INTRODUCTION TO MATH

IDEAS WORKBOOK &

TECHNOLOGY GUIDE

Sharleen McCarroll
AMERICAN RIVER COLLEGE

i
Copyright © 2023 Sharleen McCarroll

This Introduction to Math Ideas Workbook by Sharleen McCarroll is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Unported International License.

You are free:

• to Share — to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work
• to Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon this material

Under the following conditions:

• Attribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or
licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the
work).
• NonCommercial. You may not use these materials for commercial purposes.
• Share Alike. If you remix, transform, or build upon this work, you must distribute the
resulting work only under the same, similar or a compatible license.

This workbook includes content, including definitions, sample problems, and worked examples
that have been remixed and shared from the following sources under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Unported International License. A detailed
description is available upon request.
• Video content provided by James Sousa of mathispower4u.com
• Math in Society by David Lippman, 2016.
• Intermediate Algebra Student Workbook, 5th ed., by Donna Slaughter, et al., 2017.
• College Mathematics, 2nd ed., by Tracey Haynie, et al., 2017.

This workbook was last updated June, 2023.

ii
 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................................... III
ABOUT THIS WORKBOOK ................................................................................................................................. X
HOW TO USE THIS WORKBOOK ..........................................................................................................................................X
TECHNOLOGY GUIDE ....................................................................................................................................... XI
TI-84 CALCULATOR INSTRUCTIONS .................................................................................................................................... XI
DESMOS CALCULATOR INSTRUCTIONS ............................................................................................................................... XII
TIME-VALUE-MONEY (TVM) SOLVER APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS ....................................................................................... XIII
ONE-VARIABLE STATISTICS CALCULATOR INSTRUCTIONS ...................................................................................................... XIV
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CALCULATOR INSTRUCTIONS .......................................................................................................... XIV
UNIT P: PRELIMINARIES .................................................................................................................................... 1
UNIT P OUTLINE ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
P.1: REAL NUMBERS AND ORDER OF OPERATIONS ............................................................................................ 3
SECTION P.1.1: IDENTIFYING SETS OF NUMBERS .................................................................................................................. 3
SECTION P.1.2 ROUNDING DECIMALS ................................................................................................................................ 5
SECTION P.1.3 THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 7
P.2: SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS ........................................................................................................................ 9
SECTION P.2.1: THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS WITH FRACTIONS .............................................................................................. 9
SECTION P.2.2 THE DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY .................................................................................................................... 11
SECTION P.2.3 SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS ........................................................................................................ 13
P.3: SOLVING EQUATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 15
SECTION P.3.1: ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 15
SECTION P.3.2 SOLVING ONE-STEP EQUATIONS ................................................................................................................ 17
SECTION P.3.3 SOLVING TWO-STEP EQUATIONS ............................................................................................................... 19
SECTION P.3.4 SOLVING MULTI-STEP EQUATIONS ............................................................................................................. 21
P.4: GETTING TO KNOW THE TI-84 CALCULATOR ............................................................................................. 23
GETTING STARTED WITH THE TI-84 CALCULATOR ............................................................................................................... 23
SECTION P.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE TI-84 CALCULATOR ................................................................................................. 25
SECTION P.4.2 CONVERTING BETWEEN DECIMALS, FRACTIONS, AND PERCENTAGES ON THE TI-84 CALCULATOR. .......................... 34
SECTION P.4.3 USING THE TI-84 CALCULATOR TO EVALUATE FRACTIONS............................................................................... 36
SECTION P.4.4 USING THE TI-84 CALCULATOR TO EVALUATE ROOTS AND RADICALS ................................................................ 39
SECTION P.4.5 USING THE TI-84 CALCULATOR TO GRAPH FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 41
P.5: GETTING TO KNOW DESMOS – THE FREE ONLINE GRAPHING CALCULATOR................................................ 47
GETTING STARTED WITH DESMOS.................................................................................................................................... 47
SECTION P.5.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESMOS SCIENTIFIC CALCULATOR..................................................................................... 49
SECTION P.5.2 USING THE DESMOS CALCULATOR TO SIMPLIFY EXPRESSIONS WITH FRACTIONS .................................................. 58
SECTION P.5.3 USING THE DESMOS CALCULATOR TO SIMPLIFY EXPRESSIONS .......................................................................... 60
SECTION P.5.4 INTRODUCTION TO THE DESMOS GRAPHING CALCULATOR .............................................................................. 62
UNIT 1: MEASUREMENT AND UNIT ANALYSIS.................................................................................................. 67
UNIT 1 OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
1.1: LENGTH, WEIGHT, AND CAPACITY ............................................................................................................ 69

iii
 SECTION 1.1.1: SINGLE-STEP UNIT CONVERSIONS (U.S. STANDARD UNITS) ........................................................................... 69
SECTION 1.1.2: MULTI-STEP UNIT CONVERSIONS (U.S. STANDARD UNITS)............................................................................ 71
SECTION 1.1.3: APPLICATIONS USING U.S. STANDARD UNITS AND MULTI-STEP UNIT CONVERSIONS.......................................... 73
1.2: THE METRIC SYSTEM AND CONVERTING BETWEEN SYSTEMS..................................................................... 75
SECTION 1.2.1: THE METRIC SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 75
SECTION 1.2.2: CONVERTING BETWEEN U.S. STANDARD AND THE METRIC SYSTEM................................................................. 77
1.3: PROBLEM SOLVING USING RATES AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS ............................................................... 79
SECTION 1.3.1: RATES AND UNIT RATES .......................................................................................................................... 79
SECTION 1.3.2: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS – UNIT CONVERSIONS IN 2D AND 3D ....................................................................... 81
SECTION 1.3.3: APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................................. 83
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................... 85
UNIT 2 OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................................... 85
2.1: FUNCTIONS AND FUNCTION NOTATION ................................................................................................... 87
SECTION 2.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................... 87
SECTION 2.1.2: USING PROPER FUNCTION NOTATION ........................................................................................................ 92
SECTION 2.1.3: EVALUATING FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 94
SECTION 2.1.4: EVALUATING FUNCTIONS USING TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................ 96
SECTION 2.1.5: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS USING FUNCTION NOTATION................................................................................ 102
2.2: FUNCTIONS – GRAPHS, DOMAIN, AND RANGE ........................................................................................ 104
SECTION 2.2.1: INTRODUCTION TO DOMAIN AND RANGE .................................................................................................. 104
SECTION 2.2.2: INTERVAL NOTATION ............................................................................................................................ 107
SECTION 2.2.3: GRAPHING TOOL KIT – 9 BASIC FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................. 109
SECTION 2.2.4: DETERMINING THE DOMAIN FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF FUNCTIONS .................................................................. 113
SECTION 2.2.5: THE PRACTICAL DOMAIN AND PRACTICAL RANGE....................................................................................... 115
2.3: LINEAR FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................... 117
SECTION 2.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND SLOPE ..................................................................................... 117
SECTION 2.3.2: INTERPRETING THE SLOPE AND INTERCEPTS OF A LINEAR FUNCTION ............................................................... 119
SECTION 2.3.3: CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM ......................................................... 121
SECTION 2.3.4: WRITING EQUATIONS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS IN SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM. ...................................................... 123
SECTION 2.3.5: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM. ............................................... 125
2.4: GRAPHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................................. 127
SECTION 2.4.1: INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................... 127
SECTION 2.4.2: GRAPHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS BY USING THE INTERCEPTS ........................................................................... 129
SECTION 2.4.3: GRAPHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS BY USING SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM. ............................................................... 131
SECTION 2.4.4: GRAPHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (TI-84 CALCULATOR & DESMOS)................................. 133
SECTION 2.4.5: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES........................................................................................................... 142
UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................. 146
UNIT 3 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 146
3.1: MODELING WITH LINEAR FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................... 148
SECTION 3.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MODELING WITH LINEAR FUNCTIONS ............................................................................. 148
SECTION 3.1.2: LINEAR MODELING – THE COST EQUATION ............................................................................................... 150
SECTION 3.1.3: LINEAR MODELING – COST, REVENUE, AND PROFIT EQUATIONS ................................................................... 152
SECTION 3.1.4: HOW TO FIND THE INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINEAR FUNCTIONS............................................................ 154

iv
 SECTION 3.1.5: HOW TO FIND THE INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINEAR FUNCTIONS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (TI-84 CALCULATOR &
DESMOS) .................................................................................................................................................................. 156
SECTION 3.1.6: LINEAR MODELING – THE BREAK-EVEN POINT .......................................................................................... 162
SECTION 3.1.7: SUPPLY AND DEMAND........................................................................................................................... 164
3.2: LINEAR REGRESSION AND CORRELATION ................................................................................................ 167
SECTION 3.2.1: INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR REGRESSION ................................................................................................... 167
SECTION 3.2.2: THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT, R.......................................................................................................... 169
SECTION 3.2.3: HOW TO PERFORM LINEAR REGRESSION USING TECHNOLOGY (TI-84 CALCULATOR & DESMOS) ........................ 171
SECTION 3.2.4: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR REGRESSION ....................................................................................... 182
UNIT 4: PERCENTAGE CHANGE AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ..................................................................... 186
UNIT 4 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 186
4.1 PERCENTAGES ........................................................................................................................................ 188
SECTION 4.1.1: A QUICK REVIEW OF PERCENTAGES ......................................................................................................... 188
SECTION 4.1.2: THE PERCENT EQUATION ....................................................................................................................... 191
SECTION 4.1.3: SOLVING APPLICATION PROBLEMS USING THE PERCENT EQUATION ............................................................... 193
4.2 ABSOLUTE, RELATIVE, AND PERCENTAGE CHANGE ................................................................................... 195
SECTION 4.2.1: ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE CHANGE .......................................................................................................... 195
SECTION 4.2.2: PERCENT OF CHANGE ............................................................................................................................ 197
4.3 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 199
SECTION 4.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................ 199
SECTION 4.3.2: COMPARING LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................. 202
SECTION 4.3.3: DECOMPOSING EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY EQUATIONS .................................................................. 209
SECTION 4.3.4: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY EQUATIONS ................................................. 211
4.4 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 213
SECTION 4.4.1: INTRODUCTION TO LOGARITHMS ............................................................................................................. 213
SECTION 4.4.2: COMPARING THE GRAPHS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ................................................... 215
SECTION 4.4.3: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS BY USING LOGARITHMS ........................................................................ 219
4.5 SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS & TI-84 CALCULATOR) ................. 221
SECTION 4.5.1: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS & TI-84 CALCULATOR) .......................... 221
SECTION 4.5.2: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL GROWTH PROBLEMS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS & TI-84 CALCULATOR) .............. 231
SECTION 4.5.3: SOLVING EXPONENTIAL DECAY PROBLEMS BY USING TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS & TI-84 CALCULATOR) ................. 233
UNIT 5: SAVINGS AND COMPOUND INTEREST ............................................................................................... 236
UNIT 5 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 236
5.1 SIMPLE INTEREST.................................................................................................................................... 238
SECTION 5.1.1: THE SIMPLE INTEREST FORMULA ............................................................................................................. 238
SECTION 5.1.2: CREATING A SIMPLE INTEREST TABLE ....................................................................................................... 240
SECTION 5.1.3: APPLICATIONS OF SIMPLE INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 242
5.2 COMPOUND INTEREST ............................................................................................................................ 244
SECTION 5.2.1: CREATING A COMPOUND INTEREST TABLE ................................................................................................ 244
SECTION 5.2.2: COMPARING SIMPLE INTEREST TO COMPOUND INTEREST ............................................................................ 246
SECTION 5.2.3: INTRODUCTION TO THE TIME-VALUE-MONEY (TVM) SOLVER ...................................................................... 248
SECTION 5.2.4: BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF COMPOUND INTEREST .................................................................................... 252

v
5.3 ANNUAL PERCENTAGE YIELD (APY) .......................................................................................................... 255
SECTION 5.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO ANNUAL PERCENTAGE YIELD (APY) ............................................................................... 255
SECTION 5.3.2: APPLICATIONS OF ANNUAL PERCENTAGE YIELD (APY) – COMPOUNDED MONTHLY .......................................... 257
SECTION 5.3.3: APPLICATIONS OF ANNUAL PERCENTAGE YIELD (APY) – COMPOUNDED QUARTERLY ........................................ 259
UNIT 6: ANNUITIES AND LOANS .................................................................................................................... 262
UNIT 6 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 262
6.1 SAVINGS ANNUITIES ............................................................................................................................... 264
SECTION 6.1.1: SAVINGS ANNUITY TABLE ...................................................................................................................... 264
SECTION 6.1.2: INTRODUCTION TO SAVINGS ANNUITIES ................................................................................................... 267
SECTION 6.1.3: MULTISTAGE FINANCE APPLICATIONS – SAVINGS ANNUITIES AND COMPOUND INTEREST .................................. 270
SECTION 6.1.4: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE THE REGULAR DEPOSITS NEEDED TO PRODUCE A FUTURE VALUE .............. 273
6.2 PAYOUT ANNUITIES ................................................................................................................................ 276
SECTION 6.2.1: INTRODUCTION TO PAYOUT ANNUITIES .................................................................................................... 276
SECTION 6.2.2: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE MONTHLY PAYMENT (OR WITHDRAWAL) FROM A PAYOUT ANNUITY......... 278
SECTION 6.2.3: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE PRESENT VALUE (OR INITIAL INVESTMENT) FROM A PAYOUT ANNUITY ....... 281
SECTION 6.2.4: MULTISTAGE FINANCE APPLICATIONS – SAVINGS ANNUITY AND PAYOUT ANNUITY .......................................... 285
6.3 LOANS.................................................................................................................................................... 288
SECTION 6.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO LOANS AND THE LOAN TABLE........................................................................................ 288
SECTION 6.3.2: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE MAXIMUM CAR LOAN ...................................................................... 291
SECTION 6.3.3: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE MONTHLY PAYMENT FOR A CAR LOAN ................................................. 293
SECTION 6.3.4: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – REMAINING BALANCE FOR A CAR LOAN ................................................................ 295
6.4 MORTGAGES .......................................................................................................................................... 297
SECTION 6.4.1: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – DETERMINE MAXIMUM MORTGAGE .................................................................... 297
SECTION 6.4.2: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – COMPARING MORTGAGE RATES .......................................................................... 299
SECTION 6.4.3: FINANCE APPLICATIONS – REMAINING MORTGAGE BALANCE ....................................................................... 301
UNIT 7: SETS AND VENN DIAGRAMS ............................................................................................................. 304
UNIT 7 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 304
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY .............................................................................................................. 306
SECTION 7.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY .............................................................................................................. 306
SECTION 7.1.2: FINITE AND INFINITE SETS ...................................................................................................................... 309
SECTION 7.1.3: INTRODUCTION TO SUBSETS ................................................................................................................... 311
7.2 VENN DIAGRAMS ................................................................................................................................... 314
SECTION 7.2.1: SET OPERATIONS AND VENN DIAGRAMS................................................................................................... 314
SECTION 7.2.2: PROBLEM SOLVING WITH VENN DIAGRAMS .............................................................................................. 319
UNIT 8: INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY ...................................................................................................... 322
UNIT 8 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 322
8.1: INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY ........................................................................................................... 324
SECTION 8.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY ............................................................................................................. 324
SECTION 8.1.2: EXAMPLES OF BASIC PROBABILITY CONCEPTS ............................................................................................ 328
SECTION 8.1.3: BASIC PROBABILITY CONCEPTS USING A DECK OF CARDS ............................................................................. 330
8.2: PROBABILITY USING TABLES AND COMPLEMENTS .................................................................................. 332

vi
 SECTION 8.2.1: BASIC PROBABILITY USING CONTINGENCY TABLES ...................................................................................... 332
SECTION 8.2.2: PROBABILITY USING THE RULE OF COMPLEMENTS ...................................................................................... 335
8.3 EXPECTED VALUE .................................................................................................................................... 337
SECTION 8.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO EXPECTED VALUE ....................................................................................................... 337
SECTION 8.3.2: EXPECTED VALUE OF A LIFE INSURANCE POLICY.......................................................................................... 339
UNIT 9: PROBABILITY & COUNTING ............................................................................................................... 342
UNIT 9 OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................................................ 342
9.1: PROBABILITY WITH INDEPENDENT EVENTS ............................................................................................. 344
SECTION 9.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBABILITY OF INDEPENDENT EVENTS .................................................................... 344
SECTION 9.1.2: EXAMPLES OF PROBABILITY WITH INDEPENDENT EVENTS ............................................................................. 346
9.2: CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY ................................................................................................................... 348
SECTION 9.2.1: INTRODUCTION TO CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY .......................................................................................... 348
SECTION 9.2.2: CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY USING CONTINGENCY TABLES ........................................................................... 350
9.3: PROBABILITY WITH DEPENDENT EVENTS ................................................................................................ 352
SECTION 9.3.1: PROBABILITY WITH DEPENDENT EVENTS ................................................................................................... 352
SECTION 9.3.2: PROBABILITY WITH AND WITHOUT REPLACEMENT USING A DECK OF CARDS .................................................... 354
9.4: “OR” PROBABILITY AND MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS.......................................................................... 356
SECTION 9.4.1: INTRODUCTION TO “OR” PROBABILITIES (UNION OF EVENTS) ...................................................................... 356
SECTION 9.4.2: EXAMPLES OF “OR” PROBABILITIES USING A DECK OF CARDS ...................................................................... 358
SECTION 9.4.3: “OR” PROBABILITIES USING CONTINGENCY TABLES .................................................................................... 360
UNIT 10: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS ....................................................................................................... 362
UNIT 10 OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................................................... 362
10.1: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS............................................................................................................. 364
SECTION 10.1.1: STATISTICAL BASICS ............................................................................................................................ 364
10.2: SAMPLING METHODS AND BIAS ........................................................................................................... 367
SECTION 10.2.1: SAMPLING METHODS.......................................................................................................................... 367
SECTION 10.2.2: SAMPLING BIAS ................................................................................................................................. 370
10.3: EXPERIMENTS AND CONFOUNDING ..................................................................................................... 372
SECTION 10.3.1: INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTS AND CONFOUNDING.............................................................................. 372
SECTION 10.3.2: CONTROL GROUPS AND THE PLACEBO EFFECT ......................................................................................... 374
10.4: CLASSIFYING DATA .............................................................................................................................. 377
SECTION 10.4.1: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA ................................................................................................. 377
SECTION 10.4.2: DISPLAYS OF CATEGORICAL DATA .......................................................................................................... 379
10.5: FREQUENCY TABLES AND HISTOGRAMS................................................................................................ 382
SECTION 10.5.1: FREQUENCY TABLES ............................................................................................................................ 382
SECTION 10.5.2: RELATIVE FREQUENCY ......................................................................................................................... 384
SECTION 10.5.3: INTRODUCTION TO HISTOGRAMS .......................................................................................................... 386
UNIT 11: DESCRIBING DATA .......................................................................................................................... 390
UNIT 11 OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................................................... 390

vii
11.1 THE SHAPE OF A DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................. 392
SECTION 11.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO HISTOGRAMS .......................................................................................................... 392
SECTION 11.1.2: HOW TO CREATE A HISTOGRAM USING TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS & TI-84 CALCULATOR) ................................. 395
11.2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR A DATA SET – THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE ....................... 404
SECTION 11.2.1: THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE ......................................................................................................... 404
SECTION 11.2.2: HOW TO FIND THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND OTHER COMMON ONE VARIABLE STATISTICS USING TECHNOLOGY
(DESMOS, ONE-VARIABLE STATISTICS CALCULATOR & TI-84 CALCULATOR) .......................................................................... 406
11.3: MEASURES OF VARIATION – THE RANGE AND STANDARD DEVIATION ................................................... 414
SECTION 11.3.1: THE RANGE AND STANDARD DEVIATION ................................................................................................. 414
SECTION 11.3.2: INTERPRETING THE STANDARD DEVIATION .............................................................................................. 418
SECTION 11.3.3: HOW TO FIND THE RANGE, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND OTHER COMMON ONE VARIABLE STATISTICS USING
TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS, ONE-VARIABLE STATISTICS CALCULATOR, & TI-84 CALCULATOR)...................................................... 420
11.4: MEASURES OF VARIATION – THE FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY AND BOXPLOTS .......................................... 429
SECTION 11.4.1: THE FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY AND BOXPLOTS......................................................................................... 429
SECTION 11.4.2: COMPARING TWO BOXPLOTS ............................................................................................................... 434
SECTION 11.4.3: HOW TO FIND THE FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY AND OTHER COMMON ONE VARIABLE STATISTICS USING TECHNOLOGY
(DESMOS, ONE-VARIABLE STATISTICS CALCULATOR, & TI-84 CALCULATOR) ......................................................................... 436
11.5: INTRODUCTION TO PERCENTILES.......................................................................................................... 447
SECTION 11.5.1: PERCENTILES ..................................................................................................................................... 447
UNIT 12: DESCRIBING DATA .......................................................................................................................... 450
UNIT 12 OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................................................... 450
12.1: THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION AND THE EMPIRICAL RULE........................................................................ 452
SECTION 12.1.1: INTRODUCTION TO THE NORMAL CURVE AND THE EMPIRICAL RULE ............................................................. 452
SECTION 12.1.2: HOW TO USE THE EMPIRICAL RULE ....................................................................................................... 456
SECTION 12.1.3: APPLICATIONS OF THE EMPIRICAL RULE .................................................................................................. 460
12.2: INTRODUCTION TO Z-SCORES ............................................................................................................... 462
SECTION 12.2.1: INTRODUCTION TO Z-SCORES ............................................................................................................... 462
SECTION 12.2.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................... 465
SECTION 12.2.3: APPLICATIONS OF Z-SCORES ................................................................................................................. 467
12.3: USING THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION TO CALCULATE PROBABILITIES ....................................................... 470
SECTION 12.3.1: USING Z-SCORES AND THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION TO DETERMINE PROBABILITIES WITH TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS,
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CALCULATOR, AND TI-84 CALCULATOR) ........................................................................................ 470
SECTION 12.3.2: APPLICATIONS OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION - DETERMINING PROBABILITIES WITH TECHNOLOGY (DESMOS AND
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CALCULATOR) ........................................................................................................................... 484
APPENDIX A - ANSWERS TO YOU TRY PROBLEMS .......................................................................................... 490
UNIT P – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 490
UNIT 1 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 492
UNIT 2 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 493
UNIT 3 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 496
UNIT 4 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 498
UNIT 5 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 502
UNIT 6 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 503
UNIT 7 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 505

viii
UNIT 8 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 506
UNIT 9 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 507
UNIT 10 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................. 509
UNIT 11 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................. 510
UNIT 12 – ANSWERS TO YOU-TRY PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................. 513

ix
 About This Workbook
This workbook was created by Sharleen McCarroll at American River College in Sacramento,
California. It is designed to assist students through a course in Math Ideas and to allow them
time to develop an understanding of how mathematical concepts may be applied in real-world
scenarios.

How to Use this Workbook

This workbook is designed to provide flexibility for both the instructor and the student. It may
be used in a traditional lecture (in-person) course or in an online format with the accompanying
online assessment component available in MyOpenMath.

Each Learning Unit is divided into mini lessons each containing 3-5 sections. Each section is
paired with an instructional video available in MyOpenMath. Students are encouraged to use
this workbook to take notes as they watch the instructional videos (online courses) or during a
traditional lecture (in-person courses).

At the end of each section students are encouraged to check their understanding of the
concepts by completing the You Try Problems. Answers to the You Try Problems are available at
the end of this workbook in Appendix A.

Technology Options: Desmos or TI-84 Calculator

Throughout this workbook students will find written instructions, step-by-step technology
examples, and links to instructional videos that demonstrate how to use technology to
complete a variety of mathematical tasks. In most cases, students are encouraged to choose
their preferred technology. This workbook supports students that choose to use the TI-84
Calculator, the free online graphing calculator website Desmos, and/or the free, open
applications: Time-Value-Money (TVM) Solver Calculator, Normal Distributions Calculator
website.

Online Homework and Assessment

Instructors may choose to use the online homework and assessment companion course
through MyOpenMath that is designed to pair with this workbook. Students that use these
materials as part of an official course that utilizes an online homework/assessment system, will
be provided information on how to access and use that system in conjunction with this
workbook from their instructor.

Provide Feedback or Report an Error

We are always searching for ways to improve these materials. To provide feedback, including
suggestions for improvements, or to report an error please complete this google form.

x
 Technology Guide
This workbook includes step-by-step instructions on how to use technology to complete a
variety of mathematical tasks. The technology instructions are provided throughout this
workbook on an “as needed” basis. Please use the bookmarks below to quickly navigate to the
appropriate technology instructions.

TI-84 Calculator Instructions

Use the bookmarks below for quick access to the step-by-step TI-84 Calculator instructions and
example problems.

TI-84 Calculator Overview and General Information

• Getting started with the TI-84 calculator
• How to use the buttons on a TI-84 calculator
• TI-84 calculator basics
• How to enter a fraction / how to add fractions
• How to convert a decimal to a fraction
• How to enter a complex fraction
• How to enter an exponent
• How to enter a square root
• How to enter a cube root
• How to enter any root
• How to use scientific notation
• How to store values for variables
• How to evaluate expressions

Working with Functions and/or Equations on the TI-84 Calculator

• How to evaluate a function
• How to solve exponential equations

Graphing functions with the TI-84 Calculator

• How to graph a function
• How to use the table feature to locate points on a graph
• How to find the intersection points of two graphs

Scatterplots and Linear Regression with the TI-84 Calculator

• How to construct a scatterplot
• How to turn the Diagnostic On to reveal the correlation coefficient, r
• How to find the correlation coefficient, r, for linear regresssion
• How to find the equation of the linear regression line (or line that best fits)

Troubleshooting Graphs and Scatterplots with the TI-84 Calculator

• General Troubleshoot Tips

xi
 • Clearing the Invalid Dimension Error
• A list (e.g., L1) is missing or was deleted
• My calculator is showing a different value then the answer key

Using the TVM Solver Application on the TI-84 Calculator

• Introduction to the TVM Solver
• Locating the TVM Solver Application on the TI-84 Calculator
• TVM Solver variable definitions
• How to use the TVM Solver to solve for an unknown variable

Statistics with the TI-84 Calculator

• How to enter data into a list
• How to draw a histogram and adjust the graphing window
• How to draw a boxplot and whisker plot
• How to identify outliers using a box and whisker plot
• How to find the mean and median using the 1-variable statistics application
• How to find the range and standard deviation using the 1-variable statistics application
• How to find the five number summary using the 1-variable statistics application
• How to calculate probabilities using the normal distribution (normalcdf)

Desmos Calculator Instructions

Use the bookmarks below for quick access to the step-by-step Desmos Calculator instructions
and example problems.

Links to Desmos
Click the links below to open the Desmos calculators.
Desmos Scientific Calculator
Desmos Graphing Calculator

Desmos Calculator Overview and General Information

• Getting started with the Desmos calculator
• Desmos accessibility and keyboard shortcuts
• How to enter a fraction / how to add fractions
• How to convert a decimal to a fraction
• How to calculate the absolute value
• How to enter an exponent
• How to enter a square root
• How to enter any root
• How to store values for variables
• How to evaluate expressions
• How to enter values into a list
• How to calculate the mean and standard deviation from a list of values

xii
Working with Functions and/or Equations on the Desmos Calculator
• How to evaluate a function
• How to solve exponential equations

Graphing with the Desmos Calculator

• How to graph a function
• How to locate points of interest on a graph
• How to adjust the viewing window
• How to use the table feature to locate points on the graph
• How to find the intersection points of two graphs

Scatterplots and Linear Regression with the Desmos Calculator

• How to construct a scatterplot
• How to find the equation of the linear regression line (or line that best fits)
• How to find the correlation coefficient, r, for linear regression

Statistics with the Desmos Calculator

• How to enter data into a list
• How to draw a dotplot and adjust the graphing window
• How to draw a histogram and adjust the graphing window
• How to draw a boxplot and whisker plot
• How to find the mean and median
• How to find the range and standard deviation
• How to find the five number summary
• How to calculate probabilities using the normal distribution (normalcdf)

Time-Value-Money (TVM) Solver Application Instructions

The Time-Value-Money, or TVM, Solver is an application that can be used to solve a variety of
finance problems including compound interest, annuities, and loans. Use the bookmarks below
for quick access to the step-by-step TVM Solver instructions and example problems.

TVM Solver Website

The TVM solver linked below was created by William Meacham and is shared under a Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license. The TVM solver may be used by students to solve finance
questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Using the TVM Solver Application Calculator

• Introduction to the TVM Solver
• TVM Solver variable definitions
• How to use the TVM Solver to solve for an unknown variable

xiii
 One-Variable Statistics Calculator Instructions
The One-Variable Statistics Calculator is an application that can be used when solving statistics
questions. Use the bookmarks below for quick access to the step-by-step One-Variable
Statistics Calculator instructions and example problems.

One-Variable Statistics Calculator

The free One-Variable Statistics Calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared
under a Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
One Variable Statistics Calculator

Using the One-Variable Statistics Calculator

• How to find the mean and median
• How to find the range and standard deviation
• How to find the five number summary

Normal Distribution Calculator Instructions

The Normal Distribution Calculator is an application that can be used when solving statistics
questions. Use the bookmarks below for quick access to the step-by-step Normal Distribution
Calculator instructions and example problems.

