Aerodynamics

AIRFOILS, WINGS, AND OTHER AERODYNAMIC

SHAPES

Dr. Bui Van Tuan

 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE
• This section we deals with lift and
drag on aerodynamic bodies,
principally airfoil shapes and
wings

• Consider the wing of an airplane

• Airfoil: cross-sectional shape
obtained by the intersection of
the wing with the perpendicular
plane
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

• The major design feature of an airfoil is the mean camber line: the locus of points
halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, as measured perpendicular to
the mean camber line itself

• The most forward and rearward points of the mean camber line are the leading
and trailing edges

• The straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges is the chord line of the
airfoil

• The precise distance from the leading to the trailing edge measured along the
chord line is simply designated the chord of the airfoil - c.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

• The camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line
and the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.

• The camber, the shape of the mean camber line, and to a lesser
extent the thickness distribution of the airfoil control the lift and
moment characteristics of the airfoil
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

• As we learnt before an aerodynamic force - resultant force R is

created by the pressure and shear stress distributions over the wing
surface.

• R is resolved into: drag D and lift L

• The surface pressure and shear stress distributions create a moment
M that tends to rotate the wing
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

F2

• Consider the surface pressure distribution over an airfoil as sketched

in Figure

• Pressure on the top of surface of the airfoil gives rise to a net force F1
in the general downward direction

• F1 acts through a given point on the chord line, point 1, which can be
found by integrating the pressure times distance over the surface
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

F2

• Pressure on the bottom of surface of the airfoil gives rise to a net force F2
in the general upward direction acting through point 2

• The total aerodynamic force on the airfoil = F1 + F2

• Lift is obtained when F2 > F1
• However F1 and F2 will create a moment that will tend to rotate the airfoil
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

F2

• The value of this aerodynamically induced moment depends on the

point about which we choose to take moments.

• For example, if we take moments about the leading edge, the

aerodynamic moment is designated MLE
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

F2

• In the case of subsonic airfoils to take moments about a point on the

chord at a distance c/4 from the leading edge, the quarter-chord
point

• This moment about the quarter chord is designated Mc/4

• Lift, drag, and moments on a wing will change as the angle of attack
α changes
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

F2

• There exists a certain point on the airfoil about which moments

essentially do not vary with α.

• This point is de ned as the aerodynamic center, and the moment

about the aerodynamic center is designated Mac = const

• For low-speed subsonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is generally

very close to the quarter-chord point.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

• Remember that we can also resolve R in to normal force N and axial

force A

L = Ncosα − Asinα (1.1)

• D = Nsinα + Acosα (1.2)
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
• For an airplane in ight, the actual magnitudes of L, D, and M depend not
only on α, but also on velocity and altitude

• We can expect that the variations of L, D, and M depend at least on

1. Free-stream velocity V∞

2. Free-stream density ρ∞

3. Size of the aerodynamic surface - wing area S

4. Angle of attack α

5. Shape of the airfoil

6. Viscosity coe cient μ∞

7. Compressibility of the air ow

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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
• So: L = f(V∞, ρ∞, S, μ∞, a∞)
• Using dimensional analysis method we easily obtain lift:
L = q∞ × S × cl
L
With lift coe cient: cf =
• q∞S
• Drag: D = q∞Scd where cd is drag coe cient
• Moments: M = q∞Sccm where cm is a dimensionless moment
coe cient
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
• In summary, for an airfoil of given shape, the dimensionless lift, drag,
and moment coe cients have been de ned as
L
• cl =
q∞S
D
• cd =
q∞S
M
• cm =
q∞Sc
where cl = f1(α, M∞, Re), cd = f2(α, M∞, Re), cm = f3(α, M∞, Re)
• All the physical complexity of the ow eld around an aerodynamic
body is implicitly buried in cl, cd, and cm
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
• It is important to elaborate on why M∞ and Re are called similarity
parameters

• Similarity parameters are dimensionless quantities that allow

comparison of di erent ow situations by ensuring dynamic similarity
between them

• If two ows have the same M∞ the compressibility e ects in these

ows are dynamically similar. For example, shock waves and
expansion fans appear at the same locations relative to the body if
M∞ is matched
• If two ows have the same Re, their viscous e ects (like boundary
layer thickness and drag) are dynamically similar.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
• Both M∞ and Re are dimensionless, allowing them to apply
universally across di erent scales and setups.

