarpur, Alwar,
Banswara, and Sirohi districts.
Minor Deposits in India:
• Sikkim: Bhotang region.
• Jammu and Kashmir: Riyasi region.
• Uttarakhand: Found in Almora and Tehri-Garhwal districts.
Industry Infrastructure:
• Hindustan Zinc Limited: This company plays a pivotal role in India's zinc industry, operating a Super
Smelter system in Rampura Agucha with collaboration from British technology. This system
significantly enhances the efficiency of zinc and lead smelting processes.
III. SILVER
Overview: Silver, a valuable precious metal, is often found in conjunction with other metals like lead, zinc,
and copper in acidic igneous rocks.
Major Production States:
1. Rajasthan: Stands as the principal producer of silver in India. The Zawar Mines in Rajasthan are
particularly renowned for their substantial silver outputs.
2. Karnataka: Positioned as the second leading producer of silver in the country. Notable areas include
the Kolar and Hutti regions, which are traditionally known for gold but also contain silver deposits.
Distribution of Silver Deposits:
• Rajasthan: Dominates with 86% of the country's silver production.
• Karnataka and Jharkhand: Each contributes about 4% to the national silver output.
• Andhra Pradesh: Accounts for 3% of India’s silver production.
• Other States: Including Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, and
Maharashtra also host smaller quantities of silver.
IV. COPPER
Overview: Copper, a versatile and widely used metal, primarily occurs in the Dharwar rock systems in India.
It is essential for electrical wiring, plumbing, and industrial machinery.
Reserve Distribution:
1. Rajasthan: Holds the largest reserves of copper ore in India, with 52.25% of national reserves,
notably in the Jhunjhunu district.
2. Madhya Pradesh: Follows with 23.28% of reserves, with significant deposits in the Balaghat district,
including the prominent Malajkhand copper zone.
3. Jharkhand: Contains 15.14% of the country's copper resources, primarily in the Singhbhum district.
Minor Reserves: Other states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal collectively hold 9.33% of
India’s copper resources.
Leading Production States (2020-21):
1. Madhya Pradesh: Top producer with 2,344,087 tonnes.
2. Rajasthan: Second largest with 991,991 tonnes.
3. Jharkhand: Produces 41,772 tonnes.
Industry Control:

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 • Hindustan Copper Limited: This public sector company is the main entity responsible for copper
production in India, managing major mining operations and refining processes.
V. BAUXITE
Overview: Bauxite, primarily an ore of aluminum, is crucial for producing alumina and aluminum. It's typically
extracted from laterite rocks and is characterized by varying colors based on iron content.
Primary Uses:
• Production of alumina (Aluminum oxide)
• Manufacture of aluminum metal
Geological Origin: Derived from laterite rocks formed during the tertiary period.
Major Producing States (2020-21 Figures):
1. Odisha: Dominates bauxite production - contributing 76% of India’s total output. The Khondalite
ranges, particularly in the Koraput and Rayagada regions, are rich in bauxite.
2. Gujarat: Produces 1,497,712 tonnes, with significant deposits in Dwarka and Devbhumi.
3. Jharkhand: Yields 1,497,473 tonnes, with Lohardaga, Gumla, and Latehar being key mining areas.
4. Chhattisgarh: Accounts for 715,296 tonnes, tapping into the central region's laterite formations.
5. Madhya Pradesh: Adds 621,505 tonnes to the national production from its bauxite-rich areas.
Resource Distribution:
• Odisha not only leads in production but also in resources, holding 41% of India's bauxite reserves,
making it a pivotal state in the aluminum industry's supply chain.
VI. TIN
Introduction: Tin ore, known scientifically as Cassiterite, is a crucial resource primarily utilized in various
industries including the manufacture of tin sheets, alloys, and the soldering sector.
Production and Reserves:
• Chhattisgarh: It stands as the only state in India currently producing tin. The tin mining operations are
centralized in the Dantewada region, supported by a mix of one public sector and five private sector
companies dedicated to tin extraction and processing.
Reserve Distribution:
• Major reserves/resources: While Chhattisgarh is notable for production, significant tin ore reserves
have also been identified in Haryana and Odisha, according to the Indian Mineral Yearbook 2021.
Uses of Tin:
• Tin Sheets: Widely used in packaging and container manufacturing.
• Alloys: Tin is a critical component in various metal alloys.
• Soldering: Essential in electronics and construction for joining metal components

NON-METALLIC MINERALS
I. MICA
Characteristics and Classification:
• Nature: Mica is known for its flexibility, transparency, and resistance to electricity and heat.
• Classification: As of the Government of India's notification on February 10, 2015 (S.O. 423 (E)), mica
has been categorized as a 'Minor Mineral'.
Production and Reserves:
• Largest Producer: Rajasthan leads in mica production within India.
• Reserve Distribution: Andhra Pradesh: 41% > Rajasthan: 28% > Odisha: 17% > Maharashtra: 13% >
Bihar: 2%

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 • Major Mica Belt: The principal mica belt in India stretches across Hazaribag, Gaya, and Munger, with
the Kodarma district at its center, famously known as the 'Capital of Mica'.
Global Context:
• According to the World Mineral Production Report (2017-2021), China is the leading global producer
of mica, followed by Madagascar.
II. MARBLE
Definition and Classification:
• Legal Status: Marble is classified as a 'Minor Mineral' under clause (e) of section 3 of the Mines and
Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 1957.
• Etymology: The term "marble" originates from the Latin word Murmur, which itself is derived from the
Greek word Mormorous, meaning "shining stone."
Formation and Types:
• Geological Formation: Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of dolostone
or sedimentary carbonate rocks. It undergoes transformation due to contact metamorphism, resulting
in a dense, crystalline structure ideal for carving and architecture.
• Famous Sites: Makrana, located in the Nagaur district of Rajasthan, is renowned for its high-
quality marble, which was historically used in iconic structures like the Taj Mahal and Victoria
Memorial in Kolkata.
Production and Industry:
• Primary Producer: Rajasthan is the leading producer of marble in India.
• Industrial Processing: Katni in Madhya Pradesh is known for its marble polishing and cutting
factories, indicating a robust industry for marble processing in India.
ENERGY MINERAL
I. COAL IN INDIA
General Characteristics
• Nature: Coal is a solid sedimentary rock
primarily composed of hydrocarbons and
is used mainly as a fuel to produce heat
and energy.
• Formation Ages:
1. Gondwana: Produces high-quality
coal with low ash content.
2. Tertiary: Known for lower quality
coal.
• Types of Coal:
1. Peat (Less than 40% carbon)
2. Lignite (40-55% carbon)
3. Bituminous (55-80% carbon) -
Widely used for its energy content.
4. Anthracite (90-95% carbon) -
Known for its high quality and
hardness.
Geographical Distribution
• Primary Coalfields:

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 o Gondwana Coalfields: Include the Damodar Valley, Son Valley, Mahanadi Valley, Godavari,
Satpura, Vardha Ghati, and Rajmahal.
o Tertiary Coal: Mainly found in northeastern states and along the Himalayan foothills.
Major Coal Producing Regions
State Coal Fields Special Facts
Jharkhand Jharia, North Karnapura, South Contains the largest and most important
Karnapura, Bokaro, Chandrapura, coalfields; Jharia is notable for its coking coal.
Rajmahal, Giridih
West Bengal Raniganj, Barjora, Birbhum, Darjeeling Raniganj is the oldest coalfield in India.
Odisha Talcher, Ib Valley Talcher is managed by Mahanadi Coalfield
Limited.
Chhattisgarh Korba, Raigarh, Tatapani-Ramkola, Korba is an important coalfield in the Hasdeo
Bisrampur, Sonhat, Jhilimili, Chirimiri, river basin.
Lakhanpur, Panchbahini, Sendurgarh
Madhya Singrauli, Sohagpur, Umaria, Singrauli is shared with Uttar Pradesh and is one
Pradesh Badarwas, Kamptee, Umred of the major coal producing areas.
Maharashtra Wardha Valley, Kamptee, Umred Known for its coal reserves in the Wardha Valley
region.
Telangana Singareni Only coal mining company in South India.
Tamil Nadu Neyveli Neyveli is one of the largest lignite mines in India.
Rajasthan Palana, Kapurdi Kapurdi is known for its lignite production.
Gujarat Panandhro, Mata no Madh Panandhro is known for its substantial lignite
deposits.
Arunachal Namchik-Namphuk, Kharsang One of the few places in North-East India with
Pradesh coal deposits.
Meghalaya Cherrapunji Known for its coal deposits amidst the hilly
terrain.

Production and Reserves (As per IMYB 2021)

• Leading States (2020-21 Production): Chhattisgarh (22.12%) > Odisha (21.53%) > Madhya
Pradesh (18.51%) > Jharkhand (16.66%) > Telangana (7.35%)
• Coal Quality: Predominantly non-coking coal makes up 93.75% of production, with the rest being
coking coal.
Economic and Environmental Considerations
• Exports and Uses: Significant amounts of coal, particularly from the Bailadila Mine in Chhattisgarh,
are exported, e.g., to Japan.
• Challenges:
1. Quality Issues: Predominance of low-grade coal.
2. Infrastructure: Deficiencies in coal washing and handling.
3. Environmental Concerns: Impact of mining and consumption on air quality and landscapes.
4. Economic Impact: Dependency on coal affects India's energy strategy and import bills,
especially concerning coking coal.
• Innovative Energy Solutions: Exploration into unconventional sources like coalbed methane and
shale gas to diversify energy sources and reduce environmental impact.
II. PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS IN INDIA
Geological Formation and Discovery

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Petroleum in India is primarily found in synclines and fault traps within the tertiary rocks. The discovery of
petroleum in India dates back to 1860 near Margherita by the Assam Railway and Trading Company. The first
oil well was drilled in 1867 in Makum, Assam. Digboi in Assam hosts the oldest oil deposits and is situated in
the Brahmaputra valley.
Main Regions of Crude Oil
1. Brahmaputra Valley: This is the oldest oil production field in India, with major production areas in
Lakhimpur and Sibsagar districts.
2. Gujarat Coast: Significant reserves with Ankleshwar being a notable region where oil production
began in 1961.
3. Western Coast: Includes the Bombay High Basin, an essential centre discovered jointly by Russia
and India, with the first oil well dug in 1974.
4. Eastern Coast: Encompasses the deltaic regions of the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery rivers, rich in
mineral oil and natural gas.
Refineries and Production
India's petroleum refineries act as nodal centers for various industries. Key refineries include:
• Digboi and Numaligarh in Assam
• Koyali in Gujarat
• Jamnagar: Houses the world's largest refineries by Reliance Industries
• Mathura in Uttar Pradesh
• Tatipaka in Andhra Pradesh, operated by ONGC
Offshore Production
The offshore regions, particularly the Bombay High Basin, are significant for India's oil production. The central
government mainly controls these offshore oil deposits.
Production Statistics (2020-21) :
• Offshore: 15,391 thousand tonnes
• Rajasthan: 5,891 thousand tonnes > Gujarat:
4,651 thousand tonnes > Assam: 3,902
thousand tonnes >Tamil Nadu: 410 thousand
tonnes > Andhra Pradesh: 195 thousand tonnes
Total production in India for 2020-21 stood at 30,494
thousand tonnes.
Strategic Petroleum Reserves
India has established strategic petroleum reserves to
handle potential supply disruptions. These reserves are
located in Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, and Padur.
Challenges and Developments : The 1973 energy crisis
marked a significant turning point for India, leading to the
creation of the strategic reserves.
NATURAL GAS
Major Production Centers (2020-21)
• Offshore Region: The largest producer with
18,429 thousand tonnes, predominantly from the
Bombay High Basin.
• Assam: 2,995 thousand tonnes, mainly from the Naharkatiya and Moran regions.
• Rajasthan: 2,040 thousand tonnes.

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 • Tripura: 1,634 thousand tonnes.
• Gujarat: 1,138 thousand tonnes, with significant contributions from Hazira and other areas.
Infrastructure and Distribution
• Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) Pipeline: Constructed by the Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL),
this pipeline plays a critical role in transporting natural gas across various regions, enhancing the
distribution network.
Exploration and Production
• Key Players: Oil India Limited and the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) are the
primary agencies involved in oil and natural gas exploration and production in India.
• Private Sector Contribution: Reliance Industries Limited made significant strides by discovering a
substantial stock of natural gases in the Cauvery-Godavari Basin in 2002. Reliance is notable for
being the first private company in India to undertake deep-sea natural gas exploration.
Policies and Strategic Reserves
• Hydrogen Vision-2025: Focuses on the warehousing of petroleum products to ensure energy
security.
• Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) Estimates: ONGC has identified potential reserves of
187.5 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of gas across five major basins:
1. Cambay
2. Ganga Valley
3. Assam and Assam Arakan
4. Krishna-Godavari
5. Cauvery
Licensing and Regulatory Framework
• National Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP): This policy provided licenses for oil and natural gas
exploration, which included 14 NELP blocks, 1 joint venture block, 2 nomination blocks, and 4
coalbed methane (CBM) blocks.
• Hydrogen Exploration Licensing Policy (HELP): Introduced in 2016, HELP replaced NELP to adapt
to the evolving energy landscape and promote the exploration of cleaner energy sources.
State/UT Refineries Special Fact
Assam Digboi Oldest oil refinery in India.
Guwahati Established near Guwahati in 1962.
Bongaigaon Known for its high-quality wax production.
Numaligarh Strategically important for Northeast India.
Bihar Barauni Significant for eastern India’s oil supply.
Gujarat Koyali One of the largest refineries in India.
Jamnagar Largest refinery in the world owned by Reliance Industries.
SEZ, Jamnagar Special Economic Zone refinery by Reliance Industries.
Vadinar Operated by Nayara Energy, formerly Essar Oil.
West Bengal Haldia Crucial for the petroleum needs of Eastern India.
Uttar Pradesh Mathura Key supplier to Northern India’s demand for petroleum products.
Haryana Panipat Known for being one of the most modern refineries in India.
Odisha Paradeep One of the newest refineries, established by IOCL.
Maharashtra Mumbai Significant for the metropolis' energy needs.
Andhra Pradesh Visakhapatnam Major supplier for southern India’s petroleum needs.
Tatipaka Small capacity, caters to local requirements.
Kerala Kochi The largest public sector refinery by capacity in India.