Free Normal Distribution Calculator

The free normal distribution calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under a
Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
Normal Distribution Calculator

Using the Normal Distribution Calculator

• How to calculate probabilities using the normal distribution

xiv
 Unit P: Preliminaries
Unit P Outline
P.1: Real Numbers and Order of Operations
• Section P.1.1: Identifying Sets of Numbers
• Section P.1.2: Rounding Decimals
• Section P.1.3: The Order of Operations

P.2: Simplifying Expressions

• Section P.2.1: The Order of Operations with Fractions
• Section P.2.2: The Distributive Property
• Section P.2.3: Simplifying Algebraic Expressions

P.3: Solving Equations

• Section P.3.1: Algebraic Equations
• Section P.3.2: Solving One-Step Equations
• Section P.3.3: Solving Two-Step Equations
• Section P.3.4: Solving Multi-Step Equations

P.4: Getting to Know the TI-84 Calculator

• Section P.4.1: Introduction to the TI-84 Calculator
• Section P.4.2: Converting between Decimals, Fractions, and Percentages with the TI-84
Calculator
• Section P.4.3: Using the TI-84 Calculator to Evaluate Fractions
• Section P.4.4: Using the TI-84 Calculator to Evaluate Radicals
• Section P.4.5: Using the TI-84 Calculator to Graph Functions

P.5: Getting to Know Desmos – The FREE Online Graphing Calculator

• Section P.5.1: Introduction to Desmos Scientific Calculator
• Section P.5.2: Using the Desmos Calculator to Evaluate Fractions
• Section P.5.3: Using the Desmos Calculator to Evaluate Expressions
• Section P.5.4: Introduction to the Desmos Graphing Calculator

1
This page was intentionally left blank.

2
 P.1: Real Numbers and Order of Operations
Section P.1.1: Identifying Sets of Numbers
Definitions
Real Numbers (R): Numbers that would appear on the number line.
Rational Numbers (Q): Numbers that can be written in the form with a and b as integers. In
decimal form they terminate or repeat.
Irrational Numbers (I): Numbers in decimal form that do not terminate and do not repeat.
Integers (Z): Numbers that belong to the set
Whole Numbers (W): Non-negative integers belonging to the set
Natural or Counting Numbers (N): Positive integers belonging to the set:

Use the space below to take additional notes. The example problems are on the next page.

3
Examples. Classifying Real Numbers
Determine which set(s) of real numbers each number would belong to.

1. 0

2.

3.

4.

5.

Section P.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Determine which set(s) of real numbers each number would belong to.

a. 17

b.

c.

d.

e.

4
 Section P.1.2 Rounding Decimals
Definitions
Procedure for Rounding Decimals
1. Identify the round-off place value.
2. If the digit to the right of the round of place is:
Less than 5, do not change the round-off place digit.
5 or more, increase the round-off digit by 1.
3. In either case, replace all digits to the right of the round off place value with zeros.

Decimal Place Value Chart

Use the decimal place value chart below as a reference for this section.

Decimal (“ And” )

Ten Thousandths
Ten Thousands

Thousandths
Hundredths
Place value

Thousands

Hundreds
(Name)

Tenths
Ones
Tens

0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Value 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 . or or or Or

Examples
Round each number to the indicated place value.

1. 2.54 to the tenths

2. 2.77 to the tenths

3. 8.75 to the tenths

5
 4. 8.98 to the tenths

5. 12.1258 to the hundredths

6. 5.1249 to the tenths

7. 16.098274 to the ten thousandths

Section P.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Round each number to the indicated place value.

a. 0.075886 to the hundredths

b. 0.49673 to the thousandths

c. 0.50584 to the tenths

d. 0.05579 to the hundredths

e. 0.15943 to the tenths

6
 Section P.1.3 The Order of Operations
Definitions
Rules for Order of Operations
1. Calculate within the innermost parentheses or grouping symbols, ( ), { }, [ ], ||, and above or
below fraction bars.
2. Simplify all expressions with exponents.
3. Multiply and divide from left to right.
4. Add and subtract from left to right.

Examples
Simplify the following expressions.

1.

2.

3.

4.

7
 5.

Section P.1.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
.
a. Evaluate

b. Simplify

8
 P.2: Simplifying Expressions
Section P.2.1: The Order of Operations with Fractions
Definitions
Rules for Order of Operations
1. Calculate within the innermost parentheses or grouping symbols, ( ), { }, [ ], ||, and above or
below fraction bars.
2. Simplify all expressions with exponents.
3. Multiply and divide from left to right.
4. Add and subtract from left to right.

Examples
Simplify the following expressions.

1.

2.

3.

9
 4.

Section P.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Simplify:

b. Simplify:

c. Simplify:

d. Simplify:

10
 Section P.2.2 The Distributive Property
Definitions
The Distributive Property:
When you multiply a factor and a sum or difference, we multiply the factor by each term of the
sum or difference.
•
•

Examples
Rewrite each expression using the distributive property in order to simplify.

1.

2.

Let’s look at the distributive property geometrically. The dimensions of the rectangle below
are 4 inches by 15 inches. Use the distributive property to demonstrate how you can
calculate the area in two different ways.

11
 3.

4.

Section P.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Simplify the expression by using the distributive property:

b. Simplify the expression by using the distributive property:

12
 Section P.2.3 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
Definitions
How to Simplify Algebraic Expressions
Use the order of operation and the distributive property to simplify algebraic expressions.
When possible, combine like terms. Like terms have the same base variable and exponent(s).

Examples
Simplify each expression. Write terms in descending order.

1.

2.

3.

4.

13
 Section P.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Simplify the expressions.

a.

b.

c.

d.

14
 P.3: Solving Equations
Section P.3.1: Algebraic Equations
Definitions
Algebraic Equation
An algebraic equation is a mathematical sentence connecting one expression to another
expression with an equal sign (=).

Solution to an Equation
The solution to an equation is the value, or values, that makes the equation true.

Equivalent Equations
Equivalent equations are two or more equation that have the same solution.

Examples
1. Verify that is a solution to the algebraic equation .

2. Is a solution to the algebraic equation

3. Is a solution to the algebraic equation ?

4. Verify that is a solution to the following equations.

15
 Section P.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Is a solution to ?

b. Is a solution to ?

c. Is a solution to ?

d. Is a solution to ?

16
 Section P.3.2 Solving One-Step Equations
Definitions
Properties of Equality
The Addition / Subtraction Property of Equality:
• If , then
• If , then

The Multiplication / Division Property of Equality

• If , then
• If and , then

Isolating the Variable

To solve an equation means to “undo” all the operations of the equation, leaving the variable
by itself on one side.

Examples
Solve for the variable in each of the following equations. Check your answers.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

17
 6.

7.

8.

Section P.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve for the variable in each of the following equations.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

18
 Section P.3.3 Solving Two-Step Equations
Definitions
Steps for Solving a Linear Two-Step Equation
1. Apply the Addition / Subtraction Property of Equality.
2. Apply the Multiplication / Division Property of Equality to isolate the variable.
3. Check by substituting your answer into the original equation.

Examples
Solve for the variable in each of the following equations. Check your answers.

1. Solve:

2. Solve:

3. Solve:

4. Solve:

19
 5. Solve:

Section P.3.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve for the variable in each of the following equations.

a. Solve the equation:

b. Solve the equation:

20
 Section P.3.4 Solving Multi-Step Equations
Definitions
Steps for Solving a Linear Equation
1. Simplify each side of the equation. Use the distributive property to remove parentheses if
necessary. Collect like terms.
2. Add or subtract terms on each side of the equation so that all terms containing the variable
are on one side and all the constant terms are on the other side.
3. Simplify each side of the equation by combining like terms.
4. Apply the Multiplication / Division Property of Equality to isolate the variable.
5. Check by substituting the solution into the original equation.

Examples.
Solve for the variable in each of the following equations. Check your answers.

1. Solve:

2. Solve:

3. Solve:

21
 Section P.3.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve for the variable in each of the following equations.

a. Solve:

b. Solve:

c. Solve:

d. Solve:

22
 P.4: Getting to Know the TI-84 Calculator
Getting Started with the TI-84 Calculator
This lesson will provide you with an introduction to the TI-84 calculator. If you do not currently
have a TI-84 calculator, please use a standard calculator to complete this lesson. Future media
lessons may include directions on how to solve problems using the TI-84 calculator or the free
graphing calculator program, Desmos. Students may choose to use either program in this
course.

TI-84 Calculator Version(s): TI-84 Plus, TI-84 Plus CE

The videos in this course will utilize the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus CE calculator. Older versions
of the calculator, such as the original TI-84, may have slightly different menu features. The
images below display a TI-84 Plus Silver Edition and TI-84 Plus CE.

TI-84 Plus Silver Edition TI-84 Plus CE

23
The information on this page explains how the buttons on the TI-84 calculator work and how to
adjust the brightness of your screen. These details are not covered on the video for this
section.

How to Use the Buttons on a TI-84 Calculator

Most buttons on the TI-84 calculator will have three options:
• Main function (the value or menu written directly on the button)
• Secondary function (written in blue just above the button on the left-side)
o To access the secondary function, press the 2nd Key (displayed below) followed
by the calculator key.

• Alpha function (written in green just above the button on the right-side)
o To access the alpha function, press the ALPHA Key (displayed below) followed by
the calculator key.

Example: The MATH Button

The image below displays the MATH button the TI-84 Calculator.

• Main Function: MATH. Pressing the MATH button will take you to the Math menu.
• Secondary Function TEST. Pressing the 2nd key followed by the MATH button will take
you to the TEST menu.
• Alpha Function: A. Pressing the Alpha key followed by the MATH button will enter the
letter A on the calculator home screen.

How to Adjust the Brightness of Your Screen

1. Press the 2nd key in the upper right-hand corner
2. Press and hold the arrow up or arrow down key to adjust the screen contrast.
a. Arrow Up: Darkens the screen
b. Arrow Down: Lightens the screen

24
 Section P.4.1 Introduction to the TI-84 Calculator
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Graphing Calculator Basics

How to Turn the Calculator On

1. Press the ON key in the lower left-hand corner

How to Turn the Calculator Off

1. Press the 2nd key in the upper right-hand corner
2. Press the ON key in the lower left-hand corner. (Note the phrase OFF written in blue
letters above the ON key.)

How to Set the Mode

Students should make sure that both NORMAL and FLOAT are selected from the Mode menu.
1. Press the MODE key in the upper right-hand corner next to the 2nd key.
2. Use the arrow keys to navigate to the word FLOAT (or NORMAL).
3. Press ENTER in the lower right-hand corner.
4. To QUIT the Mode menu: Press the 2nd key then MODE key.

Mode screens for TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus CE

The images below display the Mode screens for both the TI-84 Plus (left) and the TI-84 Plus
C or CE (right). While the TI-84 Plus C and CE have more options, all three calculators will
work for this class. Make sure that both NORMAL and FLOAT are selected on the first two
lines respectively.

Keys Pressed:

TI-84 Plus Silver Edition TI-84 Plus CE

25
How to Enter a Fraction
Use the division key on the calculator to separate the numerator from the denominator.
Students are encouraged to place fractions inside parentheses.
1. Enter the numerator using the numeric keys.
2. Press the DIVISION  key
3. Enter the denominator using the numeric keys.

Example: Enter the fraction:

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Example: Calculate:
Keys Pressed:

Result:

26
How to Convert a Decimal to a Fraction
1. Enter the decimal to be converted.
2. Press the MATH key.
3. From the Math menu select the option →FRAC, and press ENTER
4. Press ENTER again to convert decimal to a fraction.

Example: Convert the decimal answer to a fraction:

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Example: Calculate and convert the answer to a fraction.

Keys Pressed:

Result:

27
How to Enter Exponents
Use the CARAT key (^) to raise something to an exponent.
1. Enter the base
2. Press the CARAT (^) key. (The carat key is located above the division symbol.)
3. Enter the exponent. Note: Fractional exponents should be surrounded by parentheses.
4. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculations may look slightly different on other versions of the TI-
84 calculator.)

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculations may look slightly different on other versions of the TI-
84 calculator.)

28
How to Enter Square Roots
The square root is the secondary function located above the key.
1. Press the 2nd Key.
2. Press the key.
3. Enter the radicand (the number under the square root).
4. Close the set of parentheses. (NOTE: This step is not needed on the TI-84 Plus CE.)
5. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculations may look slightly different on other versions of the TI-
84 calculator.)

How to Enter Cube Roots

1. Press the MATH Key.
2. Use the ARROW keys to highlight the cube root function. Press ENTER.
3. Enter the radicand (the number under the cube root).
4. Close the set of parentheses. (NOTE: This step is not needed on the TI-84 Plus CE.)
5. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

29
(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculation(s) may look slightly different on other versions of the
TI-84 calculator.)

How to Enter ANY Root

This process will allow you to enter any root with a higher index than three.
1. Type in the index.
2. Press the MATH Key.
3. Use the ARROW keys to highlight the generic root function . Press ENTER.
4. Enter the radicand (the number under the root).
5. Close the set of parentheses. (NOTE: This step is not needed on the TI-84 Plus CE.)
6. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculations may look slightly different on other versions of the TI-
84 calculator.)

30
How to Enter Numbers in Scientific Notation
The TI-84 uses a capital EE to represent scientific notation ( )
The EE is the secondary function located above the COMMA key
1. Enter the number or decimal (a)
2. Press the 2nd Key.
3. Press the COMMA key. (This will enter an E representing .)
4. Enter the exponent (b).
5. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

31
How to Store Values for Variables
The function STO> is used to store values for a variable.
The STO> key is located above the ON key on the lower left-hand side.
1. Enter the number you would like to store as a variable.
2. Press the STO> Key.
3. Press the ALPHA key. (The ALPHA is a green button below the 2nd key on the upper left-
side.)
4. Press the button corresponding the letter of the variable. (Alpha letters are typically
written in green above each key.)
5. Press ENTER

Example: Store A = 5, B = -3, and C = -2 in the TI-84 Calculator

Keys Pressed:

Result:

How to Evaluate Expressions using Stored Variables.

1. Follow the steps to store numeric values for variables.
2. Enter the expression using variables. (Use the ALPHA key to select the variables.)
3. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate , using the values stored for A, B, and C. (See above.)
Keys Pressed:

Result:

32
33
Section P.4.2 Converting between Decimals, Fractions, and Percentages
on the TI-84 Calculator.
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
TI-84: Convert a Percent to a Decimal and Fraction

Definitions
Percent means per 100

How to Write a Percent as a Fraction

1. Write the percent as a fraction with a denominator of 100.
2. Simplify if possible.

How to Write a Percent as a Decimal

1. Write the percent as a fraction with a decimal of 100.
2. Convert the fraction to a decimal by dividing numerator by the denominator.

Examples
Fill in the blanks by converting between percentages, decimals, and fractions. Give exact
answers with all decimals. If there is a repeating decimal, use two repeated values.

Example Percent Decimal Fraction

Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

1. 15%
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

2. 4%
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

3. 0.02%
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

4. 248%

Use the space below to take additional notes. The example problems are on the next page.

34
 Section P.4.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Fill in the blanks by converting between percentages, decimals, and fractions. Give exact
answers with all decimals. If there is a repeating decimal, use two repeated values.

Problem Percent Decimal Fraction

Enter your answer as a percent Enter your answer as a decimal

a.
Enter your answer as a percent Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

b. 0.23
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

c. 0.31%
Enter your answer as a percent Enter your answer as a decimal

d.
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a reduced fraction

e.

35
 Section P.4.3 Using the TI-84 Calculator to Evaluate Fractions
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Evaluate Expressions in Fraction Form on the TI-84 Using Fraction Format

Examples
Evaluate the following expressions. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

1. Evaluate .

2. Evaluate:

36
How to Enter and Evaluate Complex Fractions using the TI-84
This process will allow you to enter and evaluate more complex fractions using your TI-84.
The fraction menu is the alpha function located above the Y= key.
1. Press the ALPHA Key.
2. Press the Y= key to open the fraction menu (F1).
3. Select option 1 n/d by pressing ENTER or 1. (This will enter a fraction onto the home
screen.)
4. Enter the numerator and denominator. (Use the arrow keys to move between the
numerator and denominator.)
5. Press ENTER

Accessing the Fraction Menu (F1)

Keys Pressed:

Result:

(Note: The image above is from a TI-84 Plus CE. Calculations may look slightly different on other versions of the TI-
84 calculator.)

Step-by-Step Example

Evaluate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

37
 Section P.4.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the TI-84 calculator to evaluate the following expressions. If you do not have a calculator,
then you can work the problems by hand. Write your answer in lowest terms.

a.

b.

38
 Section P.4.4 Using the TI-84 Calculator to Evaluate Roots and Radicals
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Evaluating Radicals on the TI-84

Please see Section P.4.1 Getting to Know the TI-84 Calculator for step-by-step instructions on
how to evaluate roots and radicals.

Examples.
Evaluate the following expressions. If necessary, round to four decimal places.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

39
 6.

Section P.4.4 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the TI-84 calculator to evaluate the following expressions. If you do not have a calculator,
then you can work the problems using a standard calculator. Round your answer to the nearest
hundredth.

a.

b.

c.

d.

40
 Section P.4.5 Using the TI-84 Calculator to Graph Functions
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Graphing Lines on the TI-83 or TI-84 Calculator

Examples

1. Graph the line using the TI-84 Calculator. Then draw the graph on the set
of axes provided below. (Step-by-step instructions are provided at the end of this
section.)

2. Graph the line using your TI-84 Calculator. Then graph the line on the set of
axes below.

41
 3. Graph the line using your TI-84 Calculator. Then graph the line on the set of
axes below.

Section P.4.5 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the TI-84 calculator to complete the following problem. If you do not have a calculator,
then you can work the problems by hand using a standard calculator.

a. Graph the line using your TI-84 Calculator. Then graph the line on the set
of axes below.

42
How to Graph a Function Using the TI-84 Calculator
1. Press the Y= Key. (If there are functions entered into Y1, Y2, etc, press CLEAR to delete
the functions.)
2. Enter the equation into Y1. Use the key to enter variables.
3. To make sure you have the standard graphing window set, press ZOOM, then Option 6
for Zstandard.
4. To adjust the window settings, press the WINDOW key.
5. To view the graph, press the GRAPH key.

Step-by-Step Example
Graph the line .

Step 1: Enter the equation into Y=

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Step 2: Make sure the standard graphing window is set.

Keys Pressed:

Result:

43
How to Use the Table Feature for a Graph Using the TI-84 Calculator
To use the Table feature, you will need to use the Table Set (TBLSET) menu and Table function.
The Table Set (TBLSET) menu is the secondary function above the WINDOW key.
The TABLE function is the secondary function above the GRAPH key.
1. Press the 2nd Key.
2. Press the WINDOW Key to access the Table Set (TBLSET) menu.
3. Complete the TABLE SET UP. Recommended features are below.
a. TBL Start = 0 (This starts the table at zero.)
b. Tbl = 1 (This will increase the x-values in the table by one.)
c. Indpnt: AUTO (This will automatically populate the x-values in the table. The ASK
feature will allow you to enter values for x in the table.)
d. Depend: AUTO (This will automatically calculate the y-values of your function
corresponding to your x-values in the table. The ASK feature will allow you to
enter values for y in the table.)
4. Press the 2nd key.
5. Press the GRAPH key to access the TABLE.
6. Use the ARROW keys to scroll along the table.

Step-by-Step Example
Create an x-y table for the line .

Step 1: Enter the equation into Y=

(Please see the directions above.)

Step 2: Set up the Table

Keys Pressed:

Result:

44
Step 3: View the Table

Keys Pressed:

Result:

The corresponding x and y values in the table represent coordinate points, (x, y), on the
graph of the function. For example, both the points (0, 3) and (3, -3) are on the graph of
the function.

Choose two coordinate points to assist with drawing the line on the set of axes
provided.

45
This page has been intentionally left blank.

46
 P.5: Getting to Know Desmos – The Free Online Graphing
Calculator
Getting Started with Desmos
Desmos is a Free Online Graphing Calculator that students may use to complete work problems
throughout this course. This lesson will provide you with an introduction to Desmos. Future lessons
may include directions on how to solve problems using the TI-84 calculator and/or Desmos. Student
may choose to use either program.

Links to Desmos
Click the links below to open the Desmos calculators.
Desmos Scientific Calculator
Desmos Graphing Calculator

Desmos Help
Comprehensive help for both the Desmos scientific and graphing calculators are located on the
Desmos website. Click the help links below for more specific help.
Desmos Help – Scientific Calculator
Desmos Help – Graphing Calculator

Desmos Scientific Calculator

The Desmos Scientific Calculator will allow you to compute a variety of expressions, including
operations with fractions, decimals, roots, radicals, lists, and variable.

Desmos Scientific Calculator Home Screen and Keypad

The image below displays the home screen for the Desmos Scientific Calculator. You can use
the ten keypad (0 – 9) and the four function buttons (+ -  ) from the calculator home screen
or a standard keyboard to carryout basic calculations. Press the return button (or enter key on a
keyboard) to calculate the value of an expression.

47
Desmos Graphing Calculator
The Desmos Graphing Calculator will allow you to compute a variety of expressions (fractions,
decimals, roots, etc.) graph equations, plot points, and calculate basic statistics. The Desmos
Graphing Calculator contains all the functions of the scientific calculator in addition to graphing
capabilities.

Students can choose to use both the scientific and graphing calculators or just the graphing
calculator. Some students may feel more comfortable using the scientific calculator for basic
mathematical calculations (+ -  ).

Desmos Scientific Calculator Home Screen and Keypad

The image below displays the home screen for the Desmos Graphing Calculator. You can use
the ten keypad (0 – 9) and the four function buttons (+ -  ) from the calculator home screen
or your keyboard to carryout basic calculations. Press the return button (or enter key on your
keyboard) to calculate the value of an expression.

Desmos Accessibility and Keyboard Shortcuts

Desmos’ software is configured to be compliant with the WCAG 2.1 accessibility standards.
Accessibility features of the calculator include, but are not limited to, respecting font-size
settings of low vision users, ensuring that the colors have sufficient contrast, and making graphs
accessible to fully blind students. The calculators are designed to make all functionality
accessible from the keyboard. For more information, click on the links below.
Desmos Accessibility Information
Desmos Keyboard Shortcuts

48
 Section P.5.1 Introduction to Desmos Scientific Calculator
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with introductory videos shared by Desmos on
their YouTube page. We recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the links below to watch the videos.
Introduction to the Desmos Scientific Calculator
Advance Features of the Desmos Scientific Calculator

How to Enter Exponents

Use the function on the Desmos keypad.
Keyboard shortcut: use the CARAT (^) on a keyboard (SHIFT + 6) to raise something to an
exponent.
1. Enter the base
2. Press the function or the CARAT (^) on a keyboard. (The carat key is located above
the number 6 on a keyboard.)
3. Enter the exponent. Note: Fractional exponents should be surrounded by parentheses.
4. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

49
How to Enter Square Roots
The square root function is located below the key on the Desmos keypad.
Keyboard shortcut: Enter the letters sqrt.
1. Press the button or type in the letters sqrt.
2. Enter the radicand (the number under the square root).
3. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

How to Enter ANY Root

This process will allow you to enter any root with a higher index than two.
The nth root function is located below the key on the Desmos keypad.
Keyboard shortcut: Enter the letters nthroot.
1. Press the button or type in the letters nthroot.
2. Enter the index (n) and the radicand (the number under the root). (Use the arrow keys
to move from the index to the radicand.)
3. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate .
Keys Pressed:

Result:

50
How to Enter a Fraction
The function will allow you to enter any fraction into the Desmos calculator.
Keyboard shortcut: Enter a forward slash / to separate numerator and denominator or type the
letters frac using the keyboard.
1. Press the key on the Desmos keypad or the forward slash / on a keyboard.
2. Enter the numerator and denominator using the numeric keys. (Use the arrow keys to
move between the numerator and denominator.)
3. Press ENTER
4. To convert the answer to a reduced fraction, click on the circular button on the right-
side that looks like a fraction with two boxes on top of each other.

Example: Enter the fraction:

Keys Pressed:

Result:

51
How to Convert a Decimal to a Fraction
The circled fraction button will allow you to convert a decimal to a fraction using Desmos.
1. Enter the decimal or quantity to be converted to a fraction using the keypad or
keyboard and press ENTER.
2. From the right-side, click on the circular button that looks like a fraction with two
boxes on top of each other. This should convert the answer to a reduced fraction.

Step-by-Step Example
Convert the decimal answer to a fraction:

Step 1: Enter the expression into Desmos

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Step 2: Press the Convert-to-Fraction button on the right-side of the answer.

Keys Pressed:

Result:

52
How to Enter the Absolute Value of a number
The function will allow you to enter an absolute value into the Desmos calculator.
Keyboard shortcut: Type the letters abs using the keyboard.
1. Press the key on the Desmos keypad or type the letters abs using the keyboard.
2. Enter the value or quantity using the keypad.
3. Press ENTER

Example: Enter the value:

Keys Pressed:

Result:

53
How to Store Values for Variables
Use the alphabetic keypad (abc) or a keyboard to assign values to variable.
1. Press the abc button to switch to the alphabetic keypad.
2. Press the letter for the variable followed by the equal sign. (For example a = or x = )
3. Press the main button to toggle back to the main Desmos keypad.
4. Enter the number you would like to assign to the variable.
5. Press ENTER

Example: Store a = 3 and b = 4 in the Desmos Calculator

Keys Pressed:

Result:

How to Evaluate Expressions using Stored Variables.

1. Follow the steps to store numeric values for variables.
2. Enter the expression use variables. (Use the alphabet menu or keyboard to select the
variables.)
3. Press ENTER

Example: Calculate , using the values stored for a and b. (See above.)
Keys Pressed:

(Note: you will need to toggle back and forth between the main and abc keypad.)
Result:

54
55
How to Store Data Values as a List
1. From the alpha (abc) keypad or the keyboard, select a letter to represent the name of
your list. (For example, use the letter L to represent List.)
2. Press the equals (=) key.
3. Press the SQUARE BRACKET [ ] keys to signify list. (Note: Do NOT use parentheses.)
4. Enter the expression use variables. (Use the alphabet menu or keyboard to select the
variables.)
5. Enter the numeric values separated by commas.
6. Press ENTER

Example
Create a list of the first four odd numbers. For this example, we will enter the list
into Desmos.

Keys Pressed:

(Note: you will need to toggle back and forth between the main and abc keypad.)

Result:

56
How to Calculate Basic Statistics (Mean, Standard Deviation) from a List
Use the function menu (func) to access commonly used functions in a math and statistics
course.

Keyboard shortcuts: Type the letters mean to find the mean of a list. Type the letters stdev to
find the sample standard deviation of a list. Type the letters stdevp to find the population
standard deviation of a list.
1. Enter the data values as a named list. (See directions above.)
2. Press the functions (func) keypad.
3. Press the appropriate function (e.g., mean, stdev, stdevp)
4. Use the alpha keypad (abc) or keyboard to enter the name of your list from step 1.
5. Press ENTER

Step-by-Step Example

Find the mean of the first four odd numbers. For this example, we will use the list .

Step 1: Enter the list into Desmos.

See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.

Step 2: Calculate the mean of the list

Keys Pressed:

(Note: you will need to toggle back and forth between the func and abc keypad.)

Result:

57
Section P.5.2 Using the Desmos Calculator to Simplify Expressions with
Fractions
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator as you
watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Fraction Operations on the Desmos Scientific Calculator

See Section P.5.1 Getting to Know the Desmos Calculator for step-by-step instructions on how
to enter fractions.

Examples
Use Desmos to perform the following operations. Write your answers as reduced fractions.

1.

2.

3.

58
 4.

Section P.5.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use Desmos to perform the following operations. Write your answers as reduced fractions.

a.

b.

59
 Section P.5.3 Using the Desmos Calculator to Simplify Expressions
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator as you
watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Entering and Evaluating Various Expressions on the Desmos Scientific Calculator

See Section P.5.1 Getting to Know the Desmos Calculator for step-by-step instructions on how
to enter fractions.

Examples
Use Desmos to perform the following operations. Write your answers as reduced fractions.

1.

2.

3.

4.

60
 5.

6.

Section P.5.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use Desmos to perform the following operations. Write your answers as reduced fractions.
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

61
 Section P.5.4 Introduction to the Desmos Graphing Calculator
Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with an introductory video shared by Desmos
on their YouTube page. We recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the links below to watch the videos.
Introduction to the Desmos Graphing Calculator

Links to the Desmos Graphing Calculator

Click the links below to open the Desmos graphing calculator.
Desmos Graphing Calculator

Desmos Graphing Calculator User Guide

Click on the link below to view the user guide for the Desmos Graphing Calculator.
Desmos Graphing Calculator User Guide

View Desmos Keyboard Shortcuts

To view the keyboard shortcuts for the Desmos Graphing calculator, press the following keys:
• Windows / Chrome Users: CTRL + /
• Mac Users: COMMAND + /

Open the Examples in Desmos

Many of the examples in this section can be viewed in Desmos by clicking on the links provided
throughout the text below. The example links contain the equations already entered in Desmos.

Use the space below to take additional notes. The example problems are on the next page.

62
How to Graph a Function Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. From the Add Item menu select f(x) expression. The Add Item Menu is the plus sign in
the upper left corner of the Desmos graphing calculator.
2. Type y= or f(x)= using the keypad or a keyboard. The keyboard icon is in the lower left
corner.
3. Enter the equation of your function or expression.
4. Press ENTER.

Step-by-Step Example
Graph the functions and .
Open this example in Desmos

Keys Pressed:

Result:

63
How to locate points of interest on a graph in Desmos
1. To locate a point of interest such as an x-intercept, y-intercept, vertex, intersection
point etc., click (or tap) on the graph near the point of interest. (This should reveal a
coordinate point, )

Step-by-Step Example
Find the intercepts and intersection point for the functions and .
Open this example in Desmos

Keys Pressed:
Click or tap on the point of interest.

Result:
In the image below, we can see that the line has an x and y intercept of
and , respectively. The parabola has an x and y intercept at . Both
graphs intersect at the point . (Note: The equations in the image below actually
have two intersection points, but only one is revealed on the graph below. In the next
example, we will learn how to zoom out to reveal the second point of intersection.)