• By matching M∞ and Re in experiments or simulations, we ensure

that the ow patterns, boundary layer behavior, and pressure
distributions mimic those of the actual situation.

• They determine distinct ow regimes:

• Subsonic, transonic, supersonic, or hypersonic (M∞).
• Laminar, transitional, or turbulent (Re).
• Matching M∞ and Re ensures that small-scale wind tunnel
models replicate the full-scale ight conditions.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict values of cl, cd, and
cm from the basic equations and concepts of physical science
• The use of high-speed digital computers to solve the governing ow
equations is now bringing us much closer to the accurate calculation
of aerodynamic characteristics

• But due to some limitation we still not able to solve many complex
aerodynamic ows

• As a result, the practical aerodynamicist has to rely on direct

experimental measurements of cl, cd, and cm for speci c bodies of
interest

• A large bulk of experimental airfoil data was compiled over the years
by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• Lift, drag, and moment
coe cients were
systematically measured for
many airfoil shapes in low-
speed subsonic wind tunnels.

• These measurements were

carried out on straight,
constant-chord wings that
completely spanned the
tunnel test section from one
side wall to the other

• The experimental airfoil data

were thus obtained: cl, cm, cd
…
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• The variation of cl with α is shown
in gure

• The experimental data indicate that

cl varies linearly with α over a large
range of angle of attack

• The slope of the linear portion of the

lift curve is designated as
a0 = dcl /dα
• When α = 0, there is still a positive value of cl - there is still some lift even
when the airfoil is at zero angle of attack to the ow (this is due to the
positive camber of the airfoil)

• All airfoils with such camber have to be pitched to some negative angle of
attack before zero lift is obtained.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• The phenomenon of airfoil stall is of
critical importance in airplane
design.

• It is caused by ow separation on
the upper surface of the airfoil as
can be seen in the gure

• At point 1 on the linear portion of

the lift curve, the ow eld over the
airfoil is attached to the surface

• As the angle of attack ↗, the

adverse pressure gradient on the top
surface of the airfoil ↗ -> at some
value of α—the stalling angle of
attack—the ow becomes separated
from the top surface
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• When separation occurs, the lift
decreases drastically and the drag
increases suddenly (at point 2)

• We note that the lift curves are all

virtually linear up to the stall

• Flow separation is a viscous e ect

-> Re is a governing parameter for
viscous ow.

• The experimental data also found

that for cl,max in the stalling region
are a ected by Re
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• The lift, drag, and moments on an
airfoil are always understood to be
the lift, drag, and moments per
unit span (Fig a)

• The planform area of the segment

of unit span is the projected area
seen by looking at the wing from
above—namely S = c(1) = c

• So for an airfoil, we interpret L as

the lift per unit span and S as the
planform area of a unit span then:
L(per unit span) = q∞c(1)cl or
L (per unit span)
cl =
q∞c
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• Example: A model wing of constant
chord length is placed in a low-speed
subsonic wind tunnel, spanning the test
section. The wing has an NACA 2412
airfoil and a chord length of c = 1.3m.
The ow in the test section is at a
velocity of V∞ = 50 m/s at standard
3
sea-level conditions (ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m ,
μ∞ = 1.789 × 10−5 kg/m . s ). If the
wing is at a 4° angle of attack, nd

(a) cl, cd, and cm,c/4

(b) the lift, drag, and moments about the

quarter chord (c/4), per unit span (i.e.
S = 1.3 × 1 = 1.3m 2)
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• Example: The same wing in the same
ow as in previous example which is
pitched to an angle of attack such
that the lift per unit span is 700 N.

a. What is the angle of attack?

b. To what angle of attack must the
wing be pitched to obtain zero lift?
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
Airfoil data
• Example: At a zero angle of attack, the measured drag on the wing
model with the NASA LS(1)-0417 airfoil shape is D=34.7 N when the
ow in the test section is at a velocity of 97 m/s at standard sea-level
conditions. The chord length is 0.6 m and the wingspan across the test
section is 1 m. Calculate the drag coe cient.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
INFINITE VERSUS FINITE WINGS

• In nite wing: the wing could be stretching from plus in nity to minus
in nity in the spanwise direction as shown in gure (the wing stretches
to ± ∞ in the z direction.