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Tamil Nadu Manali Supplies to domestic and industrial needs of southern regions.
Narimanam Minor refinery with specific processing capabilities.
Karnataka Mangaluru Has a strategic location along the west coast.
Madhya Pradesh Bina Joint venture refinery with Bharat Oman Refineries Limited.
Punjab Bathinda Known as Guru Gobind Singh Refinery.

MAJOR PIPELINES OF INDIA

Pipeline States Covered Special Facts
HVJ Pipeline Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur; one of India's first
Pradesh, Delhi major gas pipelines.
East West Pipeline Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat Transports natural gas from KG basin to
western India.
KG Basin Pipeline Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Connects the Krishna Godavari basin with
major consumption centers.
Dabhol-Bangalore Maharashtra, Karnataka Facilitates gas supply from the Dabhol LNG
Pipeline terminal to southern India.
Mumbai-Uran Maharashtra Supplies gas to Mumbai and its surrounding
Pipeline industrial areas.
Cauvery Basin Tamil Nadu Transports natural gas from the Cauvery basin
Pipeline to local consumers.
North East Pipeline Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar Aimed at boosting the economy in the
Northeast by improving gas supply.
Pradhan Mantri Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Part of a project to bring pipeline gas to
Urja Ganga Odisha, West Bengal Eastern India.

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25. MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS IN INDIA
Overview of Mineral Distribution
India possesses a diverse and rich mineral heritage, characterized by an uneven geographical distribution.
Despite being formerly known as the world leader in mica production, this mineral has been reclassified as a
'Minor Mineral' as of February 10, 2015. The array of minor minerals includes Barytes, Bentonite, Calcite, and
many others, emphasizing the geological variety across the Indian subcontinent.
Notable Mineral Reserves and Production
• Asbestos: Once actively mined, there has been no production reported in recent years, with
significant reserves located in Rajasthan.
• Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks undergo transformation under intense conditions, producing
minerals like Garnet.
• Manganese: Essential for industrial purposes, it is predominantly found in Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra. Notably, the manganese extracted from Odisha is distinguished by its high iron content
and low phosphorus.
Specific Mineral Productions and Locations
• Mica: Rajasthan leads in production, with significant reserves spread across Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
and Maharashtra.
• Lead: Primarily produced in Rajasthan, particularly in the Zawar region, known historically for its lead
and silver mining.
• Gypsum: Predominantly found in Rajasthan, it is used both in agriculture to improve soil fertility and in
the construction sector.
• Uranium: Jaduguda Mines in Jharkhand are notable for uranium production, with additional regions
like Domiasiat and Lambapur contributing to the reserves.
Mineral Production by State (2020-21)
• Bauxite: Leading producer Odisha, followed by Gujarat and Jharkhand.
• Coal and Chromite: Chhattisgarh and Odisha are significant producers of coal, with Odisha alone
accounting for the major share of chromite.
• Diamond and Gold: Madhya Pradesh is renowned for diamonds, particularly from Panna, while
Karnataka remains a principal producer of gold.
• Crude Oil and Natural Gas: Rajasthan leads in crude oil, whereas Assam is significant for natural gas
production.

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26. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
I. THERMAL
Energy Sources and Capacity
India relies heavily on traditional energy sources such as coal, crude oil, and natural gas to generate thermal
electricity. The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), established in 1975, plays a crucial role in this
sector. As of December 31, 2023, India's installed power capacity stood at 428,299.27 MW, with thermal
power constituting the majority at 56.04% or 240,022.92 MW.
Ultra Mega Power Projects
The Government of India is advancing its energy capabilities through the introduction of Ultra Mega Power
Projects, aiming for capacities of 4,000 MW or more.
These projects, like the ones in Mundra (Gujarat) and
Sasan (Madhya Pradesh), employ Super Critical
Techniques to minimize carbon emissions. This
initiative spans various states including Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and
Karnataka.
Specific Thermal Power Plants
• Neyveli Thermal Power Corporation (Tamil
Nadu): The first plant in South-East Asia
utilizing lignite coal.
• NTPC Farakka (West Bengal): Utilizes water
from the Farakka feeder canal and coal from
the Rajmahal coalfield.
• Ramagundam Super Thermal Power Station
(Telangana): Has a capacity of 2600 MW.
• Obra Thermal Power Station (Sonbhadra
district of Uttar Pradesh): Established in
1967 with assistance from Russian engineers.
• Bokaro Thermal Power Plant (Jharkhand):
Located below Konar Dam, it operates two
thermal plants.
• Jamnagar Power Plant (Gujarat): Operated by Essar Power.
• Nabinagar Thermal Power Station (Bihar): Managed by Bhartiya Rail Bijlee Company Limited.
• Kayamkulam Power Plant (Kerala): Operated under NTPC.
Additional Notable Plants
• Ukai Thermal Power Station (Gujarat)
• Patratu Thermal Power Plant (Jharkhand)
• Pench Thermal Power Plant (Madhya Pradesh)
• Dabhol Power Plant (Maharashtra)
• Utran Power Plant (Gujarat)
• Raichur Power Plant (Karnataka)
• Kothagudem Thermal Power Plant (Telangana)
• Uran Gas Turbine Power Station (Maharashtra): Operated by Maharashtra State Power Generation
Company Limited.