64
How to Adjust the Viewing Window for a Graph in Desmos
In this section, you will learn how to zoom in and out on a graph in Desmos. You can also
manually set the viewing window by going to the Graphing Settings menu on the right-hand
side by clicking on the tool icon. We will cover the graph settings menu in greater detail later.
1. To adjust the viewing window, click, hold, and drag the graph in Desmos. Alternatively,
you can use the zoom in and zoom out buttons on the upper right side to zoom in or out
on a graph.
2. Press the home button on the right-side to return to a standard viewing window.

Step-by-Step Example
Adjust the viewing window to find the second intersection point of the functions and
.
Open this example in Desmos

Keys Pressed:

Pictured above: the zoom-out key from the left-side menu in Desmos.

Result:
In the image below, we can see that the line and the parabola have
a second intersection point at . We can also see the x and y values now range
from nearly -20 to 20 on the x and y axes.

65
This page has been intentionally blank.

66
 Unit 1: Measurement and Unit Analysis
Unit 1 Outline
1.1: Length, Weight, and Capacity
• Section 1.1.1: Single-Step Unit Conversions (U.S. Standard Units)
• Section 1.1.2: Multi-Step Unit Conversions (U.S. Standard Units)
• Section 1.1.3: Applications of U.S. Units of Measure & Multi-Step Unit Conversions

1.2: The Metric System and Converting Between Systems

• Section 1.2.1: Metric Unit Conversions
• Section 1.2.2: Converting Between U.S. Standard and Metric Units

1.3: Problem Solving Using Rates and Dimensional Analysis

• Section 1.3.1: Rates and Unit Rates
• Section 1.3.2: Dimensional Analysis – Part 1
• Section 1.3.3: Dimensional Analysis – Part 2

67
This page has been intentionally left blank.

68
 1.1: Length, Weight, and Capacity
Section 1.1.1: Single-Step Unit Conversions (U.S. Standard Units)
Definitions
How to process single-step U.S. unit conversion (Factor Label Method)
1. Identify the equivalent conversions you will need from the list below and write it down.
2. Write the conversion as a fraction. Orient the fraction so that the units you no longer want
will simplify out and leave the desired units behind.

Unit Equivalent Conversions as Fractions

Each unit conversion fraction can be written two different ways. For example, the unit
conversion 1 foot = 12 inches can be written with inches in the denominator or the numerator,
depending on which units you want to cancel.

Unit Equivalents for Length

• 1 foot = 12 inches
• 1 yard = 3 feet
• 1 mile = 5280 feet

Unit Equivalents for Weight

• 1 pound (lb.) = 16 ounces (oz.)
• 1 ton = 2,000 pounds (lbs.)

Unit Equivalents for Capacity (or Volume)

• 1 pint = 2 cups
• 1 quart = 2 pints
• 1 quart = 4 cups
• 1 gallon = 4 quarts
• 1 gallon = 16 cups

Unit Equivalents for Time

• 1 minute = 60 seconds
• 1 hour = 60 minutes
• 1 day = 24 hours
• 1 week = 7 days
• 1 year = 12 months
• 1 year = 365 days

Unit Equivalents for Area

• 1 ft2 = 144 in.2
• 1 yd2 = 9 ft.2

69
Examples
Perform each of the following single-step conversions following the Factor-Label method.
Round any decimals to the nearest tenth.

1. Convert 4 pounds (lbs.) to ounces (oz.).

2. Convert 10 yards (yd.) to feet (ft.).

3. Convert 2.4 pints (pt.) to cups (c).

Section 1.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Perform each of the following single-step conversions following the Factor-Label method.
Round any decimals to the nearest tenth.

a. Convert 7 feet to inches.

b. Convert 98 inches to feet.

70
 Section 1.1.2: Multi-Step Unit Conversions (U.S. Standard Units)
Definitions
How to process multi-step U.S. unit conversion (Factor Label Method)
When there is not a single unit conversion to convert units, we use multiple unit conversions to
convert units.
1. Identify the equivalent conversions you will need from the list below and write it down.
2. Write each unit conversion as a fraction. Orient each fraction so that the units you no longer
want will simplify out and leave the desired units behind.

Unit Equivalents for Length

• 1 foot = 12 inches
• 1 yard = 3 feet
• 1 mile = 5280 feet

Unit Equivalents for Weight

• 1 pound (lb.) = 16 ounces (oz.)
• 1 ton = 2,000 pounds (lbs.)

Unit Equivalents for Capacity (or Volume)

• 1 pint = 2 cups
• 1 quart = 2 pints
• 1 quart = 4 cups
• 1 gallon = 4 quarts
• 1 gallon = 16 cups

Unit Equivalents for Time

• 1 minute = 60 seconds
• 1 hour = 60 minutes
• 1 day = 24 hours
• 1 week = 7 days
• 1 year = 12 months
• 1 year = 365 days

Unit Equivalents for Area

• 1 ft2 = 144 in.2
• 1 yd2 = 9 ft.2

71
Examples
Perform each of the following multi-step conversions following the Factor-Label method. Round
any decimals to the nearest tenth.

1. How many minutes are there in a week?

2. Brian needs 10 cups of fruit juice to make Sangria. How many quarts of juice should he
buy at the grocery store?

Section 1.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Perform each of the following multi-step conversions following the Factor-Label method. Round
any decimals to the nearest tenth.

a. Convert 4 hours to seconds.

b. Convert 10 days to minutes.

72
 Section 1.1.3: Applications Using U.S. Standard Units and Multi-Step
Unit Conversions
Definitions
How to process multi-step U.S. unit conversion (Factor Label Method)
When there is not a single unit conversion to convert units, we use multiple unit conversions to
convert units.
1. Identify the equivalent conversions you will need from the list below and write it down.
2. Write each unit conversion as a fraction. Orient each fraction so that the units you no longer
want will simplify out and leave the desired units behind.

Unit Equivalents for Length

• 1 foot = 12 inches
• 1 yard = 3 feet
• 1 mile = 5280 feet

Examples
1. Raldo measured a room at 9 ft long by 10 feet wide to get an area measurement of 90
square feet. He wants to carpet the room with new carpet, which is measured in square
yards. Raldo knows that 1 yard is equivalent to 3 feet, so he ordered 30 square yards of
carpet. Did he order the correct amount?

73
 Section 1.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Perform each of the following multi-step conversions following the Factor-Label method. Round
any decimals to the nearest tenth.

a. Convert 4 square feet to square inches.

b. Convert 432 square inches to square feet.

74
 1.2: The Metric System and Converting Between Systems
Section 1.2.1: The Metric System
Definitions1
The Metric System
The metric system originated in Europe around 1800 and was quickly adopted around the world
as a standard system of measurement. In fact, the U.S. is the only industrialized country that
does not use the metric system as its official measurement system even though there are
metric units utilized in the U.S., especially in the medical, scientific, and technical fields.

What is a Metric?
The metric system uses units such as meter, gram, and liter to measure length, mass, and liquid
volume (capacity), just as the U.S. customary system uses feet, ounces, and quarts to measure
these.

Base Units of the Metric System

• Length: Meter
• Mass: Gram
• Volume: Liter

Prefixes in the Metric System

The metric system is a base 10 system. This means that each successive unit is 10 times larger
than the previous one. The names of metric units are formed by adding a prefix to the basic unit of
measurement. To tell how large or small a unit is, you look at the prefix. To tell whether the unit is
measuring length, mass, or volume, you look at the base.

The different measures for length include kilometer, meter, decimeter, centimeter, and
millimeter. Notice that the word “meter” is part of all these units.

Metric Chart: Prefix Relationships to the Base Units

KILO- HECTO- DEKA- BASE DECI- CENTI- MILLI-
1000 x 0.001 x
100 x Base 10 x Base -- 0.1 x Base 0.01 x Base
Base Base
Kilometer Hectometer Dekameter Meter Decimeter Centimeter Millimeter
(km) (hm) (dam) (m) (dm) (cm) (mm)
Kiloliter Hectoliter Dekaliter Liter Deciliter Centiliter Milliliter
(kl) (hl) (dal) (l) (dl) (cl) (ml)
Kilogram Hectogram Dekagram Gram Decigram Centigram Milligram
(kg) (hg) (dag) (g) (dg) (cg) (mg)

1 This unit includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 3rd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, under a Creative Commons
4.0 CC-By-SA license.

75
Common Metric Conversions
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)
• 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters (m)

Examples
Perform each of the following conversions within the metric system. Show complete work.

1. Convert 4,200 grams (g) to milligrams (mg).

2. Convert 45 centimeters (cm) to meters (m).

3. Convert 7,236,137 milliliters (ml) to kiloleters (kl).

Section 1.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Perform each of the following unit conversions following the Factor-Label method. Do not
round your answers.

a. Convert 58.58 millimeters to centimeters.

b. Convert 1.45 liters to milliliters.

c. Convert 1,316 grams to kilograms.

d. Convert 0.812 kilometers to centimeters.

76
Section 1.2.2: Converting Between U.S. Standard and the Metric System
Definitions
Common Metric / U.S. Conversions for Length
• 1 mile = 1.61 kilometer (km)
• 1 yard = 0.9144 meter (m)
• 1 foot = 0.3048 meter (m)
• 1 inch = 2.54 centimeter (cm)
• 0.621 mile = 1 kilometer (km)
• 1.094 yard = 1 meter (m)
• 0.394 inch = 1 centimeter (cm)

Common Metric / U.S. Conversions for Mass / Weight

• 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lb)
• 1 gram = 0.04 ounce (oz)
• 1 metric ton = 1.1 ton
• 1 pound = 0.454 kilogram
• 1 ounce (oz) = 28 grams

Common Metric / U.S. Conversions for Area

• 1 in2 = 6.45 cm2
• 1 yd2 = 0.84 m2
• 1 mile2 = 2.56 km2

Common Metric / U.S. Conversions for Volume

• 1 liter (l) = 1.1 quart (q)
• 1 gallon = 3.785 liter (l)
• 1 liter = 2.1 pint
• 1 fluid ounce = 29.574 milliliters

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

77
Examples
Perform each of the following metric to U.S. conversions. Round to the nearest hundredth as
needed. Show complete work.

1. The country of Cambodia is approximately 700 km from N to S. What would this

distance be in miles?

2. Express 5 liters in terms of cups.

Section 1.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Perform each of the following metric to U.S. conversions. Round the results to two decimal
places as needed.

a. Convert 5 feet to meters. (Use either 1 ft = 0.305m or 1 m = 3.281 ft.)

b. Convert 29 cm to inches. (Use either 1 in = 2.54 cm or 1 cm = 0.394 in)

c. Convert 66 kilograms to pounds. (Use either 1 lb = 0.454 kg or 1 kg = 2.205 lb)

d. Convert 4 gallons to liters. (Use either 1 L = 0.264 gal or 1 gal = 3.785 L)

e. Convert 4 ounces to grams. (Use either 1 g = 0.0353 oz or 1 oz = 28.350 g)

78
 1.3: Problem Solving Using Rates and Dimensional Analysis
Section 1.3.1: Rates and Unit Rates
Definitions
Rate
A rate is a ratio that compares two quantities with different units.

Unit Rate
A unit rate is a rate when the denominator is 1. Unit rates are often used to compare prices of
items that are different in size.

Examples
1. If you go on a trip in California and you drive 342 miles on 15.4 gallons of gas, the ratio
of miles to gallons, which is also a rate would be:

If we wanted to know the mpg, or miles per gallon, we would need to determine the
unit rate.

2. Marissa finished the 6-mile race in 51 minutes. What is the rate of minutes per miles?
What is the unit rate or minutes per mile?

79
 3. Compare the cost per ounce to determine which brand is cheaper.

Brand A Coffee: $6.25 for 18 ounces

Brand B Coffee: $5.15 for 14 ounces

4. Compare the cost per ounce to determine which brand is cheaper.

Brand A Juice: $3.25 for 64 ounces

Brand B Juice: $2.50 for 40 ounces

Section 1.3.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Cellular phone service is available for $69 per month for 1,527 minutes. What is the
monthly cost per minute? Round your answer to the nearest tenth of a cent.

b. In September 2016, the cost of gasoline in Berlin was around 1.24 euros per liter. What
would the equivalent cost be in U.S. dollars per gallon? You may need to use the
conversions:

1 U.S. dollar = 0.876 euros (in September 2016)

1 gallon = 3.795 liters

80
 Section 1.3.2: Dimensional Analysis – Unit Conversions in 2D and 3D
Definitions
Area
Area is measured in square units, such as square feet or square centimeters.
• These units can be abbreviated as ft2 (square feet) and cm2 (square centimeters).
• For example, we might say that the area of a room is 328 ft2.
• Generally, when you see a unit of measure with an exponent of 2, it is a measurement of
area.

Volume
Volume is measured in cubic units.
• The volume of a tank might be written as 200 cubic feet or 200 ft 3.
• Generally, when you see a unit of measure with an exponent of 3, it is a measurement of
volume.

Dimensional Analysis
The technique of dimensional analysis can be used to convert from one unit of area or volume
to another unit of area or volume. It is important to remember that more than one dimension is
being considered.

Converting Units of Area or Volume

• To convert from one unit of area to another unit of area, always use the conversion factor
two times. The exponent of 2 on the unit is a reminder that there are two dimensions to
consider.
• To convert from one unit of volume to another unit of volume, always use the conversion
factor three times. The exponent of 3 on the unit is a reminder that there are three
dimensions to consider.

Examples
Use dimensional analysis to perform the following conversions. Show the procedure that you
used. Round to two decimal places.

1. Convert 10 ft2 to in2. Use 1 foot = 12 inches.

81
 2. Convert 7.2 mm3 to cm3. Use 1 cm = 10 mm.

Section 1.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Bernadette is making a quilt. She needs 2 square yards of green fabric, 5 square yards of
purple fabric and 9 square yards of white fabric. How many square feet of fabric is this
in total?

82
 Section 1.3.3: Applications of Dimensional Analysis
Definitions
Dimensional Analysis
The technique of dimensional analysis can be used to convert from one unit of area or volume
to another unit of area or volume. It is important to remember that more than one dimension is
being considered.

Converting Units of Area or Volume

• To convert from one unit of area to another unit of area, always use the conversion factor
two times. The exponent of 2 on the unit is a reminder that there are two dimensions to
consider.
• To convert from one unit of volume to another unit of volume, always use the conversion
factor three times. The exponent of 3 on the unit is a reminder that there are three
dimensions to consider.

Examples

1. A basement for a 30 ft by 40 ft house is to be dug at a depth of 7 feet. How many cubic

yards of earth need to be hauled away? Assume the surface of the ground is level. Use
and 1 yard = 3 feet.

83
 Section 1.3.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. A box has length 8 feet, width 3 feet and height 4 inches. Find the volume of the box in
cubic feet and cubic inches.

84
 Unit 2: Introduction to Functions
Unit 2 Outline
2.1: Functions and Function Notation
• Section 2.1.1: Introduction to Relations and Functions
• Section 2.1.2: Using Proper Function Notation
• Section 2.1.3: Evaluating Functions
• Section 2.1.4: Evaluation Functions with Technology (TI-84 Calculator & Desmos)
• Section 2.1.5: Business Applications Using Function Notation

2.2: Functions – Graphs, Domain, and Range

• Section 2.2.1: Introduction to Domain and Range
• Section 2.2.2: Interval Notation
• Section 2.2.3: Graphing Tool Kit – 9 Basic Functions
• Section 2.2.4: Determining the Domain for Various Functions
• Section 2.2.5: The Practical Domain and the Practical Range

2.3: Linear Functions

• Section 2.3.1: Introduction to Linear Functions and Slope
• Section 2.3.2: Interpreting the Slope and Intercepts of a Linear Function
• Section 2.3.3: Characteristics of Linear Functions and Slope Intercept Form
• Section 2.3.4: Writing Equations of Linear Functions in Slope Intercept Form.
• Section 2.3.5: Business Applications of Linear Functions and Slope Intercept Form.

2.4: Graphing Linear Functions

• Section 2.4.1: Introduction to Graphing Linear Functions
• Section 2.4.2: Graphing Linear Functions by Using the Intercepts
• Section 2.4.3: Graphing Linear Functions by Using Slope Intercept Form.
• Section 2.4.4: Graphing Linear Functions by Using Technology (TI-84 Calculator &
Desmos)
• Section 2.4.5: Horizontal and Vertical Lines

85
This page has been intentionally left blank.

86
 2.1: Functions and Function Notation
Section 2.1.1: Introduction to Relations and Functions
Definitions
• A relation is any set of ordered pairs.
• A function is a relation in which every input value is paired with exactly one output value.

The Vertical Line Test

• If all vertical lines intersect the graph of a relation in at most one point, the relation is also a
function. One and only one output exists for each input.
• If any vertical line intersects the graph of a relation at more than one point, the relation fails
the test, and it is not a function. More than one value exists for some (or all) input values.

Behavior of Graphs
• Increasing: As the input values increase, the output values increase
• Decreasing: As the input values increase, the output values decrease.
• Constant: As the input values increase, the output values remain the same.

Dependent and Independent Variables

In general, we say that the output depends on the input.
• Output variable = Dependent variable
• Input variable = Independent variable.
If the relation is a function, then we say that the output is a function of the input.

Example 1. Which of the following tables represent a function?

A. Is Table 1 a function, Yes or No?

Input Output
1 5
2 5
3 5
4 5

87
 B. Is Table 2 a function, Yes or No?

Input Output
1 8
2 -9
3 7
3 12

C. Is Table 3 a function, Yes or No?

Input Output
2 4
1 -5
4 10
-3 -87

Example 2. Which of the following sets of ordered pairs represent functions?

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.
Example 3.

On the graphs below, plot the points for the relations A, B, C, and D from Example 2, then circle
the “problem points.” You can also graph the relations using Desmos. Open a blank graph in
Desmos.
A. Graph of relation A.

88
 B. Graph of relation B

C. Graph of relation C.

D. Graph of relation D

Example 4. Use the Vertical Line Tet to determine which of the following graphs are
functions. Click on the links to open the graph in Desmos.

A. Open Graph 1 with Desmos

89
 B. Open Graph 2 with Desmos

C. Open Graph 3 with Desmos

D. Open Graph 4 with Desmos

Example 5: Behavior of Graphs: Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant.

Sketch the shape of a function with the following characteristics.

• Increasing: As the input values increase, the output values increase.

• Decreasing: As the input values increase, the output values decrease.

• Constant: As the input values increase, the output values remain the same.

90
 Section 2.1.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Determine if the relationship below is a function.

b. Determine if the relationship below is a function.

c. Use the vertical line test to determine if the graph shows a relation that is a function.
View this graph on Desmos.

d. Use the vertical line test to determine if the graph shows a relation that is a function.
View this graph on Desmos.

e. Determine the intervals for where the function below is increasing and decreasing. View
this graph on Desmos.

91
 Section 2.1.2: Using Proper Function Notation
Definitions
If a relation is a function, then we say that the output is a function of the input.

Function Notation
• F(input) = output
• If y is a function of x, then we write

Examples.
Complete the following problems using function notation.
1. The function V(m) represents the value of an investment (in thousands of dollars) after
m months. Explain the meaning of .

2. Complete the table below by converting ordered pairs to function notation.

Ordered Pair Function Notation

(Input, Output) F(input) = output

Enter your answer using function notation

Enter your answer as an ordered pair

3. Consider the function, f, listed below.

a. Evaluate

b. Find the input value, so that

4. The function B(t) is defined by the table below.

t 1 3 12 18 22 31
B(t) 70 64 50 39 25 18

a. Evaluate

b. Find t, so that

92
 5. Consider the graph of the function g(x) shown below. View the graph of g(x) using
Desmos.

a. Evaluate . Write your answer as an ordered pair.

b. Evaluate . Write your answer as an ordered pair.

c. Find the input value, so that . Write your answer as an ordered pair.

d. Find the input value, so that . Write your answer as an ordered pair.

Section 2.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The function f(x) is defined by the table below. Use the table below to answer the questions

x 0 2 4 6 8 10
f(x) 10 8 0 2 6 4

a. Evaluate .

b. Determine x when

93
 Section 2.1.3: Evaluating Functions
Definitions
Function Notation
• F(input) = output
• If y is a function of x, then we write

Examples.
Evaluate the following functions using function notation.

1. Let .
a. Determine .

b. Determine .

2. Let .
a. Determine .

b. For what value of x is ?

94
 3. Let .
a. Determine .

b. Determine .

Section 2.1.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the function to answer the following questions.

a. Evaluate .

b. Determine x when .

95
 Section 2.1.4: Evaluating Functions Using Technology
Technology Options: TI-84 Calculator or Desmos
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using both a TI-84 calculator and using
the free online graphing calculator, Desmos. Students are encouraged to use their preferred
technology to complete this section.

Option 1: Evaluating Functions using the TI-84 Calculator

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Evaluating Functions using the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
1. Given the function , evaluate . (Step-by-step instructions
are on the next page.)

2. Given the function , evaluate .

96
How to Evaluate a Function on the TI-84 Calculator
1. Press the Y= Key. (If there are functions entered into Y1, Y2, etc, press CLEAR to delete
the functions.)
2. Enter the function into Y1. Use the key to enter variables.
3. To QUIT the graphing menu and return to the home screen: Press the 2nd key then
MODE key.
4. To recall the function entered in Y1: Press the VARS key, followed by the RIGHT ARROW
to access the Y-VARS menu. Press ENTER TWICE to choose Function > Y1.
5. To evaluate the function at a particular value: Enter the value surrounded by
parentheses. (In other words, it should look like Y1(value).)
6. Press ENTER in the lower right-hand corner.

Step-by-Step Example
Given the function , evaluate .

Step 1: Enter the equation into Y=

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Step 2: Return to the home screen

Keys Pressed:

97
 Step 3: Evaluate using Y1. Menu selections the Vars > Y-Vars > Function > Y1.
Keys Pressed:

Result:

98
Option 2: Evaluating Functions using Desmos
The example problems in this section coordinate with an introductory video shared by Desmos
on their YouTube page. We recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the links below to watch the videos.
Evaluating Functions using the Desmos Graphing Calculator

How to Evaluate a Function using the Desmos Graphing Calculator

1. From the Add Item menu select f(x) expression. The Add Item Menu is the plus sign in
the upper left corner of the Desmos graphing calculator.
2. Type f(x)= using the keypad or a keyboard. The keypad icon is in the lower left corner.

3. Enter the equation of your function using the keypad or a keyboard.

4. Press ENTER.
5. To evaluate the function at a particular value, enter f(value).
6. Press ENTER.

Example: Given the function evaluate .

Open this example in Desmos

Keys Pressed:

Result:

99
How to Make a Table of Values to Evaluate a Function using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Follow steps 1-4 above to enter the function into Desmos.
2. From the Add Item menu select table. The Add Item Menu is the plus sign in the upper
left corner of the Desmos graphing calculator.
3. In the first column, labeled x1, enter the x-values where you would like to evaluate the
function.
4. In the second column, change y1 to f(x1). This should automatically evaluate the
function for the values specified in the first column.

Example: Evaluate the function for the values

Open this example in Desmos

Keys Pressed:
Add a Table

Enter in the first column

In the second column, change y1 to f(x1).

Result:

100
 Section 2.1.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Given the function , calculate the following values using the TI-84 calculator
or Desmos.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

101
 Section 2.1.5: Business Applications Using Function Notation
Examples.
Evaluate the following application problems using function notation.

1. Grace is selling snow cones at a local carnival. Her profit, in dollars, from selling x snow
cones is given by the function .

a. Write a complete sentence to explain the meaning of in words.

b. Determine . Show your work. Write your answer as an ordered pair and
interpret the meaning of this ordered pair in a complete sentence.

c. Determine . Show your work. Write your answer as an ordered pair and
interpret the meaning of this ordered pair in a complete sentence.

102
 d. Determine x when . Show your work. Write your answer as an
ordered pair and interpret the meaning of this ordered pair in a complete
sentence.

e. Determine x when . Show your work. Write your answer as an ordered

pair and interpret the meaning of this ordered pair in a complete sentence.

Section 2.1.5 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The function represents the cost, in dollars, to produce g gallons of chocolate chunk ice
cream.

a. Interpret the meaning of the statement

103
 2.2: Functions – Graphs, Domain, and Range
Section 2.2.1: Introduction to Domain and Range
Definitions
Domain and Range
• The domain of a function is the set of all possible values for the input (independent)
variable.
• The range of a function is the set of all possible values for the output (dependent) variable.

Examples.
Identify the domain and range of the function below.

1. Identify the input values, domain, output values, and range of the function below.

x k(x)
-2 3
0 -7
2 11
4 3
6 8

2. Identify the input values, domain, output values, and range of the function below.

104
3. Identify the domain and range of the function, f(x), below.
Open the graph of f(x) in Desmos

4. Determine the domain and range for each of the functions below. Click on the links to
open the graphs in Desmos.
a. Function A(x)

b. Function B(x)

105
 c. Function C(x)

Section 2.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Identify the domain and range of the function, g(x) below.

Open the graph of g(x) in Desmos.

106
 Section 2.2.2: Interval Notation
Definitions
Interval Notation
Interval Notation is used as shorthand notation to represent a range of values for a variable.

Consider the following examples.

• The set of all values of x greater than or equal to 4 can be written using an inequality such
as: or using interval notation:
• The set of all values of x greater than 4 can be written using an inequality such as: or
using interval notation:

Inclusion versus Exclusion for the Domain and Range

When we include a point in the domain or range, that means the value is “in” the domain or
range. Similarly, if a point is not in the domain or range, it is said to be excluded.
• Inclusion – points that are in the domain or range
o Graphically, points that are included in the domain (or range) are represented with a
solid dot or a solid line or curve.
o In interval notation, we use square brackets [ or ] to denote when a value is included in
the domain or range.
o In inequality form, we use the greater than or equal to or less than or equal to,
symbolically ≥ ≤, to demonstrate end points that are “included” in the domain or
range.
• Exclusion – points that are NOT in the domain or range
o Graphically, points that are excluded from the domain or range are represented with an
open dot or a dashed line or curve.
o In interval notation, we use round parentheses ( or ) to denote when a value is exclude
from the domain or range.
o In inequality form, we use the strict greater than or less, symbolically > < ,to
demonstrate end points that are “excluded” from the domain or range.

Examples.
Graph the inequality on the number line and the express the interval using interval notation.
1.

2.

107
 3.

4. or

Section 2.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Graph the inequality on the number line and the express the interval using interval notation.
a.

b.

c.

d. or

108
 Section 2.2.3: Graphing Tool Kit – 9 Basic Functions
Nine Basic Functions
In this section, we will build a graphing tool kit for the nine (9) basic functions. Start by
graphing each of the functions below by making an x-y chart. Then state the domain and range
using interval notation for each function.

1. Constant Function:

2. Identity Function:

3. Absolute Value Function:

109
 4. Quadratic Function:

5. Cubic Function:

6. Square Root Function:

110
7. Cube Root Function:

8. Reciprocal Function:

9. Reciprocal Squared Function:

111
 Section 2.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Using the function name(s), identify which of the nine basic functions have a domain

b. Using the function name(s), identify which of the nine basic functions have a range

c. Using the function name(s), identify which of the nine basic functions have a domain

d. Using the function name(s), identify which of the nine basic functions have a range

112
 Section 2.2.4: Determining the Domain for Various Types of Functions
Definitions
Rules for Finding the Domain of Functions
To determine the domain for most functions, start with all real numbers then eliminate values
based on the type of function. We will start this course using the two rules listed below. If
necessary, additional rules may be added during a later section.
1. We cannot divide by zero.
2. When dealing with the set of real numbers, we cannot take the square root of a negative
number.

Examples.
For each example below, determine the function type at the domain of the function. Write the
domain using interval notation.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

113
 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Section 2.2.4 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Determine the domain for the function . Write the answer using interval
notation.

b. Determine the domain for the function . Write the answer using interval
notation.

114
 Section 2.2.5: The Practical Domain and Practical Range
Definitions
Practical Domain
The Practical Domain is the set of all possible values for the input variable that make sense in a
given situation

Practical Range
The Practical Range is the set of all possible values for the output variable that make sense in a
given situation

Examples.
1. The gas station is currently charging $3.83 per gallon for gas. The cost, C(n), in dollars to
fill up your car depends on the number of gallons, n, that you pump. Your car’s tank can
hold maximum of 20 gallons of gas. The graph of C(n) is provided below.

a. Identify the input variable in this situation.

b. Identify the practical domain of this function.

c. Identify the output variable in this situation.

d. Identify the practical range of this function.

115
 Section 2.2.5 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

You purchase 140 bottles of water for 16 dollars and plan to sell them at the local concert in the
park for 85 cents each. Your profit can be determined by the function , where
P represents your profit and x represents the number of bottles of water sold.

a. Identify the practical domain for this function.

b. Identify the practical range for this function.

116
 2.3: Linear Functions
Section 2.3.1: Introduction to Linear Functions and Slope
Definitions
Linear Functions
Linear functions are functions that fit the form:
or
b is the y-intercept.
• b is also the initial or starting function value when x = 0.
m is the slope.
• m is also the constant rate of change of the function

Increasing / Decreasing Linear Functions

• is increasing when the slope, m > 0.
• is decreasing when the slope, m < 0.
• is constant when the slope, m = 0.
• is not a function when the slope, m is undefined.

Examples
1. Identify the slope of each function and whether it is increasing or decreasing.
a.
Open this graph in Desmos

b.
Open this graph in Desmos

117
Interpreting a Linear Function
2. The cost of a cab ride is given by the function , where is the total
cost and x is the number of miles.
a. Using the form interpret the meaning of b and m.

b. Find the cost of a 5-mile cab ride.