• The ow about this wing varies only in the x and y directions; for this
reason the ow is called two-dimensional.

• In contrast, all real airplane wings are obviously nite

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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
INFINITE VERSUS FINITE WINGS
• The top view (planform view) of a nite wing is
shown in gure, where the distance between the
two wing tips is de ned as the wingspan b.

• The area of the wing in this planform view is S

b2
• The aspect ratio AR is AR = S
• The ow eld about a nite wing is three-
dimensional and is therefore inherently di erent from
the two-dimensional ow about an in nite wing.

• As a result, the lift, drag, and moment coe cients

for a nite wing with a given airfoil shape at a given
α di er from the lift, drag, and moment coe cients
for an in nite wing with the same airfoil shape at the
same α
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• Consider the pressure distribution over the

top surface of an airfoil

• Instead of plotting the actual pressure (say in

units of newtons per square meter), we
de ne a new dimensionless quantity called
the pressure coe cient Cp:
p − p∞ p − p∞
Cp = = 1
• q∞ ρ V 2
2 ∞ ∞

• The pressure distribution is sketched in Fig

• Cp at the leading edge is positive because

p > p∞
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• However, as the ow expands around the

top surface of the airfoil, p decreases
rapidly, and Cp goes negative in those
regions where p < p∞

• By convention, plots of Cp for airfoils are

usually shown with negative values above
the abscissa

• Considerations of Cp lead directly to the

calculation of the e ect of Mach number
M∞ on the lift coe cient
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• Consider Cp at a given point on an airfoil surface. The airfoil is a given

shape at a xed angle of attack.

• We can measure the value of Cp by testing the airfoil in a wind tunnel

• At rst, V∞ in the tunnel test section is low, or M∞ < 0.3, such that the
ow is essentially incompressible.

• The measured value of Cp at the point on the airfoil will therefore be a

low-speed value.

• Let us designate the low-speed (incompressible) value of Cp by Cp,0.

• If V∞ is increased but M∞is still less than 0.3, then Cp will not change;
that is, Cp is essentially constant with velocity at low speeds
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• However, if we now increase V∞such that M∞ > 0.3, then

compressibility becomes a factor, and the e ect of compressibility is to
increase the absolute magnitude of Cp as M∞ increases

• The variation of Cpwith M∞ for high subsonic Mach numbers was a major
focus of aerodynamic research after World War II
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

Cp,0
An approximate theoretical analysis yields Cp =
• 1 − M∞
2

• This equation is called the Prandtl–Glauert rule. It is reasonably accurate

for 0.3 < M∞ < 0.7. For M∞ > 0.7, its accuracy rapidly diminishes.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• The previous equation which attempt to predict the e ect of M∞ on

Cp for subsonic speeds, are called compressibility corrections

• Compressibility corrections: modify (correct) the low-speed pressure

coe cient Cp,0 to take into account the e ects of compressibility,
which are so important at high subsonic Mach numbers

• Example: The pressure at a point on the wing of an airplane is

7.58 × 104 N/m 2. The airplane is ying with a velocity of 70 m/s at
conditions associated with a standard altitude of 2000 m
(p∞ = 7.95 × 104 N/m 2, ρ∞ = 1.0066 kg/m 3. Calculate the
pressure coe cient at this point on the wing.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
PRESSURE COEFFICENT

• Example: Consider an airfoil mounted in a low-speed subsonic wind

tunnel. The ow velocity in the test section is 100 ft/s, and the
conditions are standard sea level. If the pressure at a point on the
airfoil is 2102 lb/ft 2, what is the pressure coe cient, knowing
ρ∞ = 0.002377 slug/ft 3? If the ow velocity is increased so that the
free-stream Mach number is 0.6, what is the pressure coe cient at
the same point on the airfoil, knowing that at standard sea level
T = 518.69∘R?
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

• Consider a segment of an in nite

wing which has unit span and chord
c, as shown in gure

• The wing is at an angle of attack α.