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II. NUCLEAR ENERGY IN INDIA
Development and Capacity
Nuclear energy is deemed a promising source to meet India's future energy demands. The first nuclear power
reactor in India, the Tarapur Atomic Power Station, was established in 1969 with American technology. As of
December 31, 2023, nuclear energy contributes 7,480 MW, making up 1.74% of the total installed capacity
of 428,299.27 GW.
Key Nuclear Facilities
Nuclear Facility Place Collaboration Special Facts
Tarapur Atomic Power Maharashtra USA India's first nuclear reactor, started with a boiling
Station water reactor.
Rawatbhata Atomic Rajasthan Canada Initiated in 1973, part of India's early nuclear
Power Station infrastructure.
Narora Atomic Power Uttar - Located in Bulandshahar District.
Station Pradesh
Kakrapar Atomic Gujarat - Situated in Surat district.
Power Station
Kundankulam Tamil Nadu Russia Established in 1988, significant expansion with
Nuclear Power Plant Russian reactors.
Kaiga Generating Karnataka - Located near the river Kali with four operational
Station units.
Mithivirdi Nuclear Gujarat USA Part of the Indo-US nuclear deal, located in
Power Station Bhavnagar district.
Jaitapur Nuclear Maharashtra France Proposed site in Ratnagiri, part of France-India
Power Station (Areva) nuclear cooperation.

Supporting Infrastructure
• Heavy Water Plants: Critical for nuclear energy production, located in Vadodara, Hazira, Kota, Thal,
Manuguru, Talcher, and Tuticorin.
• Nuclear Power Corporation Limited (NPCIL): A joint venture between NTPC and NPCIL, handling
much of India’s nuclear energy production.
III. HYDROELECTRICITY
Historical Context
India's journey with hydroelectric power began with the establishment of the first plant in 1897-98 near
Sindrapong in Darjeeling, West Bengal. This early initiative marked the beginning of exploiting water flow for
generating electricity.
Major Hydroelectric Projects
India now boasts several major multi-purpose hydroelectric projects, which not only provide power but also
support irrigation and flood control. Some of the prominent hydroelectric projects include:
• Bhakra Nangal Dam: Situated in Himachal Pradesh, this is one of the oldest and most important
multi-purpose projects in India, providing power along with agricultural irrigation benefits across the
region.
• Damodar Valley Corporation: This project was inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA
and includes multiple dams that contribute significantly to the hydroelectric power capacity while
also aiding in flood control and irrigation.

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 • Kopili Hydel Project: Located in the Northeastern part of India, this project harnesses the waters of
the Kopili river to generate electricity.
ENERGY IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW OF
MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES
Non-Commercial and Renewable Energy
Sources
Renewable energy sources include:
• Solar Energy: Utilized for cooking, water
purification, and electricity generation.
India benefits from an abundance of solar
radiation, receiving about 5 KW per cm
square up to 300 days annually.
• Wind Energy: Prominent in states like
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, with
Gujarat leading in installed capacity as of
January 31, 2024, with 11223.82 MW.
• Tidal Energy: Explored in regions with
significant tidal ranges such as the Gulf of
Khambhat and the Sundarbans, though it
remains a minor contributor to the overall
energy mix.
• Geothermal Energy: Includes the Khammam plant in Telangana and the Manikaran plant in Himachal
Pradesh, both utilizing geothermal sources for electricity generation.
Policy and Development
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been proactive, endorsing a Consolidated Energy
Policy since December 26, 2008, to boost the adoption of renewable energies. The focus is increasingly on
expanding the capacity of these renewable sources to reduce dependence on non-renewable resources and
decrease environmental impact.
Special Initiatives
• Rampur Village: The first in India to install its own solar energy plant, setting a precedent for rural
energy independence.
• Satara Wind Energy Plant: A notable project in Maharashtra, contributing significantly to the state's
renewable energy output.

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27. INDUSTRY
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION RANKING - INDIA/WORLD
Industry Top 3 States in India Top Country in World

Automobiles Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat China

Textiles Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu China

Steel Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand China

Cement Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, China

Karnataka

Pharmaceuticals Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana USA

Electronics Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, China

Maharashtra

Petroleum Refining Gujarat, Maharashtra, Assam USA

Chemicals Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar China

Pradesh

Information Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana USA

Technology

Machinery Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat China

Shipbuilding Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra South Korea

Aerospace Karnataka, Telangana, Maharashtra USA

Renewable Energy Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat China

Jewelry Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan India

Leather Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West China

Bengal

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I. IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN INDIA
Early Attempts and Initial Success
• 1830 A.D. (Porto Novo, Tamil Nadu): The first
known attempt to establish an iron and steel factory
in India, which eventually failed.
• 1875 A.D. (Bengal Ironworks, Kulti): The first
successful production of iron in India.
• 1907 (Tata Iron and Steel Company, Sakchi,
Jamshedpur): Established by J.N. Tata, this plant
started producing raw iron in 1908 and steel in 1911.
Today, Tata Steel is one of the largest steel
companies globally, with a production capacity of
30.18 million tonnes annually, ranking 10th
worldwide in 2022.

Steel Plant Establishment Location Collaboration Special Fact

Year with
Tata Iron and 1907 Sakchi N/A India's first steel plant, Tata Steel
Steel Company (Jamshedpur), is the world’s 10th largest steel
(TISCO) Jharkhand company in 2022 (30.18 million
tonnes).
Visvesvaraya 1923 Bhadravati, N/A Uses charcoal for power due to
Iron and Steel Karnataka lack of local coal supply, merged
Ltd. (VISL) with SAIL in 1998.
Rourkela Steel 1959 Sundargarh, Germany India's first integrated steel plant
Plant Odisha (Krups, established post-independence;
Demag) located near rich iron ore
deposits.
Bhilai Steel 1959 Bhilai, Soviet Union India's largest producer of rails,
Plant Chhattisgarh iron ore supplied from
Dhallirajhara.
Durgapur Steel 1962 Durgapur, West United Located near Asansol, specializes
Plant Bengal Kingdom in alloy and special steels;
supported by the Damodar River
for power.
Bokaro Steel 1964 Bokaro, Soviet Union Located at the confluence of
Plant Jharkhand Bokaro and Damodar rivers;
established to boost India’s steel
production.
Visakhapatnam 1971 Visakhapatnam, N/A India’s first steel plant on the
Steel Plant Andhra Pradesh coast; iron ore supplied from
Bailadila (Chhattisgarh).