Determining Linear Functions

3. If is linear, , and , determine the linear function.

4. You have $350 in the bank and can save $90 per month.
a. What linear function would model your total savings?

b. How much will you have saved in 6 months?

c. How long will it take you to save at least $1,000?

Section 2.3.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A town’s population has been growing linearly. In 2003 the population was 27,000. The
population has been growing by 2200 people each year.

a. Write an equation for the population, P, x years after 2003.

b. Use the formula from part a to find the population of the town in 2009.

118
Section 2.3.2: Interpreting the Slope and Intercepts of a Linear Function
Definitions
Slope
The slope of a line is the ratio of the change in the output (usually y) to the change in the input
(usually x).

Intercepts
A vertical intercept is where a graph crosses the vertical axis.
A horizontal intercept is where a graph crosses the horizontal axis.

Examples
1. Suppose the output variable is height in feet and the input variable measures the time in
seconds.

a. Identify the slope and the units of the slope in this scenario.

b. What is the meaning of a slope of -5?

c. What is the meaning of a slope of 8?

119
 2. The graph below displays the amount of water in a tub over a ten-minute time period.
Use this graph to answer the questions below. Open this graph in Desmos.

a. Identify the vertical intercept and interpret its meaning.

b. Identify the horizontal intercept and interpret its meaning.

c. Determine the slope and interpret its meaning.

Section 2.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
Marcos purchases a top-up card for his pre-paid cell phone. His remaining balance, B, can be
modeled by the equation , where n is the number of minutes he’s talked since
purchasing the card.
a. How much money was on the card when he purchased it? Which intercept is this?

b. How many minutes will he have talked when he runs out of money? Which intercept is
this?

c. What is the slope of the equation? What are the units on the slope?

120
 Section 2.3.3: Characteristics of Linear Functions and Slope Intercept
Form
Definitions
Slope-Intercept Form
A linear equation is in slope-intercept form, if it is in any of the following forms:

How to Determine the Direction of a Linear Function from the Slope

• If the slope m > 0, the line is increasing.
• If the slope m < 0, the line is decreasing.
• If the slope m = 0, the line is horizontal.
• If the slope m is undefined, the line is vertical.

Examples
1. For each equation below, determine the slope, direction, and vertical intercept for each
line.

a.

b.

c.

d.

121
 2. Determine the horizontal intercepts for each equation in question 1. (Note: to find the
horizontal intercept: set y = 0, then solve for x.

3. Find the equation for each vertical line graphed below. (Note: The equation of a vertical
line is usually written .)

a. Open graph A in Desmos

b. Open this graph B in Desmos

Section 2.3.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
For each equation below, determine the slope, direction, vertical and horizontal intercepts for
each line.

a.

b.

c.

122
 Section 2.3.4: Writing Equations of Linear Functions in Slope Intercept
Form.
Definitions
Slope-Intercept Form
A linear equation is in slope-intercept form, if it is in any of the following forms:

b is the y-intercept, usually written

• b is also the initial or starting function value when x = 0.
m is the slope.
•
• m is also the constant rate of change of the function

Examples
1. Give the equation of the line in slope-intercept form with the following characteristics:

a. With vertical intercept and slope -9.

b. Passing through the point and slope -5.

c. Passing through the points and .

123
 Section 2.3.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Find the equation of the line through the points and .

b. Find the equation of the line through the points and .

124
 Section 2.3.5: Business Applications of Linear Functions and Slope
Intercept Form.
Definitions
Slope-Intercept Form
A linear equation is in slope-intercept form, if it is in any of the following forms:

b is the y-intercept, usually written

• b is also the initial or starting function value when x = 0.
m is the slope.
•
• m is also the constant rate of change of the function

Examples
1. Suppose that the world’s current oil reserve is 2400 billion barrels. Assume the total
reserve is decreasing by 18 billion barrels of oil each year. Use this information to
answer the following questions.

a. Give a linear equation for the total remaining oil reserves, R in billions of barrels,
in terms of t, the number of years. (Hint: Your answer should be in the form:
or .)

b. Determine the total oil reserves in 15 years.

c. If no other oil is deposited into the reserves and demand stays constant, how
long will it take to deplete the world’s oil supply? (Round your answer to two
decimal places.)

125
 Section 2.3.5 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
Last year, Pinwheel Industries introduced a new toy. It costs $1600 to develop the toy and $10
to manufacture each toy. Use this information to answer the following questions.

a. Find the equation that gives the total cost, c, to produce n of these toys. Your equation
should be written in the form or .

b. Use the linear equation to determine the total cost to produce 1,300 toys.

c. Use the linear equation to determine how many toys were produced if the total cost is
$49,600.

126
 2.4: Graphing Linear Functions
Section 2.4.1: Introduction to Graphing Linear Functions
Definitions
Graphing Linear Equations by Plotting Points
1. Select a value to enter for one of the variables (either x or y).
2. Substitute the value selected into the equation, the solve for the remaining variable. (If
you substitute a value for x, then you will need to solve for y.)
3. Write the point as a coordinate pair, .
4. Repeat steps 1-3 to find at least two additional points on the line.
5. Plot the points on the cartesian plane, then connect them with a straight line.
Examples
1. Use the equation to complete the table below. Plug in each value for x, then
find the corresponding y-coordinate. Write each point as a coordinate pair. Then, graph
the points on the set of axes provided.

Ordered Pair
x y
(x, y)
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-6
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-4
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

0
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

4
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

127
 Section 2.4.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Use the equation to complete the table below. Plug in each value for x, then
find the corresponding y-coordinate. Write each point as a coordinate pair. Then, graph
the points on the set of axes provided.

Ordered Pair
x y
(x, y)
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-1
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

0
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

1
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

128
 Section 2.4.2: Graphing Linear Functions by Using the Intercepts
Definitions
Graphing Linear Equations Using the Intercepts
1. Find the x-intercept by setting y = 0, then solving for x.
2. Find the y-intercept by setting x = 0, then solving for y.
3. Plot both points on the cartesian plane, then connect them with a straight line.
Examples
1. Determine the intercepts of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of axes
provided.

129
 Section 2.4.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Determine the intercepts of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of axes
provided.

130
Section 2.4.3: Graphing Linear Functions by Using Slope Intercept Form.
Definition
Graphing a Line Written in Slope-Intercept Form
A linear equation is in slope-intercept form, if it is in any of the following forms:

1. Plot the y-intercept, .

2. Use the slope of the line to locate additional points on the line.

3. Connect the points using a straight line.

Examples
1. Identify the slope and y-intercept of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of
axes provided.

2. Identify the slope and y-intercept of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of
axes provided.

131
 3. Identify the slope and y-intercept of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of
axes provided.

4. Identify the slope and y-intercept of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of
axes provided.

Section 2.4.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Identify the slope and y-intercept of the line below. Then graph the line on the set of
axes provided.

132
 Section 2.4.4: Graphing Linear Functions by Using Technology (TI-84
Calculator & Desmos)
Technology Options: TI-84 Calculator or Desmos
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using both a TI-84 calculator and using
the free online graphing calculator, Desmos. Students are encouraged to use their preferred
technology to complete this section.

Option 1: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Graphing Lines on the TI-83 or TI-84 Calculator

Examples

1. Graph the line using the TI-84 Calculator. Then use the calculator to make
an x-y table for the function. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the
examples.)

2. Use the TI-84 Calculator to make a table of values for the line . (Step-by-
step instructions are provided after the examples.)

133
 3. Graph the line using your TI-84 Calculator. Then graph the line on the set of
axes below.

4. Graph the line using your TI-84 Calculator. Then graph the line on the set of
axes below.

134
How to Graph a Function Using the TI-84 Calculator
1. Press the Y= Key. (If there are functions entered into Y1, Y2, etc, press CLEAR to delete
the functions.)
2. Enter the equation into Y1. Use the key to enter variables.
3. To make sure you have the standard graphing window set, press ZOOM, then Option 6
for Zstandard.
4. To adjust the window settings, press the WINDOW key.
5. To view the graph, press the GRAPH key.

Step-by-Step Example

Graph the line .

Step 1: Enter the equation into Y=

Keys Pressed:

Result:

Step 2: Make sure the standard graphing window is set.

Keys Pressed:

Result:

135
How to Use the Table Feature for a Graph Using the TI-84 Calculator
To use the Table feature, you will need to use the Table Set (TBLSET) menu and Table function.
The Table Set (TBLSET) menu is the secondary function above the WINDOW key.
The TABLE function is the secondary function above the GRAPH key.
1. Press the 2nd Key.
2. Press the WINDOW Key to access the Table Set (TBLSET) menu.
3. Complete the TABLE SET UP. Recommended features are below.
a. TBL Start = 0 (This starts the table at zero.)
b. Tbl = 1 (This will increase the x-values in the table by one.)
c. Indpnt: AUTO (This will automatically populate the x-values in the table. The ASK
feature will allow you to enter values for x in the table.)
d. Depend: AUTO (This will automatically calculate the y-values of your function
corresponding to your x-values in the table. The ASK feature will allow you to
enter values for y in the table.)
4. Press the 2nd key.
5. Press the GRAPH key to access the TABLE.
6. Use the ARROW keys to scroll along the table.

Step-by-Step Example

Create an x-y table for the line .

Step 1: Enter the equation into Y=

(Please see the directions above.)

Step 2: Set up the Table

Keys Pressed:

Result:

136
Step 3: View the Table
Keys Pressed:

Result:

137
Option 2: Desmos Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator as you
watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Graphing a Function, completing a Table, and Locating Intercepts using Desmos Graphing
Calculator

Examples
Use Desmos to graph the functions below and adjust the window as needed. Then complete
the table of values and find the intercepts of each function. (Step-by-step instructions are
provided on the next page.)

1.

Ordered Pair
x y
(x, y)
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

0
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Horizontal Intercept (x-intercept(s))

Vertical Intercept (y-intercept)

2.

Ordered Pair
x y
(x, y)
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

-2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

0
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

2
Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Horizontal Intercept (x-intercept(s))

Vertical Intercept (y-intercept)

138
How to Graph a Function and Use the Table Feature Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. From the Add Item menu select f(x) expression. The Add Item Menu is the plus sign in
the upper left corner of the Desmos graphing calculator.
2. Enter the equation of your function or expression. Type y= or f(x)= using the keypad or a
keyboard. The keyboard icon is in the lower left corner. Press ENTER.
3. To adjust the viewing window, click, hold, and drag the graph in Desmos. Alternatively,
you can use the zoom in and zoom out buttons on the upper right side to zoom
in or out on a graph.
4. To make a table of values for the function, click in the cell with the function. Then click
the gear icon toward the upper right side, then click convert to table .
5. To locate the intercepts, click (or tap) on the intercept to reveal the coordinates.

Step-by-Step Example

Graph the function .

Step 1: Enter the equation into cell 1

Open this graph in Desmos
Result:

Step 2: To convert the function to a table of values, click the gear icon toward the
upper right side, then click convert to table .
Keys Pressed:

.
Be sure to click within the cell containing the equation you would like to convert
to a table.

139
 Result:
Notice that you can edit values to the table in the x-column.

Step 3: To locate the intercepts, click (or tap) on the point to reveal the x-y coordinate
point.
Keys Pressed:
None. Click or tap on the point you would like to reveal the coordinates.
Result:

140
 Section 2.4.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use a TI-84 calculator or Desmos to complete the following problem.

a. Locate three coordinate points with different integer solutions to the equation
. Then graph the equation on the set of axes provided.

141
 Section 2.4.5: Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Definitions
Horizontal Lines
The equation of a horizontal line is of the form:
or , where b is a real number.
The slope of a horizontal line is zero.

Vertical Lines
The equation of a vertical line is of the form:
, where k is a real number.
Note: It is not appropriate to use function notation for vertical lines, since they are not
functions.
The slope of a vertical line is undefined.

Examples
1. Identify three coordinate points on the line given below. Then graph the line on the set
of axes provided.

x y Ordered Pair (x, y)

Enter an x value. Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Enter an x value Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Enter an x value Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

142
2. Identify three coordinate points on the line given below. Then graph the line on the set
of axes provided.

x y Ordered Pair (x, y)

Enter an x value. Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Enter an x value Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

Enter an x value Enter the corresponding y value. Enter your answer as an ordered pair

3. Determine the slope of the line pictured in the graph below.

Open this graph in Desmos.

143
 4. Determine the slope of the line pictured in the graph below.
Open this graph in Desmos.

Section 2.4.5 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Graph the line on the set of axes provided. Then identify the slope of the line.

144
b. Graph the line on the set of axes provided. Then identify the slope of the line.

c. Write the equation of the line graphed below. Be sure to use the correct variable! Then
identify the slope of the line.
Open this graph in Desmos.

d. Write the equation of the line graphed below. Be sure to use the correct variable! Then
identify the slope of the line.
Open this graph in Desmos.

145
 Unit 3: Applications of Linear Functions
Unit 3 Outline
3.1: Modeling with Linear Functions
• Section 3.1.1: Introduction to Modeling with Linear Functions
• Section 3.1.2: Linear Modeling - The Cost Equation
• Section 3.1.3: Linear Modeling - Cost, Revenue and Profit Equations
• Section 3.1.4: How to Find the Intersection Point of Two Linear Functions
• Section 3.1.5: Finding the Intersection Point of Two Linear Functions Using Technology
(TI-84 Calculator & Desmos)
• Section 3.1.6: The Break-Even Point
• Section 3.1.7: Supply and Demand

3.2: Linear Regression and Correlation

• Section 3.2.1: Introduction to Linear Regression
• Section 3.2.2: The Correlation Coefficient, R
• Section 3.2.3: Linear Regression using Technology (TI-84 Calculator & Desmos)
• Section 3.2.4: Business Applications of Linear Regression

146
This page intentionally left blank.

147
 3.1: Modeling with Linear Functions
Section 3.1.1: Introduction to Modeling with Linear Functions
Definitions
Problem Solving Strategy
When modeling scenarios with a linear function and solving problems involving quantities
changing linearly, we typically follow the same problem-solving strategies that we would use
for any type of function:
1. Identify changing quantities, and then carefully and clearly define descriptive variables
to represent those quantities. When appropriate, sketch a picture or define a
coordinate system.
2. Carefully read the problem to identify important information. Look for information
giving values for the variables, or values for parts of the functional model, like slope and
initial value.
3. Carefully read the problem to identify what we are trying to find, identify, solve, or
interpret.
4. Identify a solution pathway from the provided information to what we are trying to find.
Often this will involve checking and tracking units, building a table or even finding a
formula for the function being used to model the problem.
5. When needed, find a formula for the function.
6. Solve or evaluate using the formula you found for the desired quantities.
7. Reflect on whether your answer is reasonable for the given situation and whether it
makes sense mathematically.
8. Clearly convey your result using appropriate units, and answer in full sentences when
appropriate.

Examples
Use the eight-step problem solving strategy to solve the application problem.
1. Jamal is choosing between two moving companies. The first, U-Haul, charges an up-
front fee of $20, then 59 cents a mile. The second, Budget, charges an up-front fee of
$16, then 63 cents a mile 2. When will U-Haul be the better choice for Jamal?

2 Rates retrieved Aug 2, 2010 from http://www.budgettruck.com and http://www.uhaul.com/

148
 Section 3.1.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. A rental car company charges an up-front fee of $45 plus 35 cents per each mile driven.

i. Determine the linear equation of the function that models this scenario. Be sure
to identify the variables.

ii. Determine the total cost of a rental car when 125 miles are driven.

149
 Section 3.1.2: Linear Modeling – The Cost Equation
Definitions
The Linear Cost Equation
When a company produces q items, the total cost is the summation of all costs of producing
those items. The total cost includes both fixed costs, which are startup costs, like equipment
and buildings, and variable costs, which are costs that depend on the number of items
produced, like materials and labor.

In the simplest case (e.g., linear), Total Cost = (Fixed Costs) + (Variable Costs) ∙ q
Note that the letters used to represent the variable may change.

Examples
1. Last year, Pinwheel Industries introduced a new toy. It costs $5400 to develop the toy
and $4 to manufacture each toy.

a. Give the linear equation in the form , that gives the total cost, C, to
produce n toys.

b. Determine the total cost to produce 4,500 toys.

c. How many toys can be produced with a budget of $31,400?

150
 Section 3.1.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Ricardo runs a pizza food truck. He must pay $70 to keep the food truck open each day,
even if he does not sell any pizza. Additionally, each slice of pizza that he makes and
sells costs him 60 cents. Write the function C(x) that expresses Ricardo’s daily costs as a
function of the number of slices, x, that he makes / sells.

b. The cost (in dollars) of t-minute cab ride is given by the linear function
.

i. How much would it cost to ride in a cab for 28 minutes?

ii. What is the base cost that you must pay just to get in the cab, even if you don’t
go anywhere?

iii. How much does each additional minute add to the total cost of the ride?

151
 Section 3.1.3: Linear Modeling – Cost, Revenue, and Profit Equations
Definitions
The Linear Cost Equation
When q items are produced, Total Cost = (Fixed Costs) + (Variable Costs) ∙ q

Revenue is the amount of money a company brings in from sales.

In the simplest case, Revenue = (Price per item) ∙ q

Profit is the amount of money brings in, after expenses.

Profit = Revenue – Costs

Note that the letters used to represent the variable may change.

Examples
1. A company makes phone covers. They sell each cover for $12. Let x represent the
number of phone covers produced and sold.

a. What is the revenue equation?

b. The cost to make the covers is $2 each with a one-time startup cost of $5,200. What
is the cost equation?

c. Find the profit when the company sells 1,200 covers.

d. Find the number of covers they need to sell to break even.

152
 Section 3.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. The ACME manufacture company makes widgets. Their fixed costs are $1500 per
month, while their cost per widget is $7. They sell each widget for $13.

i. Determine the cost function, C(x).

ii. Determine the revenue function, R(x).

iii. Determine the profit function, P(x).

iv. What is the minimum number of widgets the ACME manufacturing company
must produce and sell each month to make a profit?

153
 Section 3.1.4: How to Find the Intersection Point of Two Linear
Functions
Definitions
How to Find the Intersection Point by Graphing
1. Graph the functions on the same graph.
2. Locate the coordinates of the point of intersection.
How to Find the Intersection Point by Use Algebra
1. Set the two functions equal to each other.
2. Solve for x.
3. Plug the x-value back into the original equations to find the corresponding y-coordinate.

Examples
1. Determine the point of intersection of the two functions listed below.

a. Find the intersection point by using the graphing method.

b. Find the intersection point by using algebra.

154
 Section 3.1.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
Determine the point of intersection of the two functions listed below.

a. Find the intersection point by using the graphing method.

b. Find the intersection point by using algebra.

155
 Section 3.1.5: How to Find the Intersection Point of Two Linear
Functions by Using Technology (TI-84 Calculator & Desmos)
Technology Options: TI-84 Calculator or Desmos
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using both a TI-84 calculator and using
the free online graphing calculator, Desmos. Students are encouraged to use their preferred
technology to complete this section.

Option 1: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Points of Intersection of Two Graphs on the TI-83 or TI-84 Calculator

Examples

1. Find the intersection point(s) of the two lines listed below using the TI-84 Calculator.
(Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

2. Find the intersection point(s) of the two graphs listed below using the TI-84 Calculator.

156
How to Find the Intersection Point(s) of Two Graphs Using the TI-84 Calculator
See the worked example on the next page for step-by-step instructions, including graphics.
1. Press the Y= Key. Enter the equation(s) into Y1, Y2, etc. Use the key to enter
variables. (If there are functions entered into Y1, Y2, etc, press CLEAR to delete the
functions.)
2. To make sure you have the standard graphing window set, press ZOOM, then Option 6
for Zstandard. To adjust the window settings, press the WINDOW key. To view the
graph, press the GRAPH key.
3. To find the point of intersection, press 2nd, then TRACE, to access the CALC Menu.
Select Option 5 for Intersect.
a. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor close to the intersection point you wish
to find.
b. Press ENTER THREE (3) times to identify the first curve, second curve, and point
of intersection.
4. Repeat step 3 to find additional points of intersection.

Step-by-Step Example

Find the intersection point(s) of the lines and using the TI-84
Calculator.

Step 1: Enter the equations into Y1 and Y2.

Notice that the second equation, must first be solved for y:
.

Keys Pressed:
Enter the equation in Y1

Enter the equation into Y2.

Make sure the standard viewing window is set.

Result:

157
 Step 2: Locate the intersection point.
Keys Pressed:
Locate the CALC Menu above the trace button, then select option 5: Intersect

Move the cursor to the location of the intersection point, then press enter THREE (3)
times.

Results:
These two lines intersect at the point (3, 6).

158
Option 2: Desmos Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator as you
watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding the Intersection Points of Graphs using the Desmos Graphing Calculator

Examples
1. Find the intersection point(s) of the two lines listed below using the Desmos Calculator.
(Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

2. Find the intersection point(s) of the two lines listed below using the Desmos Calculator.

159
How to Find the Intersection Points of Two Graphs Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the equations into cells one and two. Type y= or f(x)= using the keypad or a
keyboard. The keyboard icon is in the lower left corner. Press ENTER.
2. To adjust the viewing window, click, hold, and drag the graph in Desmos. Alternatively,
you can use the zoom in and zoom out buttons on the upper right side to zoom
in or out on a graph.
3. To locate the point(s) of intersection, click (or tap) on the point(s) to reveal the
coordinates.

Step-by-Step Example

Find the intersection point(s) of the lines and using the Desmos Graphing
Calculator.
Step 1: Enter the equations into Cell 1 and Cell 2. Adjust the window as necessary.
Open this graph in Desmos
Result:
Note: the viewing window below is set: and

Step 2: Click or tap to locate the intersection point.

Result:
These graphs intersect at the point .

160
 Section 3.1.5 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Use technology to determine the point of intersection of the two functions listed below.

161
 Section 3.1.6: Linear Modeling – The Break-Even Point
Definitions
The Break-Even Point
This is the level of production where revenue equals cost, or equivalently where profit is zero.
This is typically the minimum level of sales necessary for the company to make a profit.

Examples
You decide to begin selling caramel apples at the local park (or farmer’s market). Your cost for
each caramel apple is $1.35 plus you must pay a fixed weekly fee of $180 for your booth. Your
plan is to sell each caramel apple for $3.13.

1. Write a function, C(n) to represent your total costs for the week if you sell n caramel
apples.

2. Write a function, R(n), to represent the revenue for the sale of n caramel apples during
the week.

3. Write a function P(n), that represents the profit for selling n caramel apples in a given
week.

4. How many caramel apples must you sell in order to make a positive profit? Write your
answer as a whole number.

5. Complete the following sentence to explain the meaning of the previous answer.

In order to make a profit, I have to sell a minimum of ______ caramel apples.

162
 Section 3.1.6 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
You decide to begin selling bags of peanuts at the local swap mart. Your cost for each bag of
peanuts is $1.63 plus you have to pay a fixed weekly cost of $110 for the booth. Your plan is to
sell each bag of peanuts for $2.91.

a. Write a function, C(n) to represent your total costs for the week if you sell n bags of
peanuts.

b. Write a function, R(n), to represent the revenue for the sale of n bags of peanuts during
the week.

c. Write a function P(n), that represents the profit for selling n bags of peanuts in a given
week.

d. How many bags of peanuts must you sell in order to make a positive profit? Write your
answer as a whole number.

e. Complete the following sentence to explain the mean of the previous answer.

In order to make a profit, I have to sell am minimum of ______ bags of peanuts.

163
 Section 3.1.7: Supply and Demand
Definitions
Supply and Demand
In economics, there is a model for how prices are determined in a free market which states that
supply and demand for a product is related to the price. The demand relationship shows the
quantity of a certain product that consumers are willing to buy at a certain price. Typically, the
quantity demanded will decrease for an item if the price increases. The supply relationship
shows the quantity of a product that suppliers are willing to produce at a certain sales price.
Typically, the supply demanded will increase if the price increases.

In this section, we will consider supply and demand curves that follow a linear relationship.
Later in this course we will look at non-linear supply and demand curves.

Equilibrium
The point where supply is equal to demand is known as the equilibrium price and quantity or
the market price and quantity. To find the point of equilibrium, locate where the supply and
demand curves intersect.

Notation
Many economics textbooks use the variables p and q when discussing supply and demand
instead of x and y. The following notation is commonly used when discussing supply and
demand:
• Typically, p denotes the price of a product.
• Qd is the quantity demanded and is typically a decreasing function.
• Qs is the quantity supplied and is typically an increasing function.
• The equilibrium point is usually denoted (p*, Q*)

The graph below illustrates the relationship between linear supply and demand functions. Open
this graph in Demos.

164
Examples
In supply and demand problems, y is the number of items the supplier will produce (or
consumers will buy) if the price of the item is x dollars.

Supply Equation:

Demand Equation:

Supply and Demand Graph

1. What is the intersection point of the two lines?

2. What is the selling price when the supply and demand are in equilibrium?

3. What is the number of items in the market when the supply and demand are in
equilibrium?

165
 Section 3.1.7 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
In supply and demand problems, y is the number of items the supplier will produce (or
consumers will buy) if the price of the item is x dollars.

Supply Equation:

Demand Equation:

a. What is the intersection point of the two lines?

b. What is the selling price when the supply and demand are in equilibrium?

c. What is the number of items in the market when the supply and demand are in
equilibrium?

166
 3.2: Linear Regression and Correlation
Section 3.2.1: Introduction to Linear Regression
Definitions
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is when we use modeling and functions to analyze the trend between the
independent (or explanatory) variable, x, and the dependent (or response) variable, y. There
are many types of regression analysis including linear, quadratic, exponential, logarithmic, etc.
We choose the type of regression based on which model will best fit the data set. In this
section, we will focus on linear regression.

Linear Regression
Linear Regression uses a linear function, known as the least-squares line or the line of best fit,
to model the behavior of a data set.

Interpolation and Extrapolation

Interpolation is when we predict a value inside the domain and range of the data.
Extrapolation is when we predict a value outside the domain and range of the data.

Examples
1. Describe at least three different types of regression analysis.

2. Explain two ways to distinguish variations in linear regression analyses.

167
 3. Compare and contrast the variations in the linear regression images pictured below.

4. Briefly summarize the correlation coefficient and how it can be used measure the
strength and direction of a linear association between two variables.

Section 3.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Classify the direction and strength of each linear regression analyses below as strong
positive, weak positive, strong negative, weak negative, or no association.

168
 Section 3.2.2: The Correlation Coefficient, R
Definitions
Correlation Coefficient, r
The correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. While there is a formula to find the correlation
coefficient, we will use technology to determine r. It is important to understand how to
interpret the values of r.
• The correlation coefficient is a value, r, between -1 and 1.
• r > 0 suggests a positive (increasing) relationship
• r < 0 suggests a negative (decreasing) relationship
• r = 0 represents no correlation
• The closer the value is to 0, the more scattered the data
• The closer the value is to 1 or -1, the less scattered the data is

Examples
Determine the best estimate of the correlation coefficients. Try to match the correlation
coefficient to one of the graphs below.

A. r = -0.9
B. r = -0.6
C. r=0
D. r = 0.6
E. r = 0.9

169
 Section 3.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
Match each scatterplot shown below with one of the four specified correlations.

a. r = -0.92
b. r = 0.29
c. r = 0.88
d. r = -0.42

Image 1: Image 2:

Image 3: Image 4:

170
 Section 3.2.3: How to Perform Linear Regression Using Technology (TI-
84 Calculator & Desmos)
Technology Options: TI-84 Calculator or Desmos
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using both a TI-84 calculator and using
the free online graphing calculator, Desmos. Students are encouraged to use their preferred
technology to complete this section.

Option 1: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Perform Linear Regression on the TI-83 or TI-84 Calculator - Example 1
Perform Linear Regression on the TI-83 or TI-84 Calculator - Example 2

Use the space below to take additional notes. The examples, step-by-step instructions and
troubleshooting tips are located on the next few pages.

171
Examples using the TI-84 Calculator

Create a scatterplot for the following data. Then determine the line of best fit using the
graphing calculator. Finally, answer the questions below using your line of best fit. (Step-by-
step instructions are located on the next page.)

The table below contains the annual consumption of Sports drinks per-person in the U.S. by
year. (Source: Beverage Digest.)

Gallons Per
Year
Person
2002 2.7
2003 3.0
2004 3.4
2005 4.1
2006 4.5
Note: When entering the data for this example, you can either use the year or set the base
year, 2002, as x = 0.

1. Is your equation a good fit for the data?

2. If the growth in consumption of sports drinks continues, predict the consumption in the
year 2015

3. When will the consumption reach 20 gallons per person per year?

4. What is the meaning of the slope of the line of best fit?

5. What is the meaning of the y-intercept of the line of best fit?

172
How to Create a Scatterplot Using the TI-84 Calculator
1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1 and L2. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to
L1 and L2, then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row.
Then arrow to L2 to enter the output data into L2.

Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1 and L2:

2. Turn the Stat Plot On.

a. Press 2nd, then Y=, to access the STAT PLOT Menu.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Plot1
i. Press ENTER to turn Plot1 On. The word “On” will be highlighted when
Plot 1 is turned on.) (All other plots should be turned off.)
ii. Under Type: Press ENTER to select the image of a scatterplot.
iii. Under Xlist: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
iv. Under Ylist: L2. Confirm location of output values is correct. (Default is
set to L2. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)

Stat Plot Menu (2nd Y=) 1: Plot1

3. Graph the data in an appropriate viewing window.

You can choose to set the window by pressing the WINDOW button or using the ZOOM
menu. We recommend using the ZOOM menu.
a. Press the ZOOM key located under the graphing window.

173
 b. Use the arrow keys to scroll down to Option 9: ZoomStat.
c. Press ENTER to view the graph.