• Let x be the direction measured
along the chord, and let s be the
distance measured along the surface
from the leading edge
• Consider the in nitesimally small sliver of surface area of length ds and
unit length in the span direction, as shown by the shaded area = 1ds

• The dashed line ab is perpendicular to chord c.

• The solid line ac is locally perpendicular to the shaded area
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

• The angle between ab and ac is θ.

• The aerodynamic force on the
shaded area is p(1)ds, which acts in
the direction of ac, normal to the
surface

• Its component in the direction

normal to the chord is (pcosθ)(1)ds

• The contribution to the normal force of the pressure on the in nitesimal strip on
upper surface of airfoil is −pucosθds

• The force in the normal direction due to the pressure distribution acting on the
TE

∫LE
upper surface of the wing, per unit span is: − pucosθds
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

• Remind that the normal and axial

force coe cients for an airfoil is:
N N
cn = =
qsS q∞c
A A
• ca = =
qsS q∞c

c c
1 (pl − p∞) (pu − p∞)
c ∫0 ∫0
So: cn = dx − dx
• q∞ q∞
(pl − p∞)
And: Cp,l = is pressure coe cient on lower surface
• q∞
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

(pu − p∞)
• Cp,u = q∞
is pressure
coe cient on upper surface

• So the normal force coe cient:

c
1
c ∫0
cn = (Cp,l − Cp,u)dx

• Lift: L = Ncosα − Asinα

L N A
Dividing L by q∞S = q∞c, then: = cosα − sinα
• q∞c q∞c q∞c
• Or: cl = cncosα − casinα
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

∘
• Consider the case of of small angle of attack α ≤ 5 -> cosα ≈ 1 and
sinα ≈ 0

• So from cl = cncosα − casinα -> cl ≈ cn

c
1
c ∫0
Then cl = (Cp,l − Cp,u)dx
•
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

• Example: Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running

distance x measured along the chord. The leading edge is located at
x/c = 0 and the trailing edge at x/c = 1. The pressure coe cient
variations over the upper and lower surfaces are given, respectively, as

300 ( c )
2
x x
1− for 0 ≤ c
≤ 0.1
Cp,u =
x x
−2.2277 + 2.2777 c for 0.1 ≤ c
≤ 1.0
x x
Cp,l = 1 − 0.95 for 0 ≤ ≤ 1.0
c c
Calculate the normal force coe cient.
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 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION FOR LIFT COEFFICIENT
Cp,0
From pressure coefficient Cp = and
• 1 − M∞
2
c
1
c ∫0
cl = (Cp,l − Cp,u)dx -> we can rewrite as:

1 c (Cp,l − Cp,u)0 1 1 c

c ∫0 ∫
cl = dx = (Cp,l − Cp,u)0dx
1 − M∞
2 1 − M∞
2 c 0

where the subscript 0 denotes low-speed incompressible

flow values
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION FOR LIFT COEFFICIENT
• We can see that the low-speed
c
value of the lift
1
c ∫0
coefficient: cl,0 = (Cp,l − Cp,u)0dx
cl,0
Then: cl =
• 1 − M∞ 2

• This equation gives the compressibility correction for the

lift coefficient and it is subject to the same
approximations and accuracy restrictions as the Prandtl–
Glauert rule
• It also show that cl varies with Mach number
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION FOR LIFT COEFFICIENT
• Example: Consider an NACA 4412 airfoil at an angle of
attack of 4° with cl,0 = 0.83. If the free-stream Mach
number is 0.7, what is the lift coefficient and the moment
coefficient about the quarter-chord point knowing
(cmc/4)0 = − 0.99?
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• Consider the flow of air over an