Key Raw Materials in the Iron and Steel Industry

• Iron Ore: India has significant reserves of iron ore, especially in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
• Coking Coal: India imports coking coal, primarily from Australia, as domestic production is
insufficient.
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 • Manganese: Essential for steelmaking, manganese is sourced domestically from Odisha and West
Bengal.
• Dolomite and Limestone: Used as flux in the smelting process.
• Chromium and Nickel: Added to iron to produce stainless steel, which has superior properties due to
its resistance to rust and corrosion.
Post-Independence Developments
• Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961): Special emphasis was given to heavy industries, resulting in the
establishment of the Rourkela, Bhilai, and Durgapur steel plants.
• Bokaro Steel Plant: This plant was also set up in the late 1960s to enhance India's steel production
capacity.
II. ALUMINIUM INDUSTRY IN INDIA
Early Development
• Aluminium Corporation of India: Established in 1937 at J.K. Nagar, West Bengal, this marked the
beginning of aluminium production in India. The first production of alumina occurred in 1942.
Company/Plant Establishment Location Key Details
Year
Aluminium 1937 J.K. Nagar, West First aluminium producer in India, started
Corporation of India Bengal alumina production in 1942.
HINDALCO (Aditya 1958 Renukoot, Produces copper and aluminium;
Birla Group) Sonbhadra, Uttar acquired Novelis Inc. in 2007; Renukoot
Pradesh plant established in 1962.
Bharat Aluminium 1965 Korba, First PSU in aluminium production;
Company (BALCO) Chhattisgarh bauxite from Amarkantak (MP) and
Gandhamardan (Odisha); electricity from
Korba thermal power plant.
Indian Aluminium 1944 Hirakund (Odisha) Operated initially as a public sector
Company (INDAL) and Alupuram company; has two major aluminium
(Kerala) production units.
National Aluminium 1981 Bhubaneswar, Operates Panchpatmali Bauxite Mines
Company (NALCO) Odisha for Damanjodi Alumina Refinery; a
Navratna CPSE, one of Asia's largest
integrated aluminium companies.

Copper: Apart from aluminium, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) in Khetri, Rajasthan, is the only company in
India that originally produces copper.
MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES IN INDIA: KEY HIGHLIGHTS
Miscellaneous Industries in India
This section provides an overview of various important industries in India, including cement, glass, textile, and
heavy engineering industries, along with notable locations and facts associated with each.
Cement Industry
• Limestone Dependency: The cement industry relies heavily on limestone deposits, and thus, is
concentrated in areas with abundant limestone.
• Global Ranking: According to IMYB 2022, India ranks second in global cement production after
China. During 2020-21, India produced 299.94 million tonnes, a slight decrease from 334.37 million
tonnes in 2019-20.
• Major Locations:
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 o Chunar (famous for cement production).
o Other important factories in Uttar Pradesh include Dadri, Churk, and Daala.
Glass Industry
• Major Centers in Uttar Pradesh: Bahjoi, Naini, Firozabad, Ghaziabad, Meerut, Lucknow, Varanasi,
Sasni, and Hiranpur.
• Firozabad: Known as the 'City of Bangles', a major hub for glass bangles production.
Aluminium Industry
• Oldest Town: Dalmianagar in Bihar, located on the banks of the Son River, is one of the oldest
industrial towns, famous for its cement industry. It was founded by Ram Krishna Dalmiya of the
Dalmiya Group.
• HINDALCO: Established in 1958, part of the Aditya Birla Group, HINDALCO produces aluminium
and copper. The Renukoot plant (established in 1962) in Uttar Pradesh is a major production site.
HINDALCO acquired Novelis Inc. in 2007.
• National Aluminium Company (NALCO): Established in 1981, with its registered office in
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. It operates Panchpatmali Bauxite Mines and is one of Asia's largest
integrated aluminium companies.
Cotton Textile Industry
• First Cotton Cloth Mill: Established in 1818 at Fort Gloster near Kolkata (failed).
• Second Mill: Established by KGN Daber in 1854 in Mumbai, named Bombay Spinning and Weaving
Company, marking the foundation of the modern cotton industry in India.
• Key Locations: Cotton production is concentrated in black soil regions, including Ahmedabad,
Solapur, Nagpur, Coimbatore, and Indore.
• Tamil Nadu: Leading producer of mill-made cotton yarn.
• Punjab (Ludhiana): Famous for the hosiery industry, known as the Industrial Capital of Punjab.
Fertilizer Industry
• Sindri Fertilizer Factory: Inaugurated by Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru in 1952, in Sindri, Bihar
(now Jharkhand). The fertilizer plant in Nangal, Punjab, followed.
• Phulpur Fertilizer Plant: Located in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, established by IFFCO in 1974, with
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi laying the foundation stone.
• IFFCO Units: Other units are located in Kalol, Kandla, Aonla, and Paradeep.
Heavy Engineering and Machinery
• Heavy Engineering Corporation (HEC): Established in 1958, in Ranchi, it supplies capital equipment
for industries like steel, mining, railways, and defense.
• Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT): Established in 1953, in Bengaluru, manufactures tractors,
watches, and industrial machines.
• Diesel Locomotive Works (DLW): Established in 1961 in Varanasi, produces diesel-electric
locomotives.
Petrochemical Industry
• Mathura Refinery: Located in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, owned by Indian Oil Corporation.
• Petronet LNG Ltd.: An Indian oil and gas company, operates LNG terminals in Dahej (Gujarat), Kochi
(Kerala), and Gangavaram Port (Andhra Pradesh).
Shipbuilding Industry
• Hindustan Shipyard Ltd.: Established in 1941, in Visakhapatnam, taken over by the government in
1952. Other key centers are located in Goa, Kolkata, Kochi, and Mumbai.
Telecommunication and Electronics

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 • Indian Telephone Industries Limited (ITI): Established in 1948, with units in Bengaluru, Naini,
Mankapur, Raebareli, Palakkad, and Srinagar. It manufactures a range of telecommunications
equipment.
• Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL): Established in 1954, with units in Bengaluru, Chennai,
Panchkula, Ghaziabad, and other cities.
Vehicle Manufacturing
o Major companies include: Hindustan Motors (Kolkata) , Premier Automobile Limited
(Mumbai) , Ashok Leyland (Chennai) , Tata Engineering Company (Jamshedpur) , Mahindra
& Mahindra (Pune) , Maruti Industries (Gurugram) , Sunrise Industries (Bengaluru).
Mining
• Narwapahar Mine: A trackless uranium mine located in Jharkhand, operated by Uranium
Corporation of India Limited.
Geographical Indications (GI)
• Introduced in 2003, a Geographical Indication (GI) is used to signify products with specific
geographical origins and qualities unique to that region.
Industrial Areas and Towns
• Pithampur: An industrial town in Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh, known for its automobile
industries.
• Mon (Nagaland): Known for the wooden architecture of Shangnyu village.
• Nalbari (Assam): Famous for products made from bamboo.
• Pasighat (Arunachal Pradesh): Known for Lali Wild Life Sanctuary and local tribal Ponnung dance.
• Tura (Meghalaya): Located at the foothills of Tura Peak, one of the largest towns in Meghalaya.