Zoom Menu: Graphing Window:

How to Perform Linear Regression Using the TI-84 Calculator

1. Turn the Diagnostic On. Turning the Diagnostic On will reveal the value of the
correlation coefficient, r. (Note: Typically, you only need to perform this step the first
time you do regression.)
a. Press 2nd, then zero 0, to access the CATALOG.
b. Scroll down until you find the command Diagnostic On.
c. Press ENTER twice, until you see the phrase Done.

Catalog: Diagnostic On Complete:

2. Perform Linear Regression

a. Press Stat, then the RIGHT ARROW key to access the CALC Menu.
b. Select option 4 to access 4:LinReg(ax+b) for linear regression.
i. Under Xlist: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
ii. Under Ylist: L2. Confirm location of output values is correct. (Default is
set to L2. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
iii. Confirm FreqList: is blank. (If necessary, press CLEAR.)
iv. Under StoreRegEQ: Choose Y1 by using the directions below (or you can
leave it blank).
1. Press VARS to access the variable menu.
2. Use the RIGHT ARROW to access the Y-Variable menu.
3. Select 1: Function

174
 4. Select 1: Y1
v. Press ENTER to Calculate the regression line.

Stat Calc Menu (Stat) 4:LinReg(ax+b) (Optional: Store ReqEq)

Linear Regression Results Graph (With Store RegEQ: Y1)

3. Add the equation to the graph. (Note: This step is automatically done if you follow the
steps to enter Y1 into Store RegEQ in part 2 above.)
a. Press the Y= Key. If necessary, clear the equation(s) previously entered.
b. Enter the equation of the linear regression line into Y1. (Replace a and b using
the numbers. From the example above, enter the equation: .)
c. Press GRAPH to view the graph.

Graphing Menu: Graph

Use this space to take additional notes. Troubleshooting tips and examples are on the next two
pages.

175
Troubleshooting Linear Regression On the TI-84 Calculator
Below are a few common error messages that can occur when carrying out linear regression
along with troubleshoot steps.

Common Error 1: Invalid Dimension

There are two common reasons for receiving the “invalid dimension” error:
1. The two lists, L1 and L2, do not have the same number of items. (Perhaps one data
value was left off or a data value was accidently entered twice.)
2. A second STAT PLOT is turned “On”. (Only one Stat Plot should be on while carrying
out linear Regression.

Troubleshooting Steps

1. Doublecheck L1 and L2 are correct.

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. Compare the values in L1 and L2 with the original data set. Make sure both
lists have the same number of items.
2. Turn off Plot2 and Plot3, if necessary.
a. Press 2nd, then Y=, to access the STAT PLOT Menu.
b. Confirm that Plot2 and Plot 3 are turned OFF.
i. To turn a plot off: use the arrow keys to navigate to the plot. Press
ENTER to access 2:Plot2.
ii. Press ENTER to turn Plot2 OFF. The word “OFF” will be highlighted
when Plot 2 is turned off.

Error: Missing Data Value Error: Plot 1 and Plot 2 On at the same time.

176
Common Error 2: List 1 or List 2 is Missing
When trying to enter the data into L1 or L2, you notice that L1 or L2 has been deleted.

Troubleshooting Steps

1. Use the Stat Set Up Editor to “reset” the lists

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll down to option 5: Set Up Editor.
c. Press ENTER twice, until you see the phrase Done.
i. Follow the directions above to return to the Stat menu to enter the
data into L1 and L2 above.

Stat Menu: Set Up Editor Set Up Editor Done

177
Common Error 3: Answers on my calculator are different then the
examples or the answer key
Occasionally, students will carry out the linear regression without receiving an error message,
but their answers do not match the examples provided or the answer key. There are two
common reasons for receiving answers that are slightly different:
1. Data Entry Error: One or more data values are entered incorrectly into the two
lists, L1 and L2.
2. FreqList Error: When using the linreg(ax+b) function on the calculator, a list (e.g.,
L1) is enter for the freqlist. (Note: The FreqList should be empty for most linear
regression problems.)

Troubleshooting Steps

1. Data Entry Error: Doublecheck L1 and L2 are correct.

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. Carefully compare the values in L1 and L2 with the original data set. Make
sure both lists have the same number of items and all values are entered
correctly.
2. Doublecheck FreqList is blank
a. Press Stat, then the RIGHT ARROW key to access the CALC Menu.
b. Select option 4 to access 4:LinReg(ax+b) for linear regression.
i. Confirm FreqList: is blank. (If necessary, press CLEAR.)

Data Entry Error FreqList Error

178
Option 2: Desmos Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator as you
watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Perform Linear Regression using the Desmos Graphing Calculator

Examples using the Desmos Graphing Calculator

Create a scatterplot for the following data. Then determine the line of best fit using the
graphing calculator. Finally, answer the questions below using your line of best fit. (Step-by-
step instructions are provided on the next page.)

The table below contains the data for the first and second Quiz scores for eight (8) students in a
class.

First Quiz Second Quiz

12 10
19 18
20 19
23 23
24 26
38 34
41 38
47 41
Note: There is a typo on the first screen of the video. The data set above is the correct data
set that is used in the Desmos demonstration portion of the video.

1. Use the data to determine the line of best fit.

2. Plot the points on the coordinate plane.

3. Graph the line of best fit over the data.

4. Use the line of best fit to predict the second quiz score if a student scores a 40 on the
first quiz. (Round the answer to the nearest whole number.)

179
How to Perform Linear Regression Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into cell one. (Note: If your data is in Excel, you can copy and paste it
directly into cell one.)
a. From the add item drop down menus, select TABLE.
b. Enter the data into the table for x1 and y1, respectively.
2. Determine the line of best fit.
a. Enter into a new cell. Press ENTER. (Note: The twiddle ~ is located
above the apostrophe on a standard keyboard.)
3. Use the line of best fit to make predictions.
a. In a new cell, enter the regression line , using the numeric values for
m and b from the regression analysis. (Do not use y1 or x1.)
b. Click the GEAR tool , then select the TABLE next to the equation.
c. Edit the values in the column labeled x1 to evaluate the regression equation.

Open the Linear Regression example in Desmos.

180
 Section 3.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
a. Use a graphing calculator or Desmos to find the line of best fit for the given data set.
Use the indicated variables and proper function notation. Round your answers to three
decimal places as needed.

t g(t)
1 716
2 725
3 726
4 732
5 762
6 817

b. A random sample of beef hotdogs was taken, and the amount of sodium (in mg) and
calories were measured. The data are listed in the table below. Using a calculator,
Desmos, or statistical software, find the correlation coefficient. Then use the
correlation coefficient to determine both the strength (e.g., weak, moderate, or strong)
and the direction (e.g., positive, or negative) of the correlation between the variables.

Calories (k) Sodium (mg)

190 542

189 608

135 291
188 575

123 227

166 397

184 537

169 439

186 440

181
 Section 3.2.4: Business Applications of Linear Regression
Definitions
Supply and Demand
In economics, there is a model for how prices are determined in a free market which states that
supply and demand for a product is related to the price. The demand relationship shows the
quantity of a certain product that consumers are willing to buy at a certain price. Typically, the
quantity demanded will decrease for an item if the price increases. The supply relationship
shows the quantity of a product that suppliers are willing to produce at a certain sales price.
Typically, the supply demanded will increase if the price increases.

Examples
1. The table below shows the value, V, of and investment (in dollars) n years after 1990.

n, Years after 1990 V, Value, $

1 7833.00
3 8329.02
7 9831.00
12 11840.88
14 12162.00
16 13135.65

a. Determine the linear regression that models the set of data above and use this
equation to answer the questions below. Round to the nearest hundredth as
needed.

b. Based on this regression model, determine the value of this investment in the
year 1990.

c. Based on the regression model, determine the rate of change of the investment
each year.

182
2. There is a functional relationship between the price of an iPod Touch, p, and weekly
demand, s. The table below compares the price, in dollars, and the corresponding
weekly demand of an iPod Touch, measured in thousands. Use the data to answer the
questions below.

Weekly Demand, s
Price, p, ($)
(1,000’s)
150 212
170 206
190 199
210 185
230 179
250 175

a. Use a calculator or Desmos to find the linear model that best fits this data using
linear regression. Round the linear parameter (or slope) to the nearest
hundredth and the constant parameter (or y-intercept) to the nearest whole
number.

b. What does the model predict will be the weekly demand if the price of an iPod
Touch is $181? (Note: Round your answer to the nearest hundred, 100.)

c. According to the model, what should the price be set at to have a weekly
demand of 231,500 iPod Touches? (Round your answer to the nearest dollar,
$1.)

183
 Section 3.2.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.
The table below displays the number of state-registered automatic weapons and the murder
rate for several Northwestern states, where x is thousands of automatic weapons and y is
murders per 100,000 residents

x, weapons y, murders
(thousands) (per 100,000)
11.4 14
8 10.9
6.9 9.8
3.8 7
2.5 6.3
2.4 6
2.6 6.2
0.3 4.5

a. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line and write it in the form
. Round your answers to two decimal places.

b. According to the linear regression model, how many murders per 100,000 residents can
be predicted in a state with 2,300 registered automatic weapons? Round your answer to
three decimal places.

c. According to the linear regression model, how many murders per 100,000 residents can
be predicted in a state with 1,400 registered automatic weapons? Round your answer to
three decimal places.

184
This page intentional left blank.

185
 Unit 4: Percentage Change and Exponential Functions3
Unit 4 Outline
4.1: Percentages
• Section 4.1.1: A Quick Review of Percentages
• Section 4.1.2: The Percent Equation
• Section 4.1.3: Solving Application Problems Using the Percent Equation

4.2: Absolute, Relative, and Percentage Change

• Section 4.2.1: Absolute and Relative Change
• Section 4.2.2: Percent of Change

4.3: Exponential Functions

• Section 4.3.1: Introduction to Exponential Equations
• Section 4.3.2: Comparing Linear and Exponential Functions
• Section 4.3.3: Decomposing Exponential Growth and Decay Equations
• Section 4.3.4: Business Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay Equations

4.4: Logarithmic Functions

• Section 4.4.1: Introduction to Logarithms
• Section 4.4.2: Comparing the Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• Section 4.4.3: Solving Exponential Equations by Using Logarithms

4.5 Solving Exponential Equations by Using Technology (TI-84 Calculator & Desmos)
• Section 4.5.1: Solving Exponential Equations by Using Technology (TI-84 Calculator &
Desmos)
• Section 4.5.2: Solving Applications of Exponential Growth by Using Technology (TI-84
Calculator & Desmos)
• Section 4.5.3: Solving Applications of Exponential Decay by Using Technology (TI-84
Calculator & Desmos)

3 This unit includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2017, under a Creative Commons
4.0 CC-By-SA license.

186
This page intentionally left blank.

187
 4.1 Percentages
Section 4.1.1: A Quick Review of Percentages
Definitions
Percentage
In mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100 (per cent
meaning “per hundred”). It is often denoted using the percent sign, %.

There are three ways to write a percentage: as a percent, fraction, and decimal.

Converting a Percent to a Fraction

1. Write p over 100.
2. Simplify the fraction to lowest terms.

Converting a Percent to a Decimal

1. Drop the % sign.
2. Multiply by 0.01 or divide by 100.
Alternatively, you can drop the % sign and move the decimal two places to the left.

Converting a Decimal to a Percent

1. Multiply the decimal by 100.
2. Add the % sign.

Converting a Decimal to a Fraction

1. Read the decimal using the place value.

or

1. Write as a fraction with a denominator of 1.

2. Multiply the numerator and denominator by powers of 10 to eliminate any decimals.
3. Simplify the fraction to lowest terms.

Converting a Fraction to a Decimal

1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.

Converting a Fraction to a Percent

1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
2. Multiply by 100.
3. Add the % sign.

188
Examples
1. Convert 15% to a fraction in lowest terms.

2. Convert 8.3% to a decimal.

3. Convert 0.832 to a percent.

4. Convert 0.002 to a fraction in lowest terms.

5. Convert to a decimal.

6. Convert to a percent.

189
 7. Fill in the blanks by converting between percentages, decimals, and fractions. Give exact
answers with all decimals. If there is a repeating decimal, use two repeated values.

Problem Fraction Decimal Percent

Enter your answer as a fraction. Enter your answer as a percent

a. 1.2
Enter your answer as a fraction. Enter your answer as a decimal

b. 0.15%
Enter your answer as a decimal Enter your answer as a percent

c.

Section 4.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Convert each percent to a decimal.

a. 15%

b. 6%

c. 6.5%

Convert each decimal to a percent.

d. 0.48

e. 0.135

f. 1.11

Convert the fraction to a percent.

g.

Convert the percent to a fraction.

h. 48%

190
 Section 4.1.2: The Percent Equation
Definitions
How to Solve Percentage Problems
1. Translate the words of the problem into an equation.
2. Solve for the unknown.
3. Make sure your answer is in the correct form (e.g., percent, fraction, or decimal).

Key Words in Percent Translations

• “Of” translates to multiplication.
• “Is” translates to equals.
• “What” translates to a variable, “p” or “n” or “x.”
• P% translates to the percent in decimal form.

Examples
1. What is 12% of 875?

2. 25 is what percent of 500?

3. 2 is 4% of what number?

4. The bookstore buys a textbook for $80 and sells it for $124. What is the percent of
markup?

191
 5. Typically, a self-employed person must earn 20% more than a non-self-employed person
to have the same level of compensation due to the extra taxes and expenses. If a non-
self-employed person earns $18 / hour, how much would a self-employed person need
to earn to have the equivalent income?

Section 4.1.2You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. What percent of 70 is 14?

b. On a survey, 185 people out of 260 state that they like dogs. What percent is this?

192
Section 4.1.3: Solving Application Problems Using the Percent Equation
Definitions
How to Solve Percentage Problems
1. Translate the words of the problem into an equation.
2. Solve for the unknown.
3. Make sure your answer is in the correct form (e.g., percent, fraction, or decimal).

Key Words in Percent Translations

• “Of” translates to multiplication.
• “Is” translates to equals.
• “What” translates to a variable, “p” or “n” or “x.”
• P% translates to the percent in decimal form.

Examples
Solve each problem below by using the percent equation. Start by defining a variable for each
scenario. Then write and solve an equation to solve the problem.

1. A $750 watch is on sale for 15% off. Find the sales price of the watch.

2. A salesman tells you that the $140 earrings are already marked 20% off. What was the
original sales price?

193
 3. Tommy’s grandma gave him a $50 gift card to Toys R Us for his birthday. Sales tax is
currently 9%. Determine the price of the most expensive toy Tommy can buy with the
$50 gift card.

Section 4.1.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve each problem below by using the percent equation. Start by defining a variable for each
scenario. Then write and solve an equation to solve the problem.

a. The sales tax rate in a particular town is 9.4%. How much tax will you pay on a $3000
purchase? Round your answer to the nearest cent.

b. A lender requires a minimum down payment of 16% of the value of a home. You have
$20,000 cash available to use as a down payment toward a home. Determine the
maximum home value that you can finance. Round your answer to the nearest dollar.

194
 4.2 Absolute, Relative, and Percentage Change
Section 4.2.1: Absolute and Relative Change
Definitions
Change
Given two quantities, the change is measured by doing the following:

Absolute Change
The absolute change is the absolute value of the change. The absolute change should always
be a positive quantity with the same units as the original quantity.

Relative Change
The relative change converts the absolute change to a percent change. The starting quantity is
often called the base of the percent

Examples
The population of a town changed from 65,200 in 2007, to 62,000 in 2010. Find the change,
absolute change, and relative change.

1. Change.

2. Absolute change

3. Relative change

195
 Section 4.2.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. The value of a car dropped from $29,000 to $26,600 over the last year. Determine the
absolute and relative change in this situation.

b. A politician’s support increases from 37% to 53%. Determine the absolute and relative
change in this situation.

196
 Section 4.2.2: Percent of Change
Definitions
Percent of Change
Given two quantities, the percent of change is measured by:

• If the result is positive, then it is an increase.

• If the result is negative, then it is a decrease.

Examples
Use the formula to determine the percent change in each of the following problems.

1. The value of a house was $150,000 in 2008, but now the value is $120,000. What is the
percent change in the value of the home?

2. You currently make $36,000 per year. You are offered another job at $40,000 per year.
What is the percent change in salary from your current job to the new job?

197
 3. Maria owns $1000 worth of stock and watches the percent change in the stock price
regularly. One day she sees the stock drop 10% and panics. The next day the stock price
goes up 10%. She is happy because she thinks she has gained back all of her loss from
the day before. Is she correct?

Section 4.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Shani was not able to sell her house for $130,000, so she lowered the price to $105,000.
What was the percent of decrease? Round the answer to the nearest tenth of a percent.

b. Last year, Jordan earned $357 per week. This year, her salary increased to $368 per
week. What was the percent of increase? Round the answer to the nearest tenth of a
percent.

198
 4.3 Exponential Functions
Section 4.3.1: Introduction to Exponential Functions
Definitions
Exponential Function
An exponential function is a function of the form:
, where
• a = the initial or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the base, commonly called the growth factor or decay factor.

Exponential Growth
If , the graph is increasing and commonly referred to as exponential growth.
For example, in the function , . We can use the graph to verify that this
function is increasing. Open the graph using Desmos.

Exponential Decay
If , the graph is decreasing and commonly referred to as exponential decay.
For example, in the function , . We can use the graph to verify that this
function is decreasing. Open the graph using Desmos.

199
 Definitions
Exponential Growth and Decay Equations
If r is the percent growth or decay rate (as a decimal) then the equations can be written in the
following form:
• Exponential Growth:
• Exponential Decay:

Examples
Complete the table by identifying the initial value, a, whether the function represents
exponential growth or decay, the growth or decay rate, r, or the equation, .

Problem Equation Initial Value Growth or Decay Rate (as a %)

Enter the initial value. Enter growth or decay. Enter the rate.

1.

Enter the initial value. Enter growth or decay. Enter the rate.

2.

Enter the equation.

3. 9.2 Growth 6.2%

Enter the equation.

4. 81 Decay 12.5%

200
 Section 4.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Find the appropriate exponential function given the initial value and growth or decay rate.
Write the function in the form

a. Initial value = 481; Growth rate = 11%

b. Initial value = 160; Growth rate = 9%

c. Initial value = 121; Decay rate = 8%

d. Initial value = 184; Decay rate = 50%

201
 Section 4.3.2: Comparing Linear Functions and Exponential Functions
Definitions
Linear Functions
A linear function is a function of the form:

• b = the initial or starting value. (0, b) is the y-intercept

• m = the slope of the line
• If , the function is increasing.
• If , the function is decreasing.
• If , the function is constant (e.g., horizontal line).

Characteristics of Linear Functions

1. The function values increase (or decrease) by the same amount over equal increases of the
inputs.
2. The constant amount of change is determined by the slope, m, from the function
.

Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a function of the form:
, where
• a = the initial or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the base, commonly called the growth factor or decay factor.
• If , the function is increasing and represents exponential growth.
• If , the function is decreasing and represents exponential decay.

Characteristics of Exponential Functions

1. The function values increase (or decrease) by the same percent over equal increases of the
inputs.
2. The percent of change is determined by the base, b, from the function .

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

202
Examples
1. Evaluate each function at the x-values listed in the table below. Then describe how the
function values change as the values of x increase by 1.

Linear Function:

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

Exponential Function:

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

203
 2. Graph each function, then classify the function as increasing or decreasing. Identify the
domain and range for each function.

Linear Function:

Exponential Function:

204
3. Evaluate each function at the x-values listed in the table below. Then describe how the
function values change as the values of x increase by 1.

Linear Function:

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

Exponential Function:

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

205
 4. Graph each function, then classify the function as increasing or decreasing. Identify the
domain and range for each function.

Linear Function:

Exponential Function:

206
 Section 4.3.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Evaluate the function at the x-values listed in the table below. Then describe how the
function values change as the values of x increase by 1.

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

b. Graph the function, then classify the function as increasing or decreasing. Identify the
domain and range for each function.

207
 c. Evaluate the function at the x-values listed in the table below. Then describe how the
function values change as the values of x increase by 1.

x y (x,y)
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-2
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

-1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

0
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

1
Enter the corresponding y value Write the coordinate pair.

d. Graph the function, then classify the function as increasing or decreasing. Identify the
domain and range for each function.

208
 Section 4.3.3: Decomposing Exponential Growth and Decay Equations
Definitions
Exponential Growth: , where
• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the growth factor.
• r = growth rate as a decimal
• Relationship between growth factor, b, and growth rate, r:

Exponential Decay: , where

• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the decay factor.
• r = decay rate as a decimal
• Relationship between decay factor, b, and decay rate, r:

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

209
Examples
Complete the table by identifying the initial value, a, whether the function represents
exponential growth or decay, and the growth or decay rate, r.

Growth or Decay
Problem Equation Growth or Decay Initial Value
Rate (as a %)
Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

1.

Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

2.

Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

3.

Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

4.

Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

5.

Enter growth or decay. Enter the initial value. Enter the rate.

6.

Section 4.3.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Deconstruct each exponential function below. Classify each function as growth or decay, then
identify the initial value and growth or decay rate.

a.

b.

210
 Section 4.3.4: Business Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay
Equations
Definitions
Exponential Growth: , where
• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the growth factor.
• r = growth rate as a decimal
• Relationship between growth factor, b, and growth rate, r:

Exponential Decay: , where

• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the decay factor.
• r = decay rate as a decimal
• Relationship between decay factor, b, and decay rate, r:

Examples
1. The population of India in 2010 was 1.21 billion. The population grows at a rate of 1.44%
per year. Write an exponential function to model the population. Predict the population
in 2025. (Source: wolframalpha.com)

2. The average car depreciation rate is 15% per year. If you purchase a car for $19,000,
what is the approximate value of the care after 8 years? (Source: carsdirect.com)

211
 Section 4.3.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. The population of the world in 1987 was 5 billion and the annual growth rate was
estimated at 2 percent per year. If the world population follows an exponential growth
model, find the projected world population in 1995. Round to the nearest ten million
(e.g., two decimal places).

b. Industrial equipment purchased for $29,800 depreciates at a constant rate of 4% per

year. Determine the approximate value of the equipment 10 years after the original
purchase. Round to the nearest dollar.

212
 4.4 Logarithmic Functions
Section 4.4.1: Introduction to Logarithms
Definitions
Logarithm
A logarithm is defined by the following relationship:
means , where
• a = the logarithm base
• x = the number
• y = the exponent.

The equation is read “y is the power which we raise a to, to get x.”

The expression is read “the logarithm base a, of x.”

Common Logarithm
The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm. This is the log key on your
calculator.

Natural Logarithm
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm. This is the ln key on your calculator.

Euler’s number, e, is an irrational number approximately equal to:

Examples
1. Write each logarithmic equation as an exponential equation.

a.

b.

c.

213
 d.

2. Write each exponential equation as a logarithmic equation.

a.

b.

c.

Section 4.4.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Rewrite the logarithmic equation in exponential form. Assume all constants are positive
and not equal to 1.

b. Rewrite the exponential equation in logarithmic form. Assume all constants are positive
and not equal to 1.

214
 Section 4.4.2: Comparing the Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
Definitions
Logarithm
A logarithm is defined by the following relationship:
means , where
• a = the logarithm base
• x = the number
• y = the exponent.

The equation is read “y is the power which we raise a to, to get x.”

Examples
1. Complete the x-y table for each function below. Then graph both functions on the set of
axes provided on the next page.

Exponential Function:

x y
Enter the corresponding y value

0
Enter the corresponding y value

1
Enter the corresponding y value

2
Enter the corresponding y value

3
Enter the corresponding y value

-1
Enter the corresponding y value

-2

215
 Logarithmic Function:

x y
Enter the corresponding x value

0
Enter the corresponding x value

1
Enter the corresponding x value

2
Enter the corresponding x value

3
Enter the corresponding x value

-1
Enter the corresponding x value

-2

2. Graph both functions on the set of axes provided. Then state the equations of any
asymptotes, the function’s domain, and range.

216
 Section 4.4.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Complete the x-y table for each function below. The graph both functions on the set of axes
provided.
a. Exponential Function:

x y
Enter the corresponding y value

0
Enter the corresponding y value

1
Enter the corresponding y value

2
Enter the corresponding y value

3
Enter the corresponding y value

-1
Enter the corresponding y value

-2

b. Logarithmic Function:

x y
Enter the corresponding x value

0
Enter the corresponding x value

1
Enter the corresponding x value

2
Enter the corresponding x value

3
Enter the corresponding x value

-1
Enter the corresponding x value

-2

217
 c. Graph both functions on the set of axes provided. Then state the equations of any
asymptotes, the function’s domain, and range.

218
 Section 4.4.3: Solving Exponential Equations by Using Logarithms
Definitions
How to Solve Exponential Equation by Using Logarithms
• Isolate the exponential part of the equation. If there are two exponential parts put one on
each side of the equation.
• Take the logarithm of each side of the equation. You can use any logarithm, but most often
we use the natural logarithm (ln) or the common logarithm (log).
• Solve for the variable.
• Check your solutions.

Exponent Property of Logarithms

In some circumstances with logarithms, the exponent may be converted to multiplication. This
property is explained in the following rule:

Examples
Solve the exponential equations. Round to the nearest hundredths, if needed.

1.

2.

3.

219
 4.

Section 4.4.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve the exponential equations. Round to the nearest hundredth, as needed.

a.

b.

c.

220
 4.5 Solving Exponential Equations by Using Technology
(Desmos & TI-84 Calculator)
Section 4.5.1: Solving Exponential Equations by Using Technology
(Desmos & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator & TI-84 Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged to use their preferred technology to
complete this section.

Definitions
How to Solve Exponential Equations by Graphing with Technology
1. Graph the left and right sides of the equation as two separate functions.
2. Use technology to locate intersection point(s) of the two functions.
3. The solutions to the equation are the x-coordinates of the intersection points of the
function on the left side of the equation with the function on the right side of the equation.
If the functions do not intersect, then the equation does not have a real solution.

Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by Sharleen McCarroll. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Solve Exponential Equations by Using Desmos

Examples
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to solve each exponential equation. If necessary, round to
three decimal places. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

1. Solve:

221
 2. Solve:

3. Solve:

222
How to Solve Exponential Equations Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the left and right sides of the equation as two separate functions.
a. In the first cell, enter the left side of the equation as f(x).
b. In the second cell, enter the right side of the equation as g(x).
2. To locate a point of intersection, click (or tap) on the graph near the point of interest.
This should reveal a coordinate point, . (You may need to use the zoom buttons on
the upper right side to adjust the viewing window.)
3. A “solution” to the equation, is the x-coordinate of the intersection point.

Step-by-Step Example

Use Desmos to solve the equation

Open this example in Desmos

Step 1: Enter the left and right sides of the equations as two separate functions.

In the image below shows that each side of the equation above has been entered as a
function. The left side is and the right side is .

Step 2: Locate the point of intersection.

Keys Pressed:

Click or tap on the point of interest.

Result:

In the image below, we can see that the functions intersect at the point
. This means that the solution to the equation is
.

223
224
Option 2: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by Donna Slaughter. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Solve Exponential Equations by Using the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
Use the TI-84 Calculator to solve each exponential equation. If necessary, round to three
decimal places. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

1. Solve:

2. Solve:

3. Solve:

225
How to Solve an Exponential Equation with the TI-84 Calculator. (Graphing / Intersection
Method)
1. Enter both sides of the equation into the graphing menu as two separate functions.
a. Press the Y= key.
b. Enter the left side of the equation into Y1.
c. Enter the right side of the equation into Y2.
2. View the graph.
a. Press the ZOOM key.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll down to option 6: ZoomStandard or option
3:ZoomOut.
c. Press Enter.
d. If necessary, use the WINDOW key to modify the viewing window.
3. Using the Intersection Function to locate each intercept
a. Press 2nd, then TRACE, to access the CALC Menu.
b. Select Option 5 for Intersect.
c. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor close to the intersection point you wish
to find.
d. Press ENTER THREE (3) times to identify the first curve, second curve, and point
of intersection.
e. Repeat step 3 to find additional points of intersection.
4. The solutions to the equation are the x-coordinates of the intersection points. If no
intersection point exists, then the equation does not have a solution.

Step-by-Step Example

Solve the equation using the TI-84 calculator.

Step 1: Enter the left and right sides of the equation into Y1 and Y2, respectively, in the
graphing menu
Result:

226
Step 2: View the graph
Keys Pressed:
Use the Zoom menu, option 6: Zoom Standard

Results:

Notice, in the image above, we cannot see the entire graph. Use the ZOOM menu,
Option 3 to Zoom out.

Keys Pressed:
Use the Zoom menu, option 3: Zoom Out. Then press enter.

Results:

Now we can see the exponential function (right side of the equation), but we still cannot
see the horizontal line at 50 (left side of the equation). Use the ZOOM menu, Option 3
to Zoom out, again.

Keys Pressed:
Use the Zoom menu, option 3: Zoom Out. Then press enter.

227
 Results:

Now we can see both the exponential function (right side of the equation), and the
horizontal line at 50 (left side of the equation). We are ready to find the intersection
point.

Alternatively, we could press the WINDOW key, then change the YMAX to 55 (or
higher). We need the YMAX to be larger than left side of the equation, 50.

Keys Pressed:
Use the Window menu to set the ymax to 55. Then press GRAPH.

Results:

Step 3: Find the Intersection points, by using the intersection function

Keys Pressed:
Locate the CALC Menu above the trace button, then select option 5: Intersect.

228
 Move the cursor to the location of the intersection point then press enter THREE (3)
times.

Repeat this process for each intercept. (You may need to use the arrow keys to
move the cursor to the second intercept.)

Results:
In the image below, we can see that the functions intersect at the point .

Step 4: Identify the solution to the equation.

The solution to the equation is the x-coordinate of the intersection point of the two
functions. Since the functions intersect at the point , this means that the
solution to the equation is .

229
 Section 4.5.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Solve the exponential equations by using technology. Round to the nearest hundredths, if
needed.

a.

b.

c.