airfoil.
• As the gas expands around the top
surface near the leading edge ->
the velocity and the Mach number
will increase rapidly.
• There are regions on the airfoil
surface where the local Mach
number can be greater than M∞
• Figure a: put an airfoil in a wind tunnel where M∞ = 0.3 and the
observed peak local Mach number on the top surface of the
airfoil to be 0.435
• Figure b: we now increase M∞ = 0.5 -> the peak local Mach
number will correspondingly increase to 0.772
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• Figure c: we further increase M∞ to 0.61 -> the peak local Mach

number is 1.0: locally sonic flow on the surface of the airfoil
• The flow over an airfoil can locally be sonic (or higher) even though
the free-stream Mach number is subsonic.
• By definition, the free-stream Mach number at which sonic flow is first
obtained somewhere on the airfoil surface is called the critical Mach
number of the airfoil
• So, for this example the critical Mach number Mcr for the airfoil is
0.61
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• The point on the airfoil where the local M is a peak value

is also the point of minimum surface pressure.
• Cp will correspondingly have its most negative value at
this point.
• Moreover, according to the Prandtl–Glauert rule, as M∞
is increased from 0.3 to 0.61, the value of Cp at this point
will become increasingly negative.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• The specific value of Cp that corresponds to sonic flow is

defined as the critical pressure coefficient Cp,cr
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
• Consider now three different
airfoils ranging from thin to
thick, as shown in figure
• Thin one: The flow over the
thin airfoil is only slightly
perturbed from its free-
stream values
• The expansion over the top
surface is mild -> the
velocity increases only
slightly -> the pressure
decreases only a small
amount -> Cp at the
minimum pressure point is
small
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• Cp,0 is small in
magnitude, and the rate
of increase of Cp as M∞
increases is also
relatively small
• Point a: corresponding
to sonic flow conditions
on the thin airfoil
• The values of Cp and
M∞ at point a are Cp,cr
and Mcr
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
• Medium airfoil: the flow
expansion over the leading
edge will be stronger ->
velocity will increase to
larger values -> pressure
will decrease to lower
values -> absolute
magnitude of Cp is larger
• Sonic conditions will be
obtained sooner (at a
lower M∞) -> point b
• The thinner airfoils have
higher values of Mcr
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• The pressure coefficient

curves are shown as
solid curves
• The critical pressure
coefficients points a,
b, and c form a locus
represented by the
dotted curve can
represent by
Cp,cr = f(M∞)
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
2
1 2 1 ρ ∞ 2 1 V∞
From: q∞ = ρ∞V∞ = (γp∞)V∞ = (γp∞)
• 2 2 γp∞ 2 γp∞ /ρ∞
2
• We also have a∞ = γp∞ /ρ∞ ->
2
1 V∞ γ 2
q∞ = γp ∞ = p∞ M ∞ (1)
2 a∞
2 2
• For isentropic flow, the total pressure p0 at a point in the flow
p0 γ − 1 2 γ/(γ−1)
and static pressure p follow: = (1 + M )
p 2
• The total pressure p0 in the free stream and static pressure p∞
p0 γ − 1 2 γ/(γ−1)
follow: = (1 + M∞)
p∞ 2
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• For an isentropic flow, which is a close approximation to

the actual, real-life, subsonic flow over an airfoil, the total
pressure remains constant throughout
1 2 γ/(γ−1)

p∞ [ 1 + 1 (γ − 1)M 2 ]
p 1 + 2 (γ − 1)M∞
Then: = (2)
•
2
p − p∞ p∞ p
• As Cp = = ( − 1)
q∞ q∞ q∞
• Substitute (1) and (2) into Cp we obtain:
1 2 γ/(γ−1)

2 ([ ] )
2 1 + 2 (γ − 1)M∞
Cp = − 1
γM∞ 1
1 + (γ − 1)M 2
2
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

• Let pick up the particular

point on the surface where
M = 1 -> Cp = Cp,cr ->
2 ([ ] )
2 γ/(γ−1)
2 2 + (γ −
1)M∞
Cp,cr = −1
γM∞ γ+1