28.AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH

INSTITUTES
Institute Name Year Location State Special Fact
Established
Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar 1985 Solan Himachal First Indian Horticulture
University of Horticulture and Pradesh University
Forestry
Indian Grassland and Fodder 1962 Jhansi Uttar Research on grassland
Research Institute (IGFRI) Pradesh and fodder
Indian Institute of Sugarcane 1952 Lucknow Uttar Sugarcane research
Research (IISR) Pradesh
National Dairy Research Institute 1923 Karnal Haryana Known for Animal
(NDRI) Cloning
Indian Institute of Vegetable 1971 Varanasi Uttar Research on vegetable
Research (IIVR) Pradesh crops
Central Rice Research Institute 1946 Cuttack Odisha Rice research, led by Dr.
(CRRI) K Ramiah
Central Institute for Subtropical 1972 Lucknow Uttar Focus on mango and
Horticulture (CISH) Pradesh subtropical horticulture
Central Institute for Arid 1993 Bikaner Rajasthan Arid region horticulture
Horticulture (CIAH) research

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International Crops Research 1972 Hyderabad Telangana Focus on semi-arid
Institute for the Semi-Arid tropics agriculture
Tropics (ICRISAT) research
Central Research Institute for 1985 Hyderabad Telangana Dryland agriculture
Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) research
National Academy of Agricultural 1976 Hyderabad Telangana Research management
Research Management (NAARM) in agriculture
National Institute of Agricultural 1988 Jaipur Rajasthan Agricultural marketing
Marketing (NIAM) research

CITY WISE:
City State/UT Key Institutes
Port Blair Andaman and Central Island Agricultural Research Institute
Nicobar Islands
Rajahmundry Andhra Pradesh Central Tobacco Research Institute
Pedavegi Andhra Pradesh Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research
West Arunachal National Research Centre on Yak
Kameng Pradesh
Guwahati Assam National Research Centre on Pig
Muzaffarpur Bihar National Research Centre for Litchi
Motihari Bihar Mahatma Gandhi Integrated Farming Research Institute
Raipur Chhattisgarh National Institute of Biotic Stress Management
New Delhi Delhi Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute, Indian Institute of Maize Research, National Institute
of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, National Institute for
Plant Biotechnology, National Research Centre for Integrated Pest
Management, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture
(DKMA), Central Road Research Institute, Institute of Genomics and
Integrative Biology
Junagadh Gujarat Directorate of Groundnut Research
Anand Gujarat Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research
Bhavnagar Gujarat Central Salt Marine Chemicals Research Institute
Karnal Haryana National Dairy Research Institute, Central Soil Salinity Research
Institute, Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, National
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
Hissar Haryana Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, National Research Centre
on Equines
Shimla Himachal Central Potato Research Institute
Pradesh
Solan Himachal Directorate of Mushroom Research
Pradesh
Palampur Himachal Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology
Pradesh
Srinagar Jammu & Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Indian Institute of
Kashmir Integrative Medicine
Ranchi Jharkhand Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Natural
Resins and Gums

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Hazaribagh Jharkhand Indian Agriculture Research Institute
Dhanbad Jharkhand Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research
Bengaluru Karnataka Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, National Institute of Animal
Nutrition and Physiology, National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology
and Disease Informatics, National Bureau of Agricultural Insect
Resources, National Aerospace Laboratories, Fourth Paradigm Institute
Puttur Karnataka Directorate of Cashew Research
Cochin Kerala Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute
Kochi Kerala Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
Kasargod Kerala Central Plantation Crops Research Institute
Bhopal Madhya Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Indian Institute of Soil
Pradesh Sciences, National Institute of High Security Animal Disease, Advanced
Materials and Processes Research Institute
Indore Madhya Directorate of Soyabean Research
Pradesh
Jabalpur Madhya Directorate of Weed Research
Pradesh
Mumbai Maharashtra Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Central Institute for Research
on Cotton Technology, National Research Centre for Pomegranate
Nagpur Maharashtra Central Institute of Cotton Research, Central Citrus Research Institute,
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
Malegaon Maharashtra National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management
Pune Maharashtra National Research Centre for Grapes, Directorate on Onion and Garlic
Research, Directorate of Floricultural Research
Solapur Maharashtra National Research Centre for Pomegranate
Medziphema Nagaland National Research Centre on Mithun
Bhubaneswar Odisha Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Indian Institute of Water
Management, Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology
Cuttack Odisha National Rice Research Institute
Ludhiana Punjab Central Institute on Post Harvest Engineering and Technology
Jodhpur Rajasthan Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Bikaner Rajasthan Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, National Research Centre on
Camel
Avikanagar Rajasthan Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
Ajmer Rajasthan National Research Centre on Seed Spices
Bharatpur Rajasthan Directorate of Rapeseed & Mustard Research
Pilani Rajasthan Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute
Pakyong Sikkim National Research Centre on Orchids
Chennai Tamil Nadu Central Institute Brackishwater Aquaculture, Central Leather Research
Institute
Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Sugarcane Breeding Institute
Trichy Tamil Nadu National Research Centre for Banana
Hyderabad Telangana Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Indian Institute of
Millets Research, Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Indian Institute
of Rice Research, National Academy of Agricultural Research
Management, Centre for Cellular Molecular Biology, Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology
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 Izatnagar Uttar Pradesh Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Central Avian Research Institute
Makhdoom Uttar Pradesh Central Institute for Research on Goats
Lucknow Uttar Pradesh Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture, Indian Institute of
Sugarcane Research, Central Drug Research Institute, Central Institute
of Medicinal Aromatic Plants, National Bureau of Fish Genetic
Resources, Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, National Botanical
Research Institute
Jhansi Uttar Pradesh Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Central Agroforestry
Research Institute
Meerut Uttar Pradesh Central Institute for Research on Cattle
Varanasi Uttar Pradesh Indian Institute of Vegetable Research
Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Indian Institute of Pulses Research
Mau Uttar Pradesh Indian Institute of Seed Research, National Bureau of Agriculturally
Important Microorganisms
Dehradun Uttarakhand Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Indian Institute of
Petroleum
Almora Uttarakhand Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan
Mukteshwar Uttarakhand Project Directorate on Foot & Mouth Disease
Bhimtal Uttarakhand Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research
Barrackpore West Bengal Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Central Research Institute
for Jute and Allied Fibres
Kolkata West Bengal National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering and Technology, Central
Glass Ceramic Research Institute, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology

29. TRANSPORT IN INDIA

I. ROAD TRANSPORT
India has a rich history of road construction dating back to the Indus Valley civilization. The Grand Trunk
Road (Old Mughal Road) once connected major northern cities from Sonargaon (Bangladesh) to Peshawar
(Pakistan). Today, India's road network spans about 63.32 lakh km, the second-largest in the world.
According to the National Transport Development Policy Committee, road transport handles about 90% of
passenger traffic and 69% of freight traffic.
Road Classifications:
The Nagpur Plan (1943) divided roads into four sections:
• National Highways , State Highways , District Roads, Village Roads
National Highways:
• As of 31 March 2019, the total length of National Highways was 132,499 km, which constituted
2.09% of the total road length in India.
• There are 962 National Highways as of December 2022.
• The longest highway, NH-27, stretches from Porbandar in Gujarat to Silchar in Assam, passing
through major cities like Kanpur, Lucknow, and Gorakhpur.
Key Projects:
• Golden Quadrilateral Project: Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata (5,846 km).
• East-West Corridor: Connects Silchar (Assam) to Porbandar (Gujarat).
• North-South Corridor: Connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
Notable Initiatives:

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 • Pradhan Mantri Bharat Jodo Pariyojana (PMBJP): A highway development project to link tourist and
economically significant sites.
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): Launched in 2000 to provide all-weather road
connectivity to rural habitations with populations of 500+.
State Highways:
State highways connect towns and cities within states and are managed by the State Public Work
Department (PWD). Key states with extensive state highway networks include:
• Maharashtra: 32,005 km , Karnataka: 19,473 km, Gujarat: 16,746 km, Rajasthan: 15,061 km
Special Roads:
• Mumbai-Pune Expressway: India's first six-lane expressway, covering a distance of 95 km.
• Jawahar Tunnel: Passes through the Banihal pass of the Pir Panjal range in Jammu & Kashmir.
International Highways:
• Lahore-Amritsar-Delhi
• Dhaka-Kolkata
• Barahi-Kathmandu

II. RAIL TRANSPORT IN INDIA

The Indian Railways is one of the largest and most intricate railway networks in the world. It began its journey
on 16th April 1853, with a 34 km stretch between Bombay (Mumbai) and Thane. Following this, other
important rail lines emerged, including Kolkata to Raniganj (1854) and Chennai (Madras) to Arkonam
(1856). By 1871, the presidency towns of Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai were interconnected by rail.
Types of Railway Gauges
Indian Railways divides its routes into three categories based on track width:
1. Meter Gauge: Track width of 1 meter (1,000 mm).
2. Broad Gauge: The most common gauge, with a track width of 1.676 meters (5 ½ feet).
3. Narrow Gauge: Track width of 762 mm or 610 mm.
Rail Network Size and Distribution
As of 2021-22, India’s total rail route length is 68,043 km, consisting of:
• Broad Gauge: 65,093 km > Meter Gauge: 1,655 km > Narrow Gauge: 1,294 km
The densest rail circuits are found in the Gangetic plains, which benefit from a flat topography, fertile lands,
and high population density.
Rail Zones and Headquarters
India’s rail system is divided into 17 zones, each with a headquarters.
Zone Headquarters
Northern Railway (NR) New Delhi
North Central Railway (NCR) Prayagraj
North Eastern Railway (NER) Gorakhpur
North Western Railway (NWR) Jaipur
Northeast Frontier Railway Maligaon, Guwahati
(NFR)
Eastern Railway (ER) Kolkata
East Central Railway (ECR) Hajipur
East Coast Railway (ECoR) Bhubaneswar
Southern Railway (SR) Chennai
South Central Railway (SCR) Secunderabad
South Eastern Railway (SER) Kolkata

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 South East Central Railway Bilaspur
(SECR)
South Western Railway (SWR) Hubballi (Hubli)
Western Railway (WR) Mumbai (Churchgate)
Central Railway (CR) Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus)
West Central Railway (WCR) Jabalpur
Metro Railway Kolkata Kolkata

Notable Railway Facts

• Longest Route: Found in Uttar Pradesh.
• Konkan Rail: Links Mumbai to Mangaluru, known for its scenic route.
• First CNG Train: Introduced in 2015 on the Rewari-Rohtak section to reduce diesel consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Bullet Train Project: The Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train, with a speed of up to 320 km/h, covers
508 km. The National High-Speed Rail Corporation Limited (NHRCL) oversees its implementation.
Rail Infrastructure and Factories
• Chittaranjan Locomotive Works: Manufactures electric engines.
• Banaras Locomotive Works: Produces diesel and electric engines since 1961.
• Rail Coach Factories: Located in Kapurthala, Rae Bareli, and Varanasi.
• Mountain Railways of India: Include the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway,
and Kalka-Shimla Railway, all known for their historical and scenic value.
Special Projects
• Public-Private Partnership (PPP): India's first railway track under the PPP model is the
Gandhidham-Tuna Tekra rail line (17 km), inaugurated in 2015.
• World’s Oldest Engine: The Fairy Queen, built in 1855, was re-launched in 1997 as part of India's
railway heritage.
WATER TRANSPORT
Maritime transport is crucial for India's economic and social development. It includes ports, shipping,
shipbuilding, ship-repair, and inland waterways, overseen by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and
Waterways. India’s coastline stretches 7,516.6 km, with 12 major ports and around 200 minor ports.
Major Ports in India:
1. Kolkata – India’s only riverine port, serving Nepal, Bhutan, and northeastern states.
2. Paradeep – Located in Odisha, developed to ease congestion at Kolkata and Visakhapatnam ports.
3. Visakhapatnam – India’s deepest natural port in Andhra Pradesh.
4. Chennai – Second largest port, an artificial and open seaport in Tamil Nadu.
5. Mumbai – Natural port and the largest in India, located on the west coast.
6. Kandla – A tidal port in Gujarat and a major export hub.
7. Mormugao – Situated in Goa at the mouth of the Zuari river.
8. Tuticorin – Located on the eastern coast in Tamil Nadu.
9. Cochin – Developed between 1920-41, serves as a major port in Kerala, with a natural gas terminal.
10. New Mangalore – Declared the ninth major port in 1974, located in Karnataka.
11. Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Nhava Sheva) – Key port in Maharashtra near Mumbai.
12. Kakinada – A deepwater and anchorage port in Andhra Pradesh.
LNG Terminals:
India has five Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) terminals:

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 1. Dahej (Gujarat)
2. Hazira (Gujarat)
3. Kochi (Kerala)
4. Dabhol (Maharashtra)
5. Ennore (Tamil Nadu)
India’s largest shipyard is located in Cochin, and the country’s largest ship recycling yard is found in Alang,
Gujarat. Mundra Port, also in Gujarat, is another important port.
AIRPORTS
Airport Name City State
Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi Delhi
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport Mumbai Maharashtra
Kempegowda International Airport Bengaluru Karnataka
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport Kolkata West Bengal
Chennai International Airport Chennai Tamil Nadu
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad Telangana
Cochin International Airport Kochi Kerala
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport Ahmedabad Gujarat
Pune International Airport Pune Maharashtra
Goa International Airport (Dabolim) Vasco da Gama Goa
Jaipur International Airport Jaipur Rajasthan
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport Guwahati Assam
Trivandrum International Airport Thiruvananthapuram Kerala
Sikkim Pakyong Airport Pakyong Sikkim
Bhubaneswar Biju Patnaik International Airport Bhubaneswar Odisha
Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport Varanasi Uttar Pradesh
Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Airport Indore Madhya Pradesh
Kannur International Airport Kannur Kerala
Visakhapatnam International Airport Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
Maharishi Valmiki International Airport Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh

WATER TRANSPORT IN INDIA

SETHU SAMUDRAM PROJECT:
The Sethu Samudram Project is a proposed canal to connect the Bay of Bengal and the Gulf of Mannar
between India and Sri Lanka. This project is aimed at shortening the shipping route around the southern tip of
India, thereby reducing the transit time for vessels.
NATIONAL WATERWAYS IN INDIA:
India has a significant inland waterway system that supports transport and trade. Initially, there were five
major National Waterways, but the National Waterway Act of 2016 proposed an additional 111 new
National Waterways.
Major National Waterways:
Waterway Route Length States Facts
(km)

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National Allahabad (Prayagraj) to 1620 Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Longest internal
Waterway 1 Haldia Jharkhand, West waterway in India,
(NW1) Bengal established in 1986
National Sadiya to Dhubri 891 Assam Established in 1988,
Waterway 2 major route on
(NW2) Brahmaputra River
National Kollam to Kottapuram 205 Kerala Established in 1993,
Waterway 3 significant for Kerala's
(NW3) inland transport
National Wazirabad-Vijayawada, 1078 Andhra Pradesh, Established in 2008,
Waterway 4 Bhadhrachalam- Telangana, Tamil connects major river
(NW4) Rajahmundry, Puducherry Nadu, Puducherry routes
National Talcher-Dhamra, Geonkhali- 623 Odisha, West Bengal Established in 2008,
Waterway 5 Charbatia, Mangal Gadi- covers Mahanadi delta
(NW5) Paradeep rivers

30. TOURISM
Site City State Special Fact
Kamakhya Temple Guwahati Assam Known as a Sidh Pith of Tantrik
Sadhana
Kaziranga National Park Kaziranga Assam Famous for its one-horned
rhinoceroses
Haflong Haflong Assam Hill town in North Katchar district
Shimla Shimla Himachal Popular hill station in India
Pradesh
Tirumala-Tirupati Tirupati Andhra One of the most important religious
Venkateswara Temple Pradesh sites in India
Gir Forest Lion Sanctuary Gir Gujarat Home to the Asiatic lion
Vaishno Devi Temple Jammu Jammu and Famous Hindu pilgrimage site
Kashmir
Gulmarg Gulmarg Jammu and Popular hill station
Kashmir
Srirangapatnam Srirangapatnam Karnataka Historical and cultural site
Panchmadhi Hill Panchmadhi Madhya Scenic hill station in Madhya Pradesh
Pradesh
Konark Sun Temple Konark Odisha A UNESCO World Heritage Site since
1984
Jaipur Jaipur Rajasthan Known as the Pink City
Udaipur Udaipur Rajasthan Known as the City of Lakes
Ooty Ooty Tamil Nadu Popular hill station in South India
Gangotri Gangotri Uttarakhand One of the Char Dham pilgrimage
sites
Ajanta and Ellora Caves Aurangabad Maharashtra Famous for ancient rock-cut caves
Sabarimala Temple Sabarimala Kerala Important pilgrimage site for Hindus
Kalimpong Kalimpong West Bengal Famous hill station in Darjeeling
district

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Point Calimere Nagapattinam Tamil Nadu Highest point on the Coromandel
Coast
Mysore Palace Mysore Karnataka Famous for its royal heritage and
architecture
Hampi Hampi Karnataka UNESCO World Heritage Site, ancient
ruins
Rishikesh Rishikesh Uttarakhand Known as the Yoga Capital of the
World
Varanasi Varanasi Uttar One of the oldest cities, known for its
Pradesh ghats
Meenakshi Temple Madurai Tamil Nadu Famous temple dedicated to
Goddess Meenakshi
Jaisalmer Fort Jaisalmer Rajasthan Known as the Golden Fort
Kanyakumari Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu Southernmost point of mainland India
Ranthambore National Park Sawai Rajasthan Famous for its tiger reserve
Madhopur
Sundarbans National Park Sundarbans West Bengal UNESCO World Heritage Site, known
for the Bengal tigers
Bhedaghat Marble Rocks Jabalpur Madhya Scenic marble rock formations along
Pradesh the Narmada River
Amritsar Golden Temple Amritsar Punjab The holiest Sikh shrine
Chittorgarh Fort Chittorgarh Rajasthan Largest fort in India
Khajuraho Temples Khajuraho Madhya UNESCO World Heritage Site, known
Pradesh for erotic sculptures

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31.MISCELLANEOUS
Historical Milestones in Communications:
• 1850: The first experimental Electric Telegraph in India was established between Calcutta
(Kolkata) and Diamond Harbor.
• 1881: Oriental Telephone Company Limited opened telephone exchanges in Calcutta (Kolkata),
Bombay (Mumbai), Madras (Chennai), and Ahmedabad.
• 1 August 1986: The Indian Postal Department introduced Speed Post for express delivery of letters
and parcels.
Energy and Science:
• Biogas: A renewable energy source made from the breakdown of organic matter, such as agricultural
waste, in the absence of oxygen. It provides both power and manure.
• Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launch Station (TERLS): Established in Thumba, a suburb of
Thiruvananthapuram in 1963 under the leadership of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, due to its proximity to the
geomagnetic equator.
• Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC): Located in Maharashtra, BARC is India's premier nuclear
research facility. India's first nuclear reactor, 'Apsara', became operational on 4 August 1956 at BARC
in Trombay, Mumbai.
• Pokhran: The site of India's first underground nuclear test, situated in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
Educational and Research Institutions:
• Himalayan Mountaineering Institute: Located in Darjeeling, West Bengal.
• Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University: Located in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology: Located in Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh.
• Indira Gandhi Agricultural University: Established in Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
Industry and Crafts:
• Moradabad: Known for brassworks and glassware, it is called the 'Peetal Nagri' (Brass City).
• Chanderi: A town in Madhya Pradesh, famous for its hand-woven sarees.
• Banarasi Silk Sarees: Worldwide renowned for their gold and silver brocade or zari, originating from
Varanasi.
• Kanjivaram Silk Sarees: Made in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, often referred to as the 'Varanasi of the
South'.
Sports:
• Aishbagh Stadium: Located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
• Green Park Cricket Stadium: Located in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
• Eden Gardens Cricket Stadium: Located in Kolkata, West Bengal.
Miscellaneous:
• Cairn (Capricorn Energy): A leading oil and gas exploration company, headquartered in Edinburgh,
Scotland, with operations in Rajasthan, India.

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Thank You!
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