230
 Section 4.5.2: Solving Exponential Growth Problems by Using
Technology (Desmos & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator & TI-84 Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the free online graphing calculator,
Desmos and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged to use their preferred technology to
complete this section.

Definitions
Exponential Growth: , where
• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the growth factor.
• r = growth rate as a decimal
• Relationship between growth factor, b, and growth rate, r:

How to Solve Exponential Growth Problems by Using Technology

1. Translate the problem into an exponential equation.
2. Solve the equation by graphing with technology.
a. Graph the left and right sides of the equation as two separate functions.
b. Use technology to locate intersection point(s) of the two functions.
c. The solutions to the equation are the x-coordinates of the intersection points of the
function on the left side of the equation with the function on the right side of the
equation. If the functions do not intersect, then the equation does not have a real
solution.
3. Restate the solution using the context of the problem.

Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator or the
TI-84 calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s). The
problems in the videos are the same.
How to Solve Exponential Growth Problems by Using Desmos.
How to Solve Exponential Growth Problems by Using the TI-84 Calculator.

231
Examples
Jolene invested $13,200 in a savings account that paid 7.5% interest compounded annually. The
function used to represent this investment is , where A is the accrued
value of the savings account and t is the length of the investment in years. Use the function to
answer the following questions.

1. Determine how much money Jolene will have after 12 years. Round your answers to two
decimal places, or the nearest cent.

2. Determine how long it will take for Jolene to have $69,657.62 accrued. Round your
answer to the nearest year.

Section 4.5.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The rabbit population at the city park increases by 4% per year. There are initially 200 rabbits in
the city park.

a. Write an exponential function for the population of rabbits, y, in terms of years, t.

b. Find the rabbit population after 20 years. Round to the nearest whole number.

c. How long will it take the rabbit population to reach 744? Round to the nearest tenth.

232
Section 4.5.3: Solving Exponential Decay Problems by Using Technology
(Desmos & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator & TI-84 Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the free online graphing calculator,
Desmos and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged to use their preferred technology to
complete this section.

Definitions
Exponential Decay: , where
• a = the initial amount or starting value. (0, a) is the y-intercept
• b = the decay factor.
• r = decay rate as a decimal
• Relationship between decay factor, b, and decay rate, r:

How to Solve Exponential Growth Problems by Using Technology

1. Translate the problem into an exponential equation.
2. Solve the equation by graphing with technology.
a. Graph the left and right sides of the equation as two separate functions.
b. Use technology to locate intersection point(s) of the two functions.
c. The solutions to the equation are the x-coordinates of the intersection points of the
function on the left side of the equation with the function on the right side of the
equation. If the functions do not intersect, then the equation does not have a real
solution.
3. Restate the solution using the context of the problem.

Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos graphing calculator or the
TI-84 calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s). The
problems in the videos are the same.
How to Solve Exponential Decay Problems by Using Desmos.
How to Solve Exponential Decay Problems by Using the TI-84 Calculator.

233
Examples
Girth, a professional wrestler, went on a very strict liquid diet for 26 weeks to lose weight.
When he began the diet, he weighed in at a healthy 270 pounds and during the diet, he
consistently lost 1.3% of his body weight each week. His weight loss can be modeled by the
function , where W is his weight in pounds and t is the time in weeks that
he has been on the diet. Use the function to answer the following questions.

1. Determine how much Girth weighed after 5 weeks. Round your answers to the nearest
tenth of a pound.

2. Determine how long it took for Girth to weigh 197.23 pounds. Round your answer to the
nearest whole number, or week.

Section 4.5.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Since 2001, the number of fish in Lake Beckett has been decreasing at a rate of 1.9% per year.
In 2001, the population of fish was estimated to be 131 million.

a. Write an exponential function, P(t), for the population of fish, P (in millions), t years
after 2001.

b. Determine the number of fish in Lake Beckett in 2008. Round your answer to two
decimal places.

c. Determine in what year the population of fish will be half the amount it was in 2001.
Round to the nearest year.

234
This page was intentionally left blank.

235
 Unit 5: Savings and Compound Interest4
Unit 5 Outline
5.1: Simple Interest
• Section 5.1.1: The Simple Interest Formula
• Section 5.1.2: Creating a Simple Interest Table
• Section 5.1.3: Applications of Simple Interest

5.2: Compound Interest

• Section 5.2.1: Creating a Compound Interest Table
• Section 5.2.2: Comparing Simple Interest and Compound Interest
• Section 5.2.3: Introduction to the TVM Solver
• Section 5.2.4: Applications of Compound Interest

5.3: Annual Percentage Yield (APY)

• Section 5.3.1: Introduction to Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
• Section 5.3.2: Applications of Annual Percentage Yield – Compounded Monthly
• Section 5.3.3: Applications of Annual Percentage Yield – Compounded Quarterly

4 This unit includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2017, under a Creative Commons
4.0 CC-By-SA license.

236
This page intentionally left blank.

237
 5.1 Simple Interest
Section 5.1.1: The Simple Interest Formula
Definitions
Simple Interest Formulas
There are two formulas that we use when studying simple interest:
To calculate the Interest, I, earned on an account with simple interest:

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with simple interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formulas above refer to commonly used terms (below) when discussing
concepts of finance, including simple and compound interest.

Principal, P or Po
The principal is the starting amount in an account. The principal may be referred to in a variety
of ways including initial investment starting balance, present value, or initial loan amount.

Interest, I
The interest represents a change in money. In its simplest form, interest is calculated as a
percentage of the principal. For example, if you borrowed $100 from a friend and agree to
repay it with 5% interest, then the amount of interest you would pay would just be 5% of 100:
$100(0.05) = $5. The total amount you would repay would be $105, the original principal plus
the interest.

Amount, A
The amount, A, represents the end amount. The final amount includes the principal and the
interest accrued. For example, if you borrowed $100 from a friend and agree to repay it with
5% interest, the total amount you would repay would be $105, the original principal plus the
interest.

Annual Percentage Rate (APR), r

Interest rates are usually given as an annual percentage rate (APR) – the total amount of
interest that will be paid in the year. If the interest is paid (or compounded) in smaller
increments, the APR will be divided up. For example, a 6% APR paid monthly would be divided
into twelve 0.5% payments. A 4% annual rate paid quarterly would be divided into four 1%
payments. In this section, we will focus on simple interest, where interest is only paid once per
year.

Time, t
Time represents the length of time the money is earning interest. The units of measurement for
time (e.g., years, months, etc.) should match the time period of the interest rate.

238
Examples
1. If you invest $3,500 in a savings account that pays 4% simple interest, how much
interest will you earn after 3 years? What will the new balance be?

2. You borrow $6,000 from a loan shark. If you will owe $7,200 in 18 months, what would
be the simple interest rate?

Section 5.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Javier invests $7,000 at 7% simple interest for 41 years. Use this information to complete the
following problems. Round your answers to the nearest cent.

a. How much interest is earned over the 41-year period?

b. How much is in the account at the end of the 41-year period?

239
 Section 5.1.2: Creating a Simple Interest Table
Definitions
Simple Interest
For accounts that accrue simple interest, the interest is paid once per time period (usually one
year). Simple interest is only calculated off the principal amount.

Simple Interest Formulas

There are two formulas that we use when studying simple interest:
To calculate the Interest, I, earned on an account with simple interest:

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with simple interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formulas are defined as follows:

• I is the amount of interest, in dollars.
• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

240
Examples
Creating a simple interest table helps develop our intuition for how simple interest works.
Remember: In simple interest, the amount of interest earned each year is calculated off the
principal investment only.

1. Suppose you invest $8,500 in an account that earns 7% simple interest annually. Use
this information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

Year Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance

1 $8500 $595 $9095

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2 $9095
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned.
3 $10285
Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4 $10285
Enter the starting balance. Enter the ending balance.
5 $595

Section 5.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Suppose you invest $3,500 in an account that earns 6% simple interest annually. Use
this information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

Year Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $3500
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned.
3 $4130
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5

241
 Section 5.1.3: Applications of Simple Interest
Definitions
Simple Interest
For accounts that accrue simple interest, the interest is paid once per time period, typically a
year. Simple interest is only calculated off the principal investment.

Simple Interest Formulas

There are two formulas that we use when studying simple interest:
To calculate the Interest, I, earned on an account with simple interest:

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with simple interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formulas are defined as follows:

• I is the amount of interest, in dollars.
• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

How to Solve Simple Interest Problems using the Formulas

1. Identify the values of the known variable in the problem, along with the unknown
quantities.
2. Substitute the known values into the formula, then solve for the unknown variable.

Examples
1. How much would you need to deposit in an account now in order to have $4000 in the
account in 10 years? Assume that the account earns 6% simple interest per year. Round
your answer to the nearest cent.

242
 Section 5.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. A retiree invests $4000 in a savings plan that pays 4% per year. What will the account
balance be at the end of the first year?

b. If you would like to make $1053 in 4 years, how much would you have to deposit in an
account that pays simple interest of 6%?

243
 5.2 Compound Interest
Section 5.2.1: Creating a Compound Interest Table
Definitions
Compound Interest
In an account that earns compound interest, any interest we earn is automatically added to the
balance and we earn interest on that interest in future years. Compound interest is calculated
off the principal amount and all prior interest payments. Interest may be compounded, or paid,
annually, semi-annually, quarterly, weekly, monthly, and even daily.

Compound Interest Formulas

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with compound interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

Number of Compounding periods, n

In a compound interest account, the annual percentage rate (APR) is paid in small increments
throughout the year. For example, suppose you invest your money into an account that pays
5% annual percentage rate compounded monthly. You are not earning 5% interest every
month. Instead, you are earning , or 0.417% interest each month. The table
below illustrates the different values for number of compound periods in one year.

N – Number of
Compounding Period
Compounding Periods
Annually 1
Semi-annually 2
Quarterly 4
Monthly 12
Weekly 52
Daily 365

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

244
Examples
With compound interest, the amount of interest earned each period is calculated off the
principal investment and all prior interest payments.

1. Suppose you invest $5,000 in an account that earns an annual interest rate of 6%
compound monthly (0.5% each month). No additional deposits are made. Use this
information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

Month Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $5000
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
3
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5

Section 5.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Suppose you invest $3,800 in an account that earns an annual interest rate of 12%
compound monthly (1% each month). No additional deposits are made. Use this
information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

Month Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $3800
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned.
3 $3915.14
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4
Enter the starting balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5

245
 Section 5.2.2: Comparing Simple Interest to Compound Interest
Definitions
Simple Interest Versus Compound Interest
Simple Interest: One deposit (principal) with interest based off the principal amount only.
Interest is paid only once.

Compound Interest: One deposit (principal) with interest based off the principal amount and all
prior interest payments. Interest may be compounded several times through the year.

Simple Interest Formulas

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with simple interest, at time, t:

Compound Interest Formulas

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with compound interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

Examples
1. If $21,000 is invested in an account for 20 years. Find the value of the investment at the
end of 20 years if the interest is:
a. 8% simple interest per year

b. 8% interested compounded annually

c. 8% interest compounded quarterly

246
 d. 8% interest compounded monthly

Section 5.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Suppose $1,500 is invested in an account for 10 years. Find the amount in the account after 10
years if the interest is:

a. 5.8% compounded annually

b. 5.8% compounded semiannually

c. 5.8% compounded quarterly

d. 5.8% compounded monthly

e. 5.8% compounded daily (ignore leap year)

247
 Section 5.2.3: Introduction to the Time-Value-Money (TVM) Solver
Definitions
Time-Value-Money (TVM) Solver
The Time-Value-Money, or TVM, Solver is an application that can be used to solve a variety of
finance problems including compound interest, annuities, and loans.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Locating the TVM Solver on the TI-84 Calculator

Newer versions of the TI-84 Calculator include the TVM solver as part of the pre-loaded
applications. Follow the steps below to locate the TVM solver.
1. Press the APPS button.
2. Choose option 1: Finance.
3. Choose option 1: TVM Solver.

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different then the variables use when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n
is the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year.
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year.
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

Important Notes about the TVM Solver Variables

• For most applications in this course C/Y will always be the same as P/Y. If you change P/Y,
the TVM solver will automatically change C/Y.
• Cash outflow (paying money out) is considered a negative. Enter these as negative values.
With the TI-84 calculator, be sure to use the negative key (-) at the bottom of the calculator.
• Cash inflow (money coming in) is considered a positive value. Enter these as positive values.
• Deposits and loan payments are negative because they represent an amount you must pay
out every month.

248
How to Use the TVM Solver Calculator
1. Open the TVM Solver Application.
2. Enter the values of each known variable into the TVM solver. Skip the unknown variable
that you will be solving for.
3. Solve for the unknown variable.
a. For the TI-84 Calculator: Use the arrow keys to navigate back to the unknown
variable. Press the ALPHA key, then ENTER to solve for the unknown variable.
b. For the TVM solver website: Press the SOLVE button next to the unknown
variable.

TVM Solver Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by Sharleen McCarroll. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TVM solver calculator application
as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Introduction to the TVM Solver

Examples
Use the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the value of the
known variables and the unknown variable.

1. If you invest $3000 in an investment account paying 3% interest compounded quarterly,

how much will the account be worth in 10 years?

Variable Variable Description Value in this problem

Enter the value from the problem.
Total number of payments or
N
compounding periods:
Enter the value from the problem.
Annual Interest Rate (APR): Entered as
I%
a percent % not a decimal
Enter the value from the problem.
Present Value: Principal or starting
PV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
Payment Amount: Equal and regular
PMT
payments
Enter the value from the problem.
Future Value: Accumulated or ending
FV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
P/Y Number of Payment Periods per Year
Enter the value from the problem.
C/Y Number of Compound Periods Per Year

PMT Payments at the END of the month. END

249
 2. How much would you need to deposit in an account now in order to have $4,000 in the
account in 10 years? Assume the account earns 3% interest compounded monthly.

Variable Variable Description Value in this problem

Enter the value from the problem.
Total number of payments or
N
compounding periods:
Enter the value from the problem.
Annual Interest Rate (APR): Entered as
I%
a percent % not a decimal
Enter the value from the problem.
Present Value: Principal or starting
PV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
Payment Amount: Equal and regular
PMT
payments
Enter the value from the problem.
Future Value: Accumulated or ending
FV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
P/Y Number of Payment Periods per Year
Enter the value from the problem.
C/Y Number of Compound Periods Per Year

PMT Payments at the END of the month. END

250
 Section 5.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the value of the
known variables and the unknown variable.

a. If you invest $1900 in an investment account paying 5% interest compounded quarterly,

how much money will be in the account after 6 years?

Variable Variable Description Value in this problem

Enter the value from the problem.
Total number of payments or
N
compounding periods:
Enter the value from the problem.
Annual Interest Rate (APR): Entered as
I%
a percent % not a decimal
Enter the value from the problem.
Present Value: Principal or starting
PV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
Payment Amount: Equal and regular
PMT
payments
Enter the value from the problem.
Future Value: Accumulated or ending
FV
amount
Enter the value from the problem.
P/Y Number of Payment Periods per Year
Enter the value from the problem.
C/Y Number of Compound Periods Per Year

PMT Payments at the END of the month. END

251
 Section 5.2.4: Business Applications of Compound Interest
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Compound Interest Formula
To calculate the amount, A, in the account with compound interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different then the variables use when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

252
Option 1: Using the Compound Interest Formulas
The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the formulas and algebra.

Examples
Use the compound interest formula to solve the following problems. Start by first identifying
the value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Use algebra to solve the problem.
Round your answers to two decimal places as needed.

1. A bank has a savings account that pays 4.1% interest compounded quarterly. If you want
to have $5,000 in 8 years, how much would you need to deposit now?

2. How much would you need to deposit now if the bank paid 4.1% interest compounded
monthly?

253
Option 2: Using the TVM Solver Application
The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the TVM Solver Application.

Examples
Use the TVM Solver to solve the following problems. Start by first identifying the value of the
known variables and the unknown variable. Round your answers to two decimal places as
needed.

1. How much would you need to deposit in an account now to have $8000 in the account
in 5 years? Assume the account earns 6.5% interest compounded monthly.

Section 5.2.4 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. How much would you need to deposit in an account in order to have $3,000 in the
account in 5 years? Assume the account earns 3% interest compounded quarterly.

254
 5.3 Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
Section 5.3.1: Introduction to Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
Definitions
Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
The annual percentage yield (APY) is the actual percent a quantity increases by in one year.

Annual Percentage Yield as a Percentage Change

Once way to calculate the annual percentage yield is to find the percent change in the value of
a quantity in one year.

Annual Percentage Yield Formula

To calculate the annual percentage yield, APY:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).

Examples
1. Is 12% annual interest the same as 1% interest each month? To answer this question,
compare the following two investments:

a. Suppose we invest $100 in an account that pays 12% interest annually. How
much would we have at the end of the first year?

b. Suppose we invest $100 in an account that pays 12% interest compounded

monthly. How much would we have at the end of the first year?

c. Is 12% annual interest the same as 1% interest per month?

255
 2. If 12% once is not the same as 1% 12 times, what percentage is the total percentage
paid over a year for 1% paid 12 times? (Hint: Calculate the percentage change.)

3. Suppose we invest $4000 at 5% interest compound monthly for two years. Determine
the annual percentage yield, or APY.

Section 5.3.1 You Try

Complete the following problem. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Sarah invests $1900 in an investment account paying 5% interest compounded monthly

for 6 years. Calculate the annual percentage yield for this investment account. Round
the answer to the nearest thousandth of a percent.

256
 Section 5.3.2: Applications of Annual Percentage Yield (APY) –
Compounded Monthly
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
The annual percentage yield (APY) is the actual percent a quantity increases by in one year.

Annual Percentage Yield Formula

To calculate the annual percentage yield, APY:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different then the variables use when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

257
Examples
Use the annual percentage yield formula or the TVM solver to complete the following
problems.

1. A bank features a savings account that has an annual percentage rate of 5.9% with
interest compounded monthly. Code deposits $5,500 into the account.

a. How much money will Cody have in the account in 1 year? Round the answer to
the nearest penny.

b. What is the annual percentage yield (APY) for the savings account? Round the
answer to the nearest hundredth of a percent.

Section 5.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

A bank features a savings account that has an annual percentage rate of 4.3% with interest
compounded monthly. Whitney deposits $5000 into the account.

a. How much money will Whitney have in the account in one year?

b. What is the annual percentage yield (APY) for the savings account?

258
 Section 5.3.3: Applications of Annual Percentage Yield (APY) –
Compounded Quarterly
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Annual Percentage Yield (APY)
The annual percentage yield (APY) is the actual percent a quantity increases by in one year.

Annual Percentage Yield Formula

To calculate the annual percentage yield, APY:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different then the variables use when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

259
Examples
Use the annual percentage yield formula or the TVM solver to complete the following
problems.

1. A bank features a savings account that has an annual percentage rate of 4.7% with
interest compounded quarterly. Marie deposits $4,500 into the account.

a. How much money will Marie have in the account in 1 year? Round the answer to
the nearest penny.

b. What is the annual percentage yield (APY) for the savings account? Round the
answer to the nearest hundredth of a percent.

Section 5.3.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

A bank features a savings account that has an annual percentage rate of 2.5% with interest
compounded quarterly. Caroline deposits $11,000 into the account.

a. What is the annual percentage yield (APY) for the savings account?

260
This page was intentionally left blank.

261
 Unit 6: Annuities and Loans5
Unit 6 Outline
6.1: Savings Annuities
• Section 6.1.1: Creating a Savings Annuity Table
• Section 6.1.2: Introduction to Annuities
• Section 6.1.3: Multistage Finance Applications - Savings Annuities and Compound
Interest
• Section 6.1.4: Finance Applications - Determining Monthly Deposit Needed to Produce
Future Value

6.2: Payout Annuities

• Section 6.2.1: Introduction to Payout Annuities
• Section 6.2.2: Finance Applications –Determining Monthly Payment (or Withdrawal) of a
Payout Annuity
• Section 6.2.3: Finance Applications – Determining Present Value (or Initial Investment)
of a Payout Annuity
• Section 6.2.4: Multistage Finance Application – Payout Annuities and Savings Annuities

6.3: Loans
• Section 6.3.1: Introduction to Loans and a Loan Table
• Section 6.3.2: Finance Applications - Maximum Car Loan
• Section 6.3.3: Finance Applications – Determine Monthly Car Payment for a Loan
• Section 6.3.4: Finance Applications – Remaining Car Loan Balance

6.4: Mortgages
• Section 6.4.1: Finance Applications - Maximum Home Loan, Given a Monthly Payment
• Section 6.4.2: Finance Applications – Comparing Mortgage Loans at Different Interest
Rates
• Section 6.4.3: Finance Applications – Remaining Mortgage Balance

5 This unit includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2017, under a Creative Commons
4.0 CC-By-SA license.

262
This page was intentionally left blank.

263
 6.1 Savings Annuities
Section 6.1.1: Savings Annuity Table
Definitions
Savings Annuity
A savings annuity is a compound interest account that allows regular, equal deposits. We
assume that the deposits are made with the same frequency as the compounding periods,
unless otherwise stated.

Comparing Accounts
The difference between the types of savings is determined by two things:
1. The number of deposits that are made into the account.
2. The number of times interest is compounded in a year.

Different Types of Savings Accounts

• Simple Interest – One deposit into an account where interest is paid once per year.
• Compound Interest – One deposit into an account where interest is compounded many
times per year.
• Savings Annuities – Many deposits into an account where interest is compounded many
times per year.

A savings annuity is like a compound interest account in that interest is compounded several
times per year. However, a savings annuity also allows additional contributions, or deposits,
into the account on a regular basis. Most retirement plans like a 401k or an IRA are examples of
savings annuities. Before we look at the annuity formula, we will build our intuition for how an
annuity works by looking at a savings account that earns compound interest with regular
deposits.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

264
Examples

1. Suppose you invest $5000 in an account with an annual interest rate of 6% compounded
monthly (e.g., 0.5% each month). At the end of each month, you deposit $175 into the
account. Use this information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as
needed.

0.5% Interest on Monthly

Month Prior Balance Ending Balance
Prior Balance Deposit

0 n/a n/a n/a $5000

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $5000 $175
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2 $175
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
3 $175
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4 $175
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5 $175

265
 Section 6.1.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Suppose you invest $2400 in an account with an annual interest rate of 6% compounded
monthly (e.g., 0.5% each month). At the end of each month, you deposit $150 into the
account. Use this information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as
needed.

0.5% Interest on Monthly

Month Prior Balance Ending Balance
Prior Balance Deposit

0 n/a n/a n/a $2400

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $2400 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
3 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4 $150

266
 Section 6.1.2: Introduction to Savings Annuities
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Annuity
An annuity is a sequence of equal payments made at equal time intervals. A 401k or an IRA are
examples of an annuity.

Value of an Annuity
The value of an annuity is the sum of all the deposits with all the interest earned.

Different Types of Annuities

• Ordinary annuity – when the payments are made at the end of each period.
• Annuity-due – when the payments are made at the beginning of each period.
In this course, we will focus on ordinary annuities.

Saving Annuity Formula

To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measure in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• A is the value of the annuity.

Note: If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number
of compounds in a year as there are deposits in a year.

267
TVM Solver Variables
Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different then the variables use when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

Examples
Use the annuity formula or the TVM solver to complete the following problems.

1. At age 30 you deposit $150 at the end of each month into an IRA that pays 4% interest
compounded monthly. At age 65, what will the value of the annuity be? How much
interest did you earn?

2. Repeat the previous problem, but this time suppose you wait to start contributing to
your IRA at age 40. At age 40 you deposit $150 at the end of each month into an IRA
that pays 4% interest compounded monthly. At age 65, what will the value of the
annuity be? How much interest did you earn?

268
 3. Compare the amount of money saved and interest earned in the IRA when you start
saving at age 30 compared to age 40.

Section 6.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

You deposit $100 each month into an account earning 4% interest compounded monthly.

a. How much money will you have in the account in 20 years?

b. How much total money will you put into the account?

c. How much total interest will you earn?

269
 Section 6.1.3: Multistage Finance Applications – Savings Annuities and
Compound Interest
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Saving Annuity Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• A is the value of the annuity.

Note: If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number
of compounds in a year as there are deposits in a year.

Compound Interest Formulas

To calculate the amount, A, in the account with compound interest, at time, t:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• A is the balance in the account after t years.
• Po is the balance in the account at the beginning (e.g., starting amount or principal).
• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year (see below).
• t is the number of years we plan to leave the money in the account.

270
TVM Solver Variables
Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

Examples
Use the formulas or the TVM solver to complete the following problems.

1. Suppose you invest $160 a month for 8 years into an account earning 5% interest
compounded monthly. After 8 years, you stop making deposits into the account and
leave the money in the account for another 10 years. How much money will you have in
the end?

a. Determine the account balance after 8 years.

b. Determine the account balance after 18 years.

c. Determine the total interest earned.

271
 Section 6.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. Suppose you invest $140 a month for 6 years into an account earning 8% interest
compounded monthly. After 6 years, you stop making deposits into the account and
leave the money in the account for another 26 years. How much money will you have in
the end?

272
 Section 6.1.4: Finance Applications – Determine the Regular Deposits
Needed to Produce a Future Value
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Saving Annuity Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measure in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• A is the value of the annuity.

Note: If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number
of compounds in a year as there are deposits in a year.

Important Note About Rounding

When you use the formula to solve for the payment value, PMT, do not round the decimals
until you have the final answer. Rounding the decimals during the intermediate steps will
throw off the value of the final answer.

273
TVM Solver Variables
Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

Examples
Use the formulas or the TVM solver to complete the following problems.

1. Suppose you want to have $500,000 for retirement in 30 years. Your retirement account
earns 4% interest compounded monthly.

a. How much would you need to deposit in the account each month?

b. How much interest would you earn over the 30 years?

274
 c. If you wait and only have 20 years to try to reach the same financial goal, what
would you need to deposit each month?

d. How much interest would you earn over the 20 years?

Section 6.1.4 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

Suppose you want to have $300,000 for retirement in 20 years. Your retirement account earns
7% interest compounded monthly.

a. How much would you need to deposit in the account each month?

b. How much interest will you earn over the 20-year period?

275
 6.2 Payout Annuities
Section 6.2.1: Introduction to Payout Annuities
Definitions
Payout Annuities
With a payout annuity, you start with money in the account, and pull money out of the account
on a regular basis. Any remaining money in the account earns interest. After a fixed amount of
time, the account will end up empty.

Payout annuities are typically used after retirement. Perhaps you have saved $500,000 for
retirement and want to take money out of the account each month to live on. You want the
money to last you 20 years.

Payout Annuity Formula

To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the starting amount or
principal).
Note: If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number
of compounds in a year as there are withdrawals in a year.

Important Note About Rounding

When you use the formula to solve for the payment value, PMT, do not round the decimals
until you have the final answer. Rounding the decimals during the intermediate steps will
throw off the value of the final answer.

276
Examples
Use the formula to complete the following problems.

1. After retiring you want to be able to withdraw $1,800 every month for a total of 20
years. If your retirement account earns 3% interest, how much will you need in your
account before you retire?

2. You have $300,000 saved for retirement. Your account earns 4% interest. How much will
you be able to pull out each month if you want to be able to take withdrawals for 15
years?

277
 Section 6.2.2: Finance Applications – Determine Monthly Payment (or
Withdrawal) from a Payout Annuity
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Payout Annuity Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measure in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the starting amount or
principal).

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month payments.

278
Option 1: Using the Formulas
The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the formulas.

Examples
Use the payout annuity formula to complete the following problems.

1. You have $375,000 saved for retirement. Your retirement account earns 4% interest
compounded monthly. How much will you be able to withdraw each month, if you want
to be able to take withdrawals for 20 years?

Option 2: Using the TVM Solver Application

The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the TVM Solver Application.

Examples
Use the TVM Solver to solve the following problems. Start by first identifying the value of the
known variables and the unknown variable. Round your answers to two decimal places as
needed.

1. You have $300,000 saved for retirement. Your retirement account earns 8% interest
compounded monthly. How much will you be able to withdraw each month, if you want
to be able to take withdrawals for 20 years?

279
 Section 6.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problems. Start by first identifying
the value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. You have $300,000 saved for retirement. Your retirement account earns 4% interest
compounded monthly. How much will you be able to withdraw each month, if you want
to be able to take withdrawals for 25 years?

b. You have $400,000 saved for retirement. Your retirement account earns 5% interest
compounded monthly. How much will you be able to withdraw each month, if you want
to be able to take withdrawals for 20 years?

280
Section 6.2.3: Finance Applications – Determine Present Value (or Initial
Investment) from a Payout Annuity
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Payout Annuity Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the starting amount or
principal).

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month payments.

281
Option 1: Using the Formulas
The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the formulas.

Examples
Use the payout annuity formula to complete the following problems.

1. You want to be able to withdraw $45,000 each year for 30 years from your annuity. Your
account earns 4% interest.

a. How much do you need in your account at the beginning?

b. How much total money will you pull out of the account?

c. How much of that money is interest?

282
Option 2: Using the TVM Solver Application
The example problems in this section will demonstrate how to solve finance application
problems using the TVM Solver Application.

Examples
Use the TVM Solver to complete the following problems. Start by first identifying the value of
the known variables and the unknown variable. Round your answers to two decimal places as
needed.

1. You want to be able to withdraw $35,000 each year for 15 years. Your account earns 5%
interest.

a. How much do you need in your account at the beginning?

b. How much total money will you pull out of the account?

c. How much of that money is interest?

283
 Section 6.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

You want to be able to withdraw $45,000 each year for 25 years. Your account earns 6%
interest.

a. How much do you need in your account at the beginning?

b. How much total money will you pull out of the account?

c. How much of that money is interest?