• As M∞ increases -> Cp,cr

decreases
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER
• The variation of airfoil drag
coefficient cd with M∞ is
shown in figure
• At low M < Mcr: cd is
constant
• If M∞ is increased slightly >
Mcr -> a “bubble” of
supersonic flow will occur,
surrounding the minimum
pressure point (bottom figure)
• cd will still remain reasonably
low, as indicated by point b
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER
• If M∞ is increased further ->a
very sudden and dramatic
rise in the drag coefficient will
be observed, as noted by
point c
• Shock waves suddenly
appear in the flow (bottom
figure.)
• The effect of the shock wave
on the surface pressure
distribution can be seen in
the experimental data
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER
• The surface pressure coefficient is given
for an NACA 0012 airfoil at a zero angle
of attack in a free stream with
M∞ = 0.808 which is above the critical
Mach number for this airfoil
• The dashed horizontal line corresponds
to the value of Cp,cr at M∞ = 0.808
• The flow velocity at the surface is locally
supersonic in the region 0.11 < x/c <
0.45
Wind tunnel measurements of the surface pressure
• The large and rather sudden increase in coe cient distribution for the NACA 0012 airfoil at a
zero angle of attack for M∞ = 0.808, which is above
pressure at x/c = 0.45 indicates the the critical Mach number.
presence of a shock wave at that
location, and the flow velocity drops
from supersonic in front of the shock to
subsonic behind the shock
ffi
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER
• The shock waves themselves are
dissipative phenomena that increase drag
on the airfoil.
• But in addition, the sharp pressure
increase across the shock waves creates
a strong adverse pressure gradient,
causing the flow to separate from the
surface.
• Such flow separation can create
substantial increases in drag
• The sharp increase in cd shown in figure is Variation of drag coe cient with Mach number

a combined effect of shock waves and

flow separation.
• The free-stream Mach number at which cd Note that: Mcr < Mdrag divergence < 1.0
begins to increase rapidly is defined as
the drag–divergence Mach number
ffi
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER

• The shock pattern sketched in this figure is

characteristic of a flight regime called transonic.
• When 0.8 ≤ M∞ ≤ 1.2, the flow is generally
designated as transonic flow, and it is characterized
by some very complex effects only hinted at in this
figure.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
DRAG–DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER

Variation of lift coe cient versus Mach number with

angle of attack for NACA 2315 airfoil

• Figures show the variation of cl and cd as a

function of Mach number with angle of attack
• They show actual wind tunnel data, illustrate the
massive transonic flow effects on both lift and drag
coefficients
ffi
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• With respect to airfoils, shock waves
in supersonic flow create a new
source of drag, called wave drag.
• Imagine a small source of sound
waves: a tiny “beeper”
• At time t = 0: the beeper is at point P,
and let the beeper emit a sound
wave, which will propagate in all
directions at the speed of sound a
• Let the beeper move with velocity V < a
• At the same time t, the beeper will have moved a distance Vt to
point Q
• As long as V < a, the beeper will always be inside the envelope
formed by the sound waves
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• Assume that the beeper is moving
at super-sonic speed V > a
• At t = 0, assume that the beeper is
at point R
• At this point let the beeper emit a
sound wave, which will propagate
in all directions at the speed of
sound a.
• At t: the sound wave will have
moved outward by a distance at
• At t: beeper will have moved a distance Vt to point S
• V > a: the beeper will now be outside the sound wave
• If the beeper is constantly emitting sound waves as it moves along, these
waves will now pile up inside an envelope formed by a line from point S
tangent to the circle formed by the first sound wave, centered at point R.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• This tangent line, the line where
the pressure disturbances are
piling up, is called a Mach wave
• The vertex of the wave is fixed
to the moving beeper at point S.
• In supersonic flight, the air
ahead of the beeper has no
warning of the approach of the
beeper.
• Only the air behind the Mach wave has felt the presence of the
beeper, and this presence is communicated by pressure (sound)
waves confined inside the conical region bounded by the Mach wave.
• The Mach wave that is formed makes a Mach angle μ with the
at a 1
direction of movement of the beeper: sinμ = = =
Vt V M
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• In real life, a very thin object (such as
a thin needle) moving at M∞ > 1
creates a very weak disturbance in
the flow, limited to a Mach wave as
in top figure
• In contrast, a thicker object such as
the wedge shown in bottom figure
moving at supersonic speeds will
create a strong disturbance, called a
shock wave.
• The shock wave will be inclined at
an oblique angle β, where β > μ
• As the flow moves across the
oblique shock wave, the pressure,
temperature, and density increase,
and the velocity and Mach number Oblique shock waves on a wedge-type body
decrease.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)