284
 Section 6.2.4: Multistage Finance Applications – Savings Annuity and
Payout Annuity
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Saving Annuity Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

Payout Annuity Formula

To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formulas are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment (or deposit) amount. (The deposits must be the same each
period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the starting amount or
principal).
• A is the value of the annuity.
Note: If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number
of compounds in a year as there are withdrawals in a year.

Important Note About Rounding

When you use the formula to solve for the payment value, PMT, do not round the decimals
until you have the final answer. Rounding the decimals during the intermediate steps will
throw off the value of the final answer.

285
TVM Solver Variables
Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month payments.

Examples
Use the formulas or the TVM solver to complete the following problems.

1. You want to be able to withdraw $35,000 a year from your account each year for 15
years after you retire. You expect to retire in 25 years. If your account earns 5%
interest, how much will you need to deposit each year until retirement to achieve your
retirement goals?

286
 Section 6.2.4 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. Baden plans to retire in 22 years. He will make 264 equal monthly contributions to his
retirement account. One month after his last contribution, he will begin the first of 240
equal monthly withdrawals from the account. He expects to withdraw $1,600 per
month. How large must his monthly contribution be to accomplish his goal? Assume
that his account to earn interest at the APR of 5.7% compound monthly through the life
of the account. Round the answer to the nearest cent.

287
 6.3 Loans
Section 6.3.1: Introduction to Loans and the Loan Table
Definitions
Conventional Loans
A conventional loan (or amortized loan) is when regular payments are made to a principal (or
initial loan) amount on a regular schedule (every month, quarter, year, etc.). The loan balance
earns compound interest, which is added to the remaining balance after each payment. Loans
behave like a payout annuity.

The techniques discussed in this section apply to auto loans and mortgages, but not payday
loans, add-on loans or other types of loans where the interest is calculated up front.

Generalizing Conventional Loans

In general, the remaining balance of a loan can be calculated by the following rule:

Comparing Accounts
The difference between the types of savings is determined by two things:
1. The number of deposits that are made into the account.
2. The number of times interest is compounded in a year.

Different Types of Savings Accounts

• Simple Interest – One deposit into an account where interest is paid once per year.
• Compound Interest – One deposit into an account where interest is compounded many
times per year.
• Savings Annuities – Many deposits into an account where interest is compounded many
times per year.
• Payout Annuities – Many withdrawals from an account where interest is compounded
many times per year.
• Loans – Many payments to an account where interest is compounded many times per
year.

Before we look at the loan formula, we will build our intuition for how a loan works by looking
at a loan table.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

288
Examples

1. Suppose you borrow $4,000 at an annual interest rate of 18% compounded monthly
(e.g., 1.5% each month). At the end of each month, you make a $150 payment. Use this
information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

1.5% Interest on Monthly

Month Prior Balance Ending Balance
Prior Balance Deposit

0 n/a n/a n/a $4000

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $4000 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
3 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4 $150
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5 $150

289
 Section 6.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Suppose you borrow $1,000 at an annual interest rate of 12% compounded monthly
(e.g., 1% each month). At the end of each month, you make a $100 payment. Use this
information to complete the table below. Round to the nearest cent as needed.

Interest on Prior Monthly

Month Prior Balance Ending Balance
Balance Deposit

0 n/a n/a n/a $1000

Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
1 $1000 $100
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
2 $100
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
3 $100
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
4 $100
Enter the prior balance. Enter the interest earned. Enter the ending balance.
5 $100

290
 Section 6.3.2: Finance Applications – Determine Maximum Car Loan
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Loan Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or
principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month

291
Examples
1. You can afford a $400 per month car payment. You found a 5-year loan at 4.5% interest.
a. How big of a loan can you afford? Round the answer to the nearest dollar.

b. How much total money will you pay the company? Round the answer to the
nearest dollar.

c. How much of that money is in interest? Round the answer to the nearest dollar.

Section 6.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. You can afford a $450 per month loan payment. You’ve found a 5-year loan at 5%
interest. How big of a loan can you afford? Round the answer to the nearest cent.

292
Section 6.3.3: Finance Applications – Determine Monthly Payment for a
Car Loan
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Loan Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or
principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem. (These
may be slightly different than the variables used when solving finance problems using the
formulas.)
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is
the number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate
as a percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END,
indicating end-of-the-month

293
Examples
1. You want to buy a $27,000 car. The company is offering an 8.2% annual interest rate for
4 years. Round the answers to the nearest cent as needed.

a. What will your monthly payment be?

b. How much interest will you pay over the entire period of the loan?

Section 6.3.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. You want to buy a car. The loan amount will be $21,000. The company is offering 2%
interest rate for 60 months (5 years). What will your monthly payments be? Round the
answer to the nearest cent.

294
 Section 6.3.4: Finance Applications – Remaining Balance for a Car Loan
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Remaining Balance
With loans, it is often desirable to determine what the remaining loan balance will be after
some number of years. To find the remaining balance on a loan, find the difference of the
future value of the original loan amount (or principal) and the future value of an annuity.

To calculate the remain balance of a loan, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem.
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month

295
Examples
1. You take out a 5-year car loan for $15,000 at a rate of 5% with monthly payments of
$284.

a. What is the remaining balance after 2 years?

b. What is the remaining balance after 4 years?

Section 6.3.4 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. You bought a car 2 years ago, taking out a $20,000 loan at 4.6% interest rate for 6 years.
You monthly payments are $318.41. How much will still be owed after making payments
for 2 years?

296
 6.4 Mortgages
Section 6.4.1: Finance Applications – Determine Maximum Mortgage
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Loan Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or
principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem.
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month

297
Examples
1. You can afford $1,500 per month mortgage payment. You have a 30-year fixed loan at
6% interest. Round answers to the nearest dollar.

a. How big of a loan can you afford?

b. How much money will you pay the loan company?

c. How much of that money is interest?

Section 6.4.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

You can afford $1,100 per month mortgage payment. You have a 30-year fixed loan at 8%
interest. Round answers to the nearest dollar.

a. How big of a loan can you afford?

b. How much money will you pay the loan company?

c. How much of that money is interest?

298
 Section 6.4.2: Finance Applications – Comparing Mortgage Rates
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Loan Formula
To calculate the value of an annuity, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or
principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem.
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month

299
Examples
1. You want to buy a $222,000 home. You plan to pay 10% as a down payment, and take
out a 30-year loan for the rest?

a. How much is the loan amount going to be?

b. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 6%?

c. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 7%?

Section 6.4.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

You want to buy a $257,000 home. You plan to pay 10% as a down payment, and take out a 30-
year loan for the rest?

a. How much is the loan amount going to be?

b. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 6%?

c. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 7%?

300
 Section 6.4.3: Finance Applications – Remaining Mortgage Balance
Options: Solve by using the Formulas or the TVM Solver Application.
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using the formulas and the Time-Value-
Money (TVM) Solver Application. Students are encouraged to use their preferred method to
complete this section.

TVM Solver Website

The website linked below is a free TVM solver that students may use to solve finance questions.
TVM Solver Calculator

Definitions
Remaining Balance
With loans, it is often desirable to determine what the remaining loan balance will be after
some number of years. To find the remaining balance on a loan, find the difference of the
future value of the original loan amount (or principal) and the future value of an annuity.

To calculate the remain balance of a loan, use the formula:

The variables in the formula are defined as follows:

• r is the annual interest rate (APR) in decimal form.
• t is the time, usually measured in years.
• n is the number of compounding periods in one year.
• PMT is the regular payment amount. (The payments must be the same each period)
• P is the balance in the account at the beginning (also known as the loan amount or principal)

TVM Solver Variables

Use the variable descriptions below to identify the quantities for each finance problem.
• N is the total number of payments or compounding periods. Typically, this is where n is the
number of compounding periods per year and t is the time in years.
• I% is the annual interest rate (or APR). For the TVM solver, you will need to enter the rate as a
percent, not as a decimal.
• PV is the present value. This is the principal or starting amount.
• PMT is the payment amount. Payments must be equal, regular payments.
• FV is the future value. The future value is the accumulated value or end amount.
• P/Y is the number of payment periods per year. (Same as C/Y.)
• C/Y is the number of compounding periods per year. (Same as P/Y).
• PMT indicates when the payments are made. For this class we will keep PMT set on END, indicating
end-of-the-month

301
Examples
1. You to take out a $295,000 mortgage (home loan). The interest rate on the loan is 5.2%
and the loan is for 30 years. Your monthly payments are $1,619.88.

a. How much will be owed after making payments for 5 years?

b. How much will be owed after making payments for 20 years?

c. How much will be owed after making payments for 28 years?

Section 6.4.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the formulas or the TVM solver to solve the following problem. Start by first identifying the
value of the known variables and the unknown variable. Round to two decimal places as
needed.

a. You to take out a $247,000 mortgage (home loan). The interest rate on the loan is 5.1%
and the loan is for 30 years. Your monthly payments are $1,341.09. How much will be
owed after making payments for 10 years? Round the answer to the nearest dollar.

302
This page has been intentionally left blank.

303
 Unit 7: Sets and Venn Diagrams
Unit 7 Outline
7.1: Introduction to Set Theory
• Section 7.1.1: Introduction to Set Theory
• Section 7.1.2: Finite and Infinite Sets
• Section 7.1.3: Introduction to Subsets

7.2: Venn Diagrams

• Section 7.2.1: Set Operations and Venn Diagrams
• Section 7.2.2: Problem Solving with Venn Diagrams

304
This page was intentionally left blank.

305
 7.1 Introduction to Set Theory
Section 7.1.1: Introduction to Set Theory
Definitions
Set and Elements
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects can be called elements or members of the
set. A set does not list an element more than once since an element is a member of a set or
not.

Notation
Capital letters (such as A, B, C) are normally used to identify a set.
We use the symbols  and  to indicate if an element is in a given set.

Three Ways to Identify a Set

• A written description.
Ex: A is the set of calendar months beginning with the letter J.
• List or Roster Method.
Ex: A = {January, June, July}
• Set-Builder Notation.
Ex: A = {x | x is a calendar month beginning with the letter J. }
Note: We use the curly brackets { , } when using the roster method or set-builder notation.

Empty Set or Null Set

The empty set or null set is the set containing no values. The empty set is denoted { } or .

Cardinality
The cardinality or cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in a set. The cardinality is
usually denoted or . (Note: The cardinality of the empty set is zero.)

Equivalent Sets
Two sets are equivalent if they contain the same number of elements. If two sets are
equivalent, they can be placed in a one-to-one correspondence. If two sets, M and N, are
equivalent, we write: .

Equal Sets
Two sets are equal if they contain the exact same elements. The order of the elements can be
different. If two sets, M and N, are equal, we write: .

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

306
Examples

1. Describe the set of the three colors in the picture below using a written description, the
roster method, and set-builder notation.

a. Written Description

b. Roster Method

c. Set-Builder Notation.

2. The sets below are described in words. Use the roster method or set-builder notation to
provide an alternative representation of each set.

a. B is the set of 5 sided squares.

b. C is the set of even numbers greater than 2 and less than 12.

3. Use the sets below to answer the questions following questions.

a. Identify the cardinality of each set.

b. Identify which sets are equivalent.

307
 4. Determine which sets listed below are equal.

Section 7.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Use the roster method to list the elements in S, the set of even numbers from 2 to 8. Be
sure to use the curly brackets in your answer.

b. Determine the cardinality of each set listed below.

Set

Set

c. Are sets A and B listed above equivalent, equal, or neither? Explain your reasoning.

308
 Section 7.1.2: Finite and Infinite Sets
Definitions
Set and Elements
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects can be called elements or members of the
set. A set does not list an element more than once since an element is a member of a set or
not. Note: We use the curly braces { , } to indicate a set.

Finite Set
A finite set is a set that has finite number of elements. The number of elements in a finite set
can be expressed as a positive integer or zero.

Infinite Set
An infinite set is a set that does not have a finite number of elements.

Examples

1. Suppose that you make a list of items that you want to buy at the grocery store. Your list
consists of the following items: bread, milk, eggs, apples, toothpaste, and soap.

a. How many elements are in the set of items you want to buy at the grocery store?

b. Is this set finite or infinite?

2. Suppose that we want to list all possible real numbers that exist in set form. Do you see
a problem doing this? If so, explain in a sentence?

3. What is another example of an infinite set?

309
 4. Classify each set listed below as a finite set or an infinite set.

a.

b.

c. The set of decimals between 0 and 1.

d. The set of multiples of 2 between 1 and 40.

e. The set of all people in the United States.

f. The set of cities in the state of Arizona.

g. The set of the math classes offered at a Community College.

h. The set of fractions between 0 and 1.

Section 7.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Classify each set listed below as a finite set or an infinite set.

a.

b. The set of words in the Oxford English Dictionary.

c.

d. The set of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.

310
 Section 7.1.3: Introduction to Subsets
Definitions
Subset
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is a subset of B, written: . We
can also say that A is contained in B.

Alternative Notation: - Superset

B is a superset of A, if B includes A, or B contains A.

Note: If A is not a subset of B, we write: A  B

Proper Subset
If A is a subset of B, but A is not equal to B, then we say that A is a proper subset of B written:
.

More on Subsets
• The empty set is a subset of any set.
• The empty set is a proper subset of all sets expect the empty set,
• If set A has n elements, then it has subsets.
• If set A has n elements, then it has proper subsets.

Examples

1. Use the sets below to determine the relationship between the sets.

a. Determine the relationship between sets A and C. Identify if the sets are subsets,
supersets, or not subsets.

b. Determine the relationship between sets B and C. Identify if the sets are subsets,
supersets, or not subsets.

311
 2. Use the sets below to determine the relationship between the sets.

a. Determine the relationship between sets A and B. Identify if the sets are subsets,
proper subsets, or equal.

b. Determine the relationship between sets A and C. Identify if the sets are subsets,
proper subsets, or equal.

3. Determine if the sets below are subsets or proper subsets. Use the appropriate
notation:  or .

a. A is the set of people living in Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

B is the set of people living in Arizona, USA.

b. C is the set of weekdays.

D = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday}

4. Determine the number of subsets and proper subsets for each set listed below.

a.

b.

312
 Section 7.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Let and . Indicate if each statement is true or false.

i.

ii.

b. Let . Determine if A is a subset of the following sets. Write your answer

using the proper symbol: or .

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

313
 7.2 Venn Diagrams
Section 7.2.1: Set Operations and Venn Diagrams
Definitions
Venn Diagram
A Venn Diagram is a visual diagram that shows the relationship of sets with one another. The
set of all elements being considered is call the universal set (U) and is represented by a
rectangle.

Part 1: Definitions

Provide example sets for each definition given below.

The Complement of a Set

The complement of a set A, written A’, is the set of elements in U but not in A.
In set-builder notation, the complement is written:
Note: The complement is also denoted: or

314
Disjoint Sets
Sets A and B are disjoint because they do not share any common elements.

Proper Subset
If B is a proper subset of A, this means B is a subset of A, but . Alternatively, we can write:
if .

Equal Subsets
Two sets are equal, if B is a subset of A and B = A. Alternatively, we can write: if A = B, then
.

315
Intersection of Sets A and B
The intersection of sets A and B is the set of elements in both set A and set B. The intersection
is typically denoted: . In set-builder notation, the intersection is written:

Union of Sets A and B

The union of sets A and B is the set of elements in set A or set B. The union is typically denoted:
. In set-builder notation, the intersection is written: .

Intersection and Unions with the Empty Set.

•
•

316
Part 2: Examples

1. Create a Venn diagram to show the relationship among the sets listed below.

U is the set of whole numbers from 1 to 15.

A is the set of multiples of 3.
B is the set of primes.
C is the set of odd numbers.

2. Given the following Venn diagram, determine each of the following sets.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

317
 Section 7.2.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Let be the universal set. Let sets A and B be subsets of U, where:

and . Determine the following sets. If the set is empty, write { }
or .
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

318
 Section 7.2.2: Problem Solving with Venn Diagrams
Examples

1. 150 college freshmen were interviewed in a survey. The results of the survey are listed
below.
• 85 were registered for a math class.
• 70 were registered for an English class.
• 50 were registered for both math and English.

Create a Venn diagram to display the survey results. Then use the Venn diagram to
answer the following questions.

a. How many signed up for only a math class?

b. How many signed up for only an English class?

c. How many signed up for math or English?

d. How many signed up for neither math or English?

319
 2. 100 college students were interviewed in a second survey. The results of the survey are
listed below.
• 28 took P.E.
• 31 took Biology
• 42 took English
• 9 took P.E. and Biology
• 10 took P.E. and English
• 6 took Biology and English
• 4 took all three subjects

Create a Venn diagram to display the survey results. Then use the Venn diagram to
answer the following questions.

a. How many students took none of the three subjects?

b. How many students took P.E., but not Biology or English?

c. How many students took Biology and P.E., but not English?

320
 Section 7.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Create a Venn diagram to illustrate the details of each problem below. Then use the Venn
diagram to answer the question.

a. In a survey of 77 pet owners, 25 said they own a dog, 36 say they own a cat, and 18 said
they own both a dog and a cat. How many owned neither a cat or a dog?

b. A survey asks: Which online services have you used in the last month: Twitter,
Facebook, or both Twitter and Facebook? The results show 24% of those surveyed have
used Twitter, 66% have used Facebook, and 8% have used both. What percent of the
people surveyed indicated they did not use Twitter or Facebook?

321
 Unit 8: Introduction to Probability
Unit 8 Outline
8.1: Introduction to Probability
• Section 8.1.1: Introduction to Probability
• Section 8.1.2: Examples of Basic Probability Concepts
• Section 8.1.3: Basic Probability Using a Deck of Cards

8.2: Probability Using Tables and Complements

• Section 8.2.1: Basic Probability Using a Contingency Table
• Section 8.2.2: Probability Using the Rule of Complements

8.3: Expected Value

• Section 8.3.1: Introduction to Expected Value
• Section 8.3.2: Expected Value of a Life Insurance Policy

322
This page has been intentionally left blank.

323
 8.1: Introduction to Probability
Section 8.1.1: Introduction to Probability
Definitions
Two Types of Probability:
• Experimental probability is found by conducting experiments.
• Theoretical probability is found using mathematics.

Basic Theoretical Probability

The probability of an event represents the likelihood it will occur. Probability compares the
favorable number of outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Probability can be expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage.

Sample Space and Sample Size

• The list of all possible outcomes in an experiment is often called the sample space.
• The number of possible outcomes is called the sample size, which is often represented
using n.

Probability Distribution
A probability distribution is a table that lists each possible outcome with its associated
probability.

Facts about Probability

• - Probabilities are always values between 0 and 1.
• implies that event E is impossible.
• implies that event E is certain.
• The closer P(E) is to 1, the more likely event E is to occur.
• The closer P(E) is to 0, the less likely event E is to occur.
• The sum of the individual probabilities in a sample space is 1.

Events and Event Spaces

• An event is a set of specific outcomes of an experiment. An event is a subset of the sample
space.
• The event space is the set of outcomes that make up an event.
• Events are often represented using capital letters, such as E, A, B, etc.

324
 Definitions (Continued)
Complement of an Event
The complement of an event contains the outcomes in the sample space that are not in the
event. The complement of an event, E, can be denoted:

Probability of the Complement

If the probability of an event is P(E), then the probability of the complement would be the
probability that the event E would not happen. Furthermore, for any event and its complement
the following is true:

Equivalently we can write:

Examples

1. Consider the experiment of rolling a six-side die.

a. What is the sample space?

b. What is the sample size?

c. What is the probability that you roll a 1?

d. What is the probability that you roll a 2?

e. Construct the probability distribution for this experiment.

325
 2. Let E be the event that you roll an even number from a six-sided die.

a. What is the event space for event E?

b. Use a Venn Diagram to draw a picture of the event E in the sample space.

c. What is the probability of rolling an even number?

d. What is the complement of event E?

e. What is the probability that you do not roll an even number?

f. Construct the probability distribution for event E, rolling an even number.

3. Suppose 13 percent of American’s smoke. If you meet at American at random, what is

the probability they smoke? What is the probability they don’t smoke?

326
 Section 8.1.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Suppose you roll a twenty-sided die. Determine the probability of the following events. Write
your answers as reduced fractions.

a. What is the sample space?

b. What is the probability of rolling a three?

c. What is the probability of rolling an even number?

d. What is the probability of rolling a number that is a multiple of five?

e. What is the probability of rolling a number greater than 12?

f. What is the probability that you do not roll the number 7?

327
 Section 8.1.2: Examples of Basic Probability Concepts
Definitions
Basic Probability
The probability of an event represents the likelihood it will occur. Probability compares the
favorable number of outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Probability can be expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage.

Examples

1. A jar contains 8 red marbles numbered 1 to 8, 6 blue marbles numbered 1 to 6, and 10

green marbles numbered 1 to 10. A marble is drawn at random from the jar. Find the
probability of each event. Write your answers as fractions, decimals rounded to four
places, and percentages rounded to the nearest hundredth of a percent.

a. Find the probability the marble selected is red.

b. Find the probability the marble select is not red.

c. Find the probability the marble has the number 2 written on it.

d. Find the probability the marble is blue with the number 1 written on it.

e. Find the probability the marble has an even number written on it.

328
 Section 8.1.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A ball is drawn randomly from a jar that contains 6 red balls, 9 white balls, and 2 yellow balls.
Find the probability of each event. Write your answer as a reduced fraction.

a. Find the probability of drawing a red ball.

b. Find the probability that the ball dawn is not red.

c. Find the probability that a green ball is drawn.

d. Find the probability a red or yellow ball is drawn.

329
 Section 8.1.3: Basic Probability Concepts Using a Deck of Cards
Definitions
Basic Theoretical Probability
The probability of an event represents the likelihood it will occur. Probability compares the
favorable number of outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Probability can be expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage.

Example set of 52 playing cards6

• 13 of each suit: clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades
• Jacks, Queens, and Kings are known as “face cards.”
• Aces are the cards with an A in the upper left corner.

Suit Ace 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Jack Queen King

Clubs
Diamonds
Hearts
Spades

6 Source: Wikipedia contributors. “Standard 52-card Deck.” Wikipedia, 24 Oct. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_52-card_deck.

330
Examples

1. A card is drawn randomly from a standard 52-card deck.

a. Find the probability the card is a 3.

b. Find the probability the card is a black 8.

c. Find the probability the card drawn is a face card (Jack, Queen, or King).

d. Find the probability the card drawn is not a heart.

Section 8.1.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

You select a card from a well-shuffled standard deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of the
events below. Write your answers as reduced fractions.

a. Find the probability you draw an Ace.

b. Find the probability you draw a heart.

c. Find the probability you draw the ace of hearts.

d. Find the probability that you draw a red card.

331
 8.2: Probability Using Tables and Complements
Section 8.2.1: Basic Probability Using Contingency Tables
Definitions
Contingency Tables or Two-Way Tables
A contingency table displays the results of two variables using a matrix format. The results of
one variable are displayed using the rows, the other using the columns of the tables. The values
“inside” the table illustrate the relationship between variables.

The sample contingency table below7 illustrates how two variables gender (male or female) and
handedness (left or right) are related. The values in the table display the results of a survey of
100 people. Notice that the inside of the table displays specific details such as how many men
in the survey are right-handed, or women are left-handed. The outer numbers display more
general information about the survey, such as how many women were in the survey or how
many respondents indicated they were left-handed.

Gender \ Handedness Right-Handed Left-Handed Total

Male 43 9 52
Female 44 4 48
Total 87 13 100

Basic Theoretical Probability

The probability of an event represents the likelihood it will occur. Probability compares the
favorable number of outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Probability can be expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

7 “Contingency Table.” Wikipedia, 15 Nov. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency table.

332
Examples

A test was given to a group of students. The grades and gender are summarized in the table
below. If one student is chosen at random, determine the following probabilities. Write your
answers as simplified fractions.

Gender \ Grade A B C Total

Male 11 3 8 22
Female 18 13 19 50
Total 29 16 27 72

1. Find the probability the student was male.

2. Find the probability the student was female.

3. Find the probability the student was male and got an “A”.

4. Find the probability the student was female and got a “B.”

5. Find the probability the student got a “C.”

333
 Section 8.2.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The table below summarizes the survey results from a group of 100 individuals. Suppose a
person is selected at random. Use the table below to calculate the following probabilities. Write
the probabilities as a fraction or a decimal rounded to four places.

Gender \ Handedness Right-Handed Left-Handed Total

Male 43 9 52
Female 44 4 48
Total 87 13 100

a. Find the probability the person is right-handed.

b. Find the probability the person is male.

c. Find the probability the person is a male who is right-handed.

d. Find the probability the person is a female who is left-handed.

e. Find the probability the person is left-handed.

334
 Section 8.2.2: Probability Using the Rule of Complements
Definitions
Complement of an Event
The complement of an event contains the outcomes in the sample space that are not in the
event. The complement of an event, E, can be denoted:

Probability of the Complement

If the probability of an event is P(E), then the probability of the complement would be the
probability that the event, E would not occur. Furthermore, for any event and its complement
the following is true:

Equivalently we can write:

Examples

1. One card is selected at random from a deck of playing cards. What is the probability the
card is not a diamond?

2. Twenty (20) ping pong balls are numbered from 1-20. What is the probability of
selecting one ball and it is not greater than 17?

3. A test was given to a group of students. The grades and gender are summarized in the
table below. If one student is chosen at random, find the probability that the student
did not get a “B.” Write your answers as a simplified fraction and a decimal rounded to
four places.

Gender \ Grade A B C Total

Male 11 20 4 35
Female 17 18 19 54
Total 28 38 23 89

335
 Section 8.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. If you randomly select a card from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards, determine the
probability that the card you select is not a 2. Write your answer as a reduced fraction, a
decimal rounded to the nearest thousandth, and a percent rounded to the nearest tenth
of a percent.

b. Your favorite basketball player is a 73% free throw shooter. Find the probability he does
not make his next free throw shot. Write your answer as a percent.

336
 8.3 Expected Value
Section 8.3.1: Introduction to Expected Value
Definitions
Expected Value
The expected value is the average gain or loss of an event if the procedure is repeated many
times. We can compute the expected value by multiplying each outcome by the probability of
the outcome, then adding up the products.

How to Compute the Expected Value

1. Determine all possible outcomes and their corresponding probabilities. Often this is found
in a probability distribution.
2. Multiply each outcome by the probability of the outcome.
3. Add the products calculated in step two.

Examples

1. You purchase 1 raffle ticket for a school fundraiser. The raffle ticket costs $5. The school
is selling 10,000 tickets. One ticket will be randomly drawn, and the winner will receive
$10,000. Assuming all the tickets are sold. Compute the expected value.

a. This event has two outcomes: winning and losing.

i. Calculate the probability of winning.

ii. Calculate the probability of losing.

b. If you win the prize, what is your net gain? What do you really win?

c. If you lose, what do you really lose?

d. Calculate the expected value of buying a raffle ticket. This is often called the
expected gain (or loss).

337
 2. A company estimates that 0.2% of their products will fail after the original warranty
period but within 2 years of the purchase, with a replacement cost of $250. If they offer
a 2-year extended warranty for $28, what is the company’s expected value of each
extended warranty sold?

a. This event has two outcomes: The company must replace the product, or the
company does not have to replace the product.

i. Calculate the probability that the company has to replace the product.

ii. Calculate the probability that the company does not have to replace the
product.

b. What is the company’s cost of replacement?

c. What is the revenue gain from non-replacement?

d. Calculate the expected value of offering an extended warranty.

Section 8.3.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. The PTO is selling raffle tickets to raise money for classroom supplies. A raffle ticket
costs $5. There is one (1) winning ticket out of 160 tickets sold. The winner gets a prize
worth $86 dollars. What is the expected value (or expected gain) if you purchase one
raffle ticket?

338
 Section 8.3.2: Expected Value of a Life Insurance Policy
Definitions
Expected Value
The expected value is the average gain or loss of an event if the procedure is repeated many
times. We can compute the expected value by multiplying each outcome by the probability of
the outcome, then adding up the products.

How to Compute the Expected Value

1. Determine all possible outcomes and their corresponding probabilities. Often this is found
in a probability distribution.
2. Multiply each outcome by the probability of the outcome.
3. Add the products calculated in step two.

Examples

1. A 40-year-old man in the U.S. has a 0.244% risk for dying during the next year. An
insurance company charges $300 per year for a life-insurance policy that pays a
$100,000 death benefit. What is the expected value for the person buying the
insurance? Round your answer to the nearest dollar.

a. This event has two outcomes the man dies this year, or the man lives this year.

i. Calculate the probability of dying.

ii. Calculate the probability of living.

b. If the man dies this year, what is his gain or loss from death?

c. If the man lives this year, what is his gain or loss from living?

d. Calculate the expected value of buying the life insurance policy.

339
 Section 8.3.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. A 40-year-old woman in the U.S. has a 0.237% risk for dying during the next year. An
insurance company charges $250 per year for a life-insurance policy that pays a
$100,000 death benefit. What is the expected value for the person buying the
insurance? Round your answer to the nearest dollar.

340
This page has been intentionally left blank.

341
 Unit 9: Probability & Counting
Unit 9 Outline
9.1: Probability with Independent Events
• Section 9.1.1: Introduction to the Probability of Independent Events
• Section 9.1.2: Examples of Probability with Independent Events

9.2: Conditional Probability

• Section 9.2.1: Introduction to Conditional Probability
• Section 9.2.2: Conditional Probability Using Contingency Tables

9.3: Probability with Dependent Events

• Section 9.3.1: Examples of Probability with Dependent Events
• Section 9.3.2: Probability with and without Replacement Using a Deck of Cards

9.4: “Or” Probability and Mutually Exclusive Events

• Section 9.4.1: Introduction to “OR” Probabilities and Mutually Exclusive Events
• Section 9.4.2: Examples of “OR” Probabilities Using a Deck of Cards
• Section 9.4.3: “OR” Probabilities using Contingency Tables

342
This page has been intentionally left blank.

343
 9.1: Probability with Independent Events
Section 9.1.1: Introduction to the Probability of Independent Events
Definitions
Independent Events
Events A and B are independent events if the probability of Event B occurring is the same,
regardless of whether or not Event A occurs.

When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is the product of the
probabilities of the individual events.

“And” Probability for Independent Events

If events A and B are independent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

where P(A and B) is the probability of events A and B both occurring, P(A) is the probability of
event A occurring and P(B) is the probability of event B occurring.

Examples

1. What are some examples of independent events? What are some examples of
dependent events?

2. You flip a fair coin and pick 1 card out of a hat containing 20 cards numbered from 1 to
20. What is the probability of getting heads on the coin and a number greater than 15
from the hat?

344
 3. You roll a fair die twice. What is the probability of rolling a 3 on the first roll and an even
number on the second roll?

4. A card is pulled from a deck of cars and noted. The card is then replaced, the deck is
shuffled, and the second card is removed and noted. What is the probability that both
cards are face cards? (Face cards are considered Jacks, Queens, or Kings.)

Section 9.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. A coin is tossed twice. Find the probability the coin lands on “tails” both times. Write
the answer as a reduced fraction.

b. A six-sided die is rolled twice. What is the probability of the die landing on 2 on the first
roll and odd number on the second roll? Write the answer as a reduced fraction.

345
 Section 9.1.2: Examples of Probability with Independent Events
Definitions
Independent Events
Independent events are events where an outcome of one event is not affected by the outcome
of the other event.

Dependent Events
Dependent events are events where an outcome of one event is affected by the outcome of the
other event.

“And” Probability for Independent Events

If events A and B are independent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

Examples

1. Alex has a drawer with 12 pairs of socks, 4 of which are white, and another drawer with
14 tee shirts, 8 of which are white.

a. What is the probability of choosing a white pair of socks?

b. What is the probability of choosing a white tee shirt?

c. What is the probability of both the socks and shirt being white?

d. What is the probability of both the socks and shirt not being white?

346
 Section 9.1.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

During a basketball game, Paige is shooting free throws. Paige makes 92% of her free throws.
Assuming that the free throws are independent events, find the percent chance of the events
below. Write the answers as percentages. Do not round the answer.

a. Find the percent chance Paige makes both free throws.

b. Find the percent chance Paige makes the first but misses the second.

c. Find the percent chance Paige misses the first but makes the second.

d. Find the percent chance Paige misses both free throws.

e. What is the sum of these four answers?

347
 9.2: Conditional Probability
Section 9.2.1: Introduction to Conditional Probability
Definitions
Basic Probability
The probability of an event represents the likelihood it will occur. Probability compares the
favorable number of outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Conditional Probability
Conditional probability is the probability of an event, E2 occurring given that event, E1 has
already occurred.

Note that is read “the probability of event E2, given that event E1 has already
occurred.”

Examples

1. You roll one 6-sided die, what is the probability of rolling a 3, given you know the
number is odd?

2. At P-Town High School, the probability that a student takes Computer Programming and
Spanish is 0.15. The probability that a student takes Computer Programming is 0.4.
What is the probability that a student takes Spanish given that the student is taking
Computer Programming?

348
 3. The table below displays the results of a survey completed with adult parents with
children.

College is Too College is College is Too

Survey Results
Expensive Affordable Cheap
Child is in college 55% 4% 0%
Child is not in
30% 8% 3%
college

What is the probability a person thinks college is too expensive, given they have a child
in college?

4. Use a standard deck of playing cards, determine the probability of each event.

a. Two cards are drawn without replacement in succession. What is the probability
that the second card drawn is an ace, given that the first card drawn was an ace?

b. Two cards are drawn without replacement. What is the probability that the
second card is a face card, given the first card is a face card?

Section 9.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A jar contains 8 red marbles, numbered 1 to 8, and 11 blue marbles numbered 1 to 11.

a. A marble is chosen at random. If you’re told the marble is blue, what is the probability
that it has the number 6 on it?

b. The first marble is replaced, then another marble is chosen at random. If you’re told the
marble has the number 1 on it, what is the probability the marble is blue?

349
 Section 9.2.2: Conditional Probability Using Contingency Tables
Definitions
Conditional Probability
Conditional probability is the probability of an event, E2 occurring given that event, E1 has
already occurred.

Note that is read “the probability of event E2, given that event E1 has already
occurred.”

Examples

A test was given to a group of students. The grades and gender are summarized in the table
below. If one student is chosen at random, determine the following probabilities. Write your
answers as simplified fractions and percentages rounded to two decimal places.

Gender \ Grade A B C Total

Male 6 2 20 28
Female 16 7 12 35
Total 22 9 32 63

1. If one student is chosen at random, find the probability the student received a C, given
the student is female.

2. If one student is chosen at random, find the probability the student is female, given the
student received a C.

350
 Section 9.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A home pregnancy test was given to women, then pregnancy was verified through a blood test.
The table below displays the home pregnancy test results compared to the blood test results.

Status \ Test Result Positive Test Negative Test Total

Pregnant 57 8 65

Not Pregnant 6 58 64

Total 63 66 129

Determine the probability of each event listed below. Write the answers as decimals
rounded to the nearest thousandths.

a. Find the probability of receiving a positive test result, given that the person is pregnant.

b. Find the probability of a person is pregnant, given that the person received a positive
test result.

c. Find the probability of receiving a negative test result, given that the person is pregnant.

d. Find the probability of a person is not pregnant, given that the person received a
negative test result.

351
 9.3: Probability with Dependent Events
Section 9.3.1: Probability with Dependent Events
Definitions
Dependent Events
Dependent events are events where an outcome of one event is affected by the outcome of the
other event.

“And” Probability for Dependent Events

If events A and B are dependent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

Independent Events
Independent events are events where an outcome of one event is not affected by the outcome
of the other event.

“And” Probability for Independent Events

If events A and B are independent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

Examples

A math class consists of 20 female student and 16 male students. Two students are selected,
one at a time at random, to participate in a probability experiment. Compute the following
probabilities.

1. A male is selected, then a female.

2. A female is selected, then a male.

3. Two females are selected.

4. Two males are selected.

352
 Section 9.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. Suppose a jar contains 5 red marbles and 18 blue marbles. If you reach in the jar and
pull out 2 marbles at random at the same time, find the probability that both are red.
Write the answer as a reduced fraction.

b. Yara buys a bag of cookies that contains 5 chocolate chip cookies, 4 peanut butter
cookies, 8 sugar cookies, and 4 oatmeal cookies. What is the probability that Yara
reaches in the bag and randomly selects an oatmeal cookie from the bag, eats it, then
reaches back in the bag and randomly selects a chocolate chip cookie? Round the
answer to four decimal places.

353
 Section 9.3.2: Probability with and without Replacement Using a Deck
of Cards
Definitions
Dependent Events
Dependent events are events where an outcome of one event is affected by the outcome of the
other event.

“And” Probability for Dependent Events

If events A and B are dependent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

Independent Events
Independent events are events where an outcome of one event is not affected by the outcome
of the other event.

“And” Probability for Independent Events

If events A and B are independent, then the probability of both A and B occurring is:

Examples

1. Mona draws a diamond from a standard deck of 52 cards. Without replacing the first
card, she then proceeds to draw a second card and gets a heart.

a. Are these events independent?

b. Determine the probability of drawing a diamond and then a heart without

replacement.

2. Rhonda draws a diamond from a standard deck of 52 cards. She returns the diamond to
the deck, then draws a second card. Her second card is a heart.

a. Are these events independent?

b. Determine the probability of drawing a diamond and then a heart with

replacement.

354
 Section 9.3.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Lucy draws a face card (Jack, Queen, or King) from a standard deck of 52 cards. Without
replacing the first card, she then proceeds to draw a second card and gets another face card.

a. Are these events independent?

b. Determine the probability of drawing a face card and then another face card without
replacement.

Linda draws a face card (Jack, Queen, or King) from a standard deck of 52 cards. She returns the
face card to the deck, then draws a second card. Her second card is also a face card.

c. Are these events independent?

d. Determine the probability of drawing a face card and then another face card with
replacement.

355
 9.4: “Or” Probability and Mutually Exclusive Events
Section 9.4.1: Introduction to “OR” Probabilities (Union of Events)
Definitions
The Probability of the Union of Two Events (“OR” Probabilities)
The probability that event E1 or E2 will occur is equal to the probability that E1 will occur plus
the probability that E2 will occur, minus the probability that E1 and E2 both occur.

Mutually Exclusive Events

Two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time. When two
events are mutually exclusive,

Examples

1. The table below displays all possible outcomes when two dice are rolled. (For example,
both dice could land on 1, written (1, 1), or the first could land on 1 and the second on 2,
written (1, 2) etc.). Use the table to determine the probability of each event.

1st Die (Column)

1 2 3 4 5 6
2nd Die (Row)
1 (1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1) (4, 1) (5, 1) (6, 1)
2 (1, 2) (2, 2) (3, 2) (4, 2) (5, 2) (6, 2)
3 (1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5, 3) (6, 3)
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (4, 4) (5, 4) (6, 4)
5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (4, 5) (5, 5) (6, 5)
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (4, 6) (5, 6) (6, 6)

What is the probability the sum is 6 or a pair of odd numbers?

2. Using a standard deck of 52 cards, what is the probability of selecting 1 card that is red
or a face card (Jack, Queen, or King)?

356
 Section 9.4.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use the table on the previous page to determine the probabilities when two dice are rolled at
the same time. Write the answers as reduced fractions.

a. Determine the probability the sum of the two dice is an odd number.

b. Determine the probability the sum of the two dice is 5.

c. Determine the probability the sum of the two dice is 7.

d. Determine the probability the sum of the two dice is 7 and one of the dice is a 1.

e. Determine the probability the sum of the two dice is 7 or at least one of the dice is 1.

357
 Section 9.4.2: Examples of “OR” Probabilities Using a Deck of Cards
Definitions
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.

The Probability of the Union of Two Events that are NOT Mutually Exclusive.
The probability that event A or B will occur is equal to the probability that A will occur plus the
probability that B will occur, minus the probability that A and B both occur.

The Probability of the Union of Two Events that ARE Mutually Exclusive.
The probability that event A or B will occur is equal to the probability that A will occur plus the
probability that B will occur. When two events are mutually exclusive,

Examples

Jennelle draws one card from a standard deck of 52 cards.

1. Determine the probability of drawing either a queen or a king.

2. Determine the probability of drawing either a ten or a club.

358
 Section 9.4.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Sammie draws one card from a standard deck of 52 cards.

a. Determine the probability of drawing either a 2 or a Jack. Write your answer as reduced
fraction.

b. Determine the probability of drawing either a 2 or a heart. Write your answer as

reduced fraction.

359
 Section 9.4.3: “OR” Probabilities using Contingency Tables
Definitions
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.

The Probability of the Union of Two Events that are NOT Mutually Exclusive.
The probability that event A or B will occur is equal to the probability that A will occur plus the
probability that B will occur, minus the probability that A and B both occur.

The Probability of the Union of Two Events that ARE Mutually Exclusive.
The probability that event A or B will occur is equal to the probability that A will occur plus the
probability that B will occur. When two events are mutually exclusive,

Examples

1. A test was given to a group of students. The grades and gender are summarized in the
table below. If one student is chosen at random, determine the following probabilities.
Write your answers as simplified fractions and percentages rounded to two decimal
places.

Gender \ Grade A B C Total

Male 18 19 3 40
Female 12 4 9 25
Total 30 23 12 65

If one student is chosen at random, find the probability the student was female or
received a C.

360
 2. The table summarizes the results from 976 pedestrian deaths that were caused by
automobile accidents.

Pedestrian Intoxicated Pedestrian Intoxicated

Driver Intoxicated
Yes No
Yes 62 82
No 226 606

If one of the pedestrian deaths is randomly selected, find the probability that the
pedestrian was not intoxicated, or the driver was intoxicated.

Section 9.4.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The table below shows the number of survey subjects who have received and not received a
speeding ticket in the last year and the color of their cars.

Received a Speeding Did NOT receive a

Color of Car Total
Ticket Speeding Ticket
Red Car 128 199 327
No 97 155 252
Total 225 354 579

Suppose a person is chosen at random. Find the probability of each event below. Write your
answers in decimal from, rounded to the nearest thousandth.

a. Determine the probability the person has a red car and received a speeding ticket.

b. Determine the probability the person has a red car or received a speeding ticket.

361
 Unit 10: Introduction to Statistics
Unit 10 Outline
10.1: Introduction to Statistics
• Section 10.1.1: Introduction to Statistics

10.2: Sampling Methods and Bias

• Section 10.2.1: Sampling Methods
• Section 10.2.2: Sampling Bias

10.3: Experiments and Confounding

• Section 10.3.1: Introduction to Experiments and Confounding
• Section 10.3.2: Control Groups and the Placebo Effect

10.4: Classifying Data

• Section 10.4.1: Qualitative versus Quantitative Data
• Section 10.4.2: Displays of Categorical Data

10.5: Frequency Tables and Histograms

• Section 10.5.1: Frequency Tables
• Section 10.5.2: Relative Frequency
• Section 10.5.3: Histograms

362
This page has been intentionally left blank.

363
 10.1: Introduction to Statistics
Section 10.1.1: Statistical Basics
Definitions8
Statistics
Statistics is the study of how to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret data collected from a
group.

Two Branches of Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics – How to collect and organize data.
• Inferential Statistics – How to analyze and interpret data.

Individual
The individual is a person or object that you are interested in finding out information about.

Variable
A variable is a measurement or observation of the individual.

Population
The population is the set of all values of the variables for the entire group of individuals about
which we are interested. The population is the group intended to be studied.

Sample
The sample is a subset of the population. It is like the population but contains less data.

Parameter
A parameter is a value (average, percentage, etc.) that is calculated using all the data from a
population. Often the parameter is a fixed, unknown quantity that we want to find or estimate.

Statistic
A statistic is a value (average, percentage, etc.) that is calculated from data from a sample.
Since we can collect data from a sample, a statistic is readily known, though it will change
depending on the sample taken. A statistic is used to estimate the parameter value.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

8Definitions in this section remixed and shared from "Statistics Using Technology" by Kathryn Kozak (Slides by David H Straayer) licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

364
Examples

1. Identify the individuals and variable(s) for each population.

a. The salaries for all U.S. Senators.

b. The ages for all students at a community college.

c. The software version for all operating iPhones.

2. Identify the pros and cons of using a population and sample.

3. Determine if the underlined value is a parameter or a statistic.

a. According to a recent article, twitter users have an average of 208 followers.

b. A survey of 40 randomly selected twitter users found that the users had an
average of 156 followers.

365
 4. Identify the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic for the
following statement.

Statement: The U.S. Census Bureau needs to estimate the median income of males in
the U.S. They collect data from 2500 men.

a. Individual

b. Variable

c. Population

d. Sample

e. Parameter

f. Statistic

Section 10.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Identify the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic for the following
statement.

Statement: You wish to estimate the mean cholesterol levels of patients two days after they
had a heart attack. To estimate the mean, you collect data from 28 patients that recently
suffered a heart attract.

a. Individual

b. Variable

c. Population

d. Sample

e. Parameter

f. Statistic

366
 10.2: Sampling Methods and Bias
Section 10.2.1: Sampling Methods
Definitions9
Census
Every individual of interest is measured. In other words, use the entire population

Random Sample
A random sample is any sample where every member of the population has a chance of being
selected. There are several different types of random sampling techniques.

Simple Random Sample (SRS)

Every member of the population is assigned a number. A random number generator is used to
select different members of the population. A simple random sample is conducted so that each
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified Sample
The population is divided into sub-groups called strata. Then a simple random sample is
selected from each strata (sub-group).

Cluster Sample
The population is divided into sub-groups called clusters. Then randomly select a few clusters
and measure all subjects from each cluster selected.

Systematic Sample
Randomly choose a starting place. Then select every k th individual to measure thereafter.

Convenient Sample
A researcher picks individuals to be included that are easy for the researcher to access.

Sampling Bias
Sampling Bias occurs when a sample does not represent the population from which it was
drawn. Conclusions from a sample containing bias may not apply to the population. Biases can
be anticipated or unanticipated. To avoid bias, it is important to incorporate randomization into
the sampling method.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

9Definitions in this section remixed and shared from "Statistics Using Technology" by Kathryn Kozak (Slides by David H Straayer) licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

367
Examples

1. Provide an example for each of the following sampling techniques. Then provide the
pros and cons of using each technique.

a. Census

b. Simple Random Sample

c. Stratified Sample

d. Cluster Sample

e. Systematic Sample

f. Convenient Sample

368
 2. Consider the following scenario: Researchers want to collect cholesterol levels of U.S.
patients who had a heart attack two days prior. The following are different sampling
techniques the researchers could use to collect data. Classify each sampling technique
illustrated.

a. The researchers randomly select 5 hospitals in the U.S. then measure the
cholesterol levels of all the heart attack patients in each of those hospitals.

b. The researcher lists all the heart attack patients and measures the cholesterol
level of every 25th person on the list.

c. The researchers go to one hospital on a given day and measure the cholesterol
levels of the heart attack patients at that time.

d. The researchers list all the heart attack patients. They then measure the
cholesterol levels of randomly selected patients.

e. The researchers divide the heart attack patients based on race, then measure
the cholesterol level of randomly selected patients in each race grouping.

Section 10.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Determine the type of sampling method described below.

a. A group of test subjects is divided into twelve groups; then four of the groups are
chosen at random.

b. A market researcher polls every tenth person who walks into a store.

c. The first 50 people who walk into a sporting event are polled on their television
preferences.

d. A computer generates 100 random numbers, and 100 people whose names corresponds
with the numbers on the list are chosen.

369
 Section 10.2.2: Sampling Bias
Definitions10
Sampling Bias (Selection Bias)
Sampling Bias occurs when a sample does not represent the population from which it was
drawn.

Voluntary Response Bias

Voluntary response bias is introduced by only collecting data from those who volunteer to
participate.

Self-Interest Study
A self-interest bias can occur when the researchers have an interest in the outcome.

Response Bias
A response bias occurs when the responder gives inaccurate responses for any reason.

Perceived Lack of Anonymity

Perceived lack of anonymity can lead to bias in the results when the responder fears giving an
honest answer might negatively affect them.

Loaded (or Leading) Questions

A loaded question is when the question wording influences the responses.

Non-Response Bias
A non-response bias can occur when a significant proportion of the sample refuse to participate
in the study can influence the validity of the outcome.

Examples

Explain how each study described below may be include biases. Be sure to identify the possible
type of bias that may result in each study described below.

1. A study from a pesticide company claims that their pesticides have no environmental
impact and are completely safe.

10 Definitions from “Math in Society” by David Lippman remix and shared under a Creative Commons License.

370
 2. A study asks, “Given that at the age of 18 people are old enough to fight and die for your
country, don’t you think they should be able to drink alcohol as well?”

3. An online survey asks, “Do you think 18-year-olds should be able to drink alcohol?”

4. A survey asked, “When is the last time you read a book?” only had a 50% response rate.

5. A survey conducted at work and asks, “When is the last time you drank alcohol?”

6. A survey asks, “Do you support funding research of alternative energy sources to reduce
our reliance on high-polluting fossil fuels?

Section 10.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Determine the type of bias that may be included in the studies described below.

a. A survey says, “Please rate the career of Buster Posey as one the of the best catchers
that has ever played in Major League Baseball.”

b. An online poll shows that the majority of Americans believe that the government
covered up the events of 9/11.

c. A research study funded by animal rights coalition finds that 85% of adults dislike real
fur coats.

371
 10.3: Experiments and Confounding
Section 10.3.1: Introduction to Experiments and Confounding
Definitions11
Observational Study
An observational study is based on observations or measurements. The observations may be
solicited or unsolicited.

Experiment
An experiment is a study in which the effects of a treatment are measured.

Confounding
Confounding occurs when there are two or more potential variables that could have caused the
outcome and it is not possible to determine which actually caused the result.

Examples

1. Identify each study described below as an experiment or an observational study. If the

study is an experiment, identify the treatment.

a. A pharmaceutical company tests a new anti-aging cream by administering the

cream to 100 elderly patients.

b. You test a new laundry detergent by buying a bottle and doing your laundry.

c. A psychology researcher explores the effects of a violent video game by

measuring people’s temperament while playing the game.

d. A dietician tests out a new recipe to lower cholesterol.

11Definitions from “Math in Society” by David Lippman remix and shared under a Creative Commons License.
You Try Problems from “Statistics Using Technology” by Kathryn Kozak remix and shared under a Creative Commons License.

372
 e. The height and weight of 100 randomly selected gym members are measured.

2. Describe the confounding variable is each scenario described below.

a. Suppose the success rates in developmental math at the community college are
not good. As a result, the math department decides to pilot a new math program
and hires a new instructor to teach the program. The new program appears to
be successful.

b. A company claims that their gas additives improve gas mileage. However, in the
directions of the study, drivers are also encouraged to check their tire pressure
and not drive aggressively by sudden acceleration or braking.

Section 10.3.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Identify each study described below as an experiment or an observational study. If the study is
an experiment, identify the treatment.

a. You want to determine if cinnamon reduces a person’s insulin sensitivity. You give
patients who are insulin sensitive a certain amount of cinnamon and their measure their
glucose levels.

b. You want to determine if eating more fruits reduces a person’s chance of developing
cancer. You watch people over the years and ask them to tell you how many servings of
fruit they eat each day.

c. A researcher wants to evaluate whether countries with lower fertility rates have higher
life expectancy. They collect the fertility rates and the life expectancies of the countries
around the world.

373
 Section 10.3.2: Control Groups and the Placebo Effect
Definitions12
Confounding
Confounding occurs when there are two or more potential variables that could have caused the
outcome and it is not possible to determine which actually caused the result.

Experiment
An experiment is a study in which the effects of a treatment are measured.

Control & Treatment Groups

When using a control group in an experiment, the participants are divided into two or more
groups, typically the control group and a treatment group. The treatment group receives the
treatment being tested. The control group does not receive the treatment.

Placebo Effect
The placebo effect is when the effectiveness of a treatment is influenced by the patient’s
perception of how effective they think the treatment will be. A positive result is experienced
because the patient believes they are receiving a useful treatment.

Placebo
A placebo is a “dummy treatment” given to control the placebo effect.

Placebo Controlled Experiment

An experiment that gives the control group a placebo is called a placebo-controlled experiment.

Comparison Group
In some experiments, it is more appropriate to compare a conventional treatment than a
placebo. If the control group receives a comparison treatment (different than the experimental
treatment), then the control group is called a comparison group.

Blind or Single-Blind Study

A blind study is one in which the participant does not know whether they are receiving the
treatment or placebo.

Double-Blind Study
A double-blind study is one in which participants and those interacting with the participants do
not know who is in the treatment group and who is in the control group.

12Definitions from “Math in Society” by David Lippman remix and shared under a Creative Commons License.
You Try Problems from “Statistics Using Technology” by Kathryn Kozak remix and shared under a Creative Commons License.

374
Examples

1. Identify the treatment, treatment group, and control group in the experiment described
below.

To determine if a 1-day math refresher class increase a student’s math placement score,
those needing to take the math placement test are randomly divided into two groups.
One group takes the one-day math refresher class. The second group does not take the
refresher class.

2. In the experiment described below, explain how not giving the control group anything
does not completely control for confounding variables. This is known as a placebo
effect.

Suppose a medical study is testing a new headache pill by giving the treatment group
the pill and the control group nothing.

3. Explain why it is more appropriate to use a comparison group rather than a placebo
group when conducting a cancer research study.

375
 4. A team of researchers is testing the effectiveness of a new HPV vaccine. They randomly
divide the subjects into two groups. Group 1 receives the existing HPV vaccine, and
Group 2 receives a new HPV vaccine. Neither the patients nor the doctors examining
them know which group they are in.

a. Which is the treatment group?

b. Which is the control group, if there is one?

c. Is this study blind, double-blind, or neither?

d. Which term below best describes this study? Explain your answer.

Clinical Study

Survey

Placebo Controlled Experiment

Controlled Experiment

Experiment

Section 10.3.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Identify each study described below as a blind study, double-blind study, or neither.

a. A doctor gives some of the patients a new drug for treating acne and the rest of the
patients receive the old drug. Neither the patient nor the doctor knows who is getting
which drug.

b. To study the effects of exercise, a group of individuals are divided into two groups. One
is told to exercise and the other is told not to exercise.

c. The researchers at a hospital want to see if a new surgery procedure has a better
recovery time than the old procedure. The patients are not told which procedure that
was used on them, but the surgeons obviously did know.

376
 10.4: Classifying Data
Section 10.4.1: Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Definitions
Quantitative Data (or Numeric Data)
Quantitative data is numerical. Quantitative data is used to describe a that can be counted or
measured. Think: Quantity.

Qualitative Data (or Categorical Data)

Qualitative data is descriptive data. Qualitative data is used to describe a quality. Think:
Quality.

Two Types of Quantitate Data

• Discrete data is used to count the possible outcomes
• Continuous data is used to measure the possible outcomes.

Examples

1. What are some examples of Quantitative data?

2. What are some examples of Qualitive data?

377
 3. Provide examples of both quantitative and qualitative data that are used to describe the
following individuals:

a. cats.

b. bookshelf

Section 10.4.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The variables below are found on a state-issued driver’s license. Identify the variables as
quantitative or qualitative.

a. State (e.g., California)

b. Sex

c. Height

d. Eye Color

e. Weight

f. Driver’s License Number

378
 Section 10.4.2: Displays of Categorical Data
Definitions
Categorical (or Qualitative) Data
Categorical or qualitative data are pieces of information that allow us to classify the objects
under investigation into various categories.

Frequency Table
A frequency table is a table with two columns. One column lists the categories and another for
the frequencies with which the items in the categories occur (how many items fit into each
category).

Bar Graph or Bar Chart

A bar graph is used to display categorical (or qualitative data). To construct a bar graph, we
need to draw a vertical axis an a horizonal axis. The vertical axis will have a scale and measure
the frequency of each category. The horizonal axis shows the categories. The bar height shows
the frequency. (Note: The bars in a bar chart should not touch.)

Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a bar graph ordered from highest to lowest frequency.

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle with wedges cut of varying sizes marked out like a slice of pie or pizza. The
relative sizes of the wedge correspond to the relative frequencies of the categories.

Pictogram
A pictogram is a statistical graph in which the size of the picture is intended to represent the
frequencies or size of the values being represented.

Examples

1. Sketch a bar graph of the information displayed in the frequency table below.

Grade Frequency
A 10
B 12
C 15
D 2
F 1

379
 2. Convert the frequency table presented above into a pareto chart. Then create the new
pareto graph on the set of axes provided.

Grade Frequency

380
 3. Construct a pie chart to display the information contained in the frequency table
provided above.

Section 10.4.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A group of adults were asked how many children they have in their families. The bar graph
below shows the number of adults who indicated each number of children.

5
Frequency

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Numer of Children

a. How many adults were questioned?

b. What percentage of the adults questioned had 2 children?

381
 10.5: Frequency Tables and Histograms
Section 10.5.1: Frequency Tables
Definitions
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a table with two columns. One column lists the categories and another for
the frequencies with which the items in the categories occur (how many items fit into each
category).

Examples

1. The data below shows scores on a math test. Use the data to complete the frequency
table below.

Scores: 90 90 50 100
70 60 60 80
80 90 50 30
100 100 100 90
80 100 80 100
50 80 70 90

Score Frequency
Insert frequency
30
Insert frequency
40
Insert frequency
50
Insert frequency
60
Insert frequency
70
Insert frequency
80
Insert frequency
90
Insert frequency
100

382
 Section 10.5.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The data below are the goals scored by a local soccer team at each game in their recent season.

Goals: 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 2
2 2 2 3 3
4 4 4 5 5

Goals Frequency
Insert frequency
0
Insert frequency
1
Insert frequency
2
Insert frequency
3
Insert frequency
4
Insert frequency
5

383
 Section 10.5.2: Relative Frequency
Definitions
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a table with two columns. One column lists the categories and another for
the frequencies with which the items in the categories occur (how many items fit into each
category).

Relative Frequency
The relative frequency expresses the frequency of each possible value, relative to the whole.
Relative frequencies can be written as a fraction, decimals, or percentages.

To find the relative frequency of a category:

Examples

1. The table below displays the ages of student by age range. Use the table to calculate
the relative frequencies as a percentage rounded to one decimal place.

Number of Relative
Score
Students Frequency
Insert relative frequency
15 – 18 10
Insert relative frequency
19 – 22 3
Insert relative frequency
23 – 26 2
Insert relative frequency
27 – 30 10
Insert relative frequency
31 – 34 6
Insert relative frequency
35 – 38 8

384
 Section 10.5.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. The table below displays the ages of student by age range. Use the table to calculate
the relative frequencies as a percentage rounded to one decimal place.

Number of Relative
Score
Students Frequency
Insert relative frequency
15 – 18 10
Insert relative frequency
19 – 22 9
Insert relative frequency
23 – 26 2
Insert relative frequency
27 – 30 2
Insert relative frequency
31 – 34 10
Insert relative frequency
35 – 38 4

385
 Section 10.5.3: Introduction to Histograms
Definitions
Histogram
A histogram is a bar graph that represents a frequency distribution. The widths represent the
interval and the heights represent the corresponding frequency. There are no spaces between
the bars.

Bins
The intervals along the x-axis of the histogram are often referred to as bins. If there are no
breaks in the data, then normally the last data value of the bin is the first value in the next bin
(see example 3).

Examples

1. The histogram below displays the wait times for a sample of customers at a local
restaurant. Identify the mode, or the most frequent, wait time for guests at this
restaurant.

386
2. The data below describes the gas mileage for a sample of 20 cars. Use the