• Consider now the pressure on the surface of the wedge, as sketched in

figure.
• Because p increases across the oblique shock wave, at the wedge
surface, p > p∞.
• Because the pressure acts normal to the surface and the surface itself is
inclined to the relative wind, a net drag will be produced on the wedge
• This drag is called wave drag because it is inherently due to the pressure
increase across the shock wave
• To minimize the strength of the shock wave, all supersonic airfoil profiles
are thin, with relatively sharp leading edges.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• Let us approximate a thin super-
sonic airfoil by the flat plate in figure.
• The flat plate is inclined at a small
angle α to the supersonic free
stream
• On the top surface of the plate, the
flow field is turned away from the
free stream through an expansion
wave at the leading edge
• An expansion wave is a fan-shaped
region through which the pressure
decreases
• At the trailing edge on the top side,
the flow is turned back toward the
free-stream direction through an
oblique shock wave
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• On the bottom surface of the
plate, the flow is turned into the
free stream, causing an oblique
shock wave with an increase in
pressure.
• At the trailing edge, the flow is
turned back toward the free-
stream direction through an
expansion wave
• The expansion and shock waves
at the leading edge result in a
surface pressure distribution in
which the pressure on the top
surface is less than p∞, whereas
the pressure on the bottom
surface is greater than p∞
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• The net effect is an aerodynamic
force normal to the plate.
• The components of this force
perpendicular and parallel to the
relative wind are the lift and
supersonic wave drag, respectively.
• Approximate relations for the lift
and drag coefficients are:
4α
cl =
(M∞
2 − 1)1/2

4α 2
cd,w = =
(M∞
2 − 1)1/2

• w has been added to the drag

coefficient to emphasize that it is
the wave drag coefficient
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• Example: Consider a thin supersonic airfoil with chord
length c = 5 ft in a Mach M=3 free stream at a standard
−3 3
altitude of 20,000 ft (ρ∞ = 1.2673 × 10 slug/ft ,
∘
T = 447.43 R). The airfoil is at an angle of attack of 5°.
(a) Calculate the lift and wave drag coefficients (cl and
cd,w) and the lift and wave drag per unit span.
(b) Compare these results with the same airfoil at the
same conditions, except at Mach 2.
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
WAVE DRAG (AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS)
• Example: The Lockheed F-104 supersonic fighter is the
first fighter aircraft designed for sustained flight at Mach
2
2. Its wing planform area is 19.5 m . Consider the F-104
in steady, level flight, and assume that its weight is
4
W = 7.12 × 10 N. Calculate its angle of attack at
Mach 2 when it is flying at
3
• (a) sea level (ρ∞ = 1.23 kg/m and T∞= 288 K)
3
• (b) 10 km (ρ∞ = 0.41351 kg/m , and T∞ = 223.26 K).
• (c) if the pilot flying in steady, level flight at Mach 2 at an
altitude of 10 km, suddenly pitched the airplane to an
angle of attack of 10°, calculate the instantaneous lift
exerted on the airplane and ratio of L/W
 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes
SUMMARY OF AIRFOIL DRAG
• The total drag of an airfoil as the sum of three contributions:
D = Df + Dp + Dw
where Df: skin friction drag, Dp: pressure drag due to flow separation,
Dw: wave drag (present only at transonic and supersonic speeds; zero
for subsonic speeds below the drag–divergence Mach number)
• In terms of the total drag coefficients:
cd = cd,f + cd,p + cd,w
where cd,f, cd,p, and cd,w are skin friction drag,
pressure drag, and wave drag coefficients,
respectively
• cd,f + cd,p: the profile drag coefficient which is
relatively constant with M∞ at subsonic speeds
• The variation of cd with M∞ from
incompressible to supersonic speeds is
sketched in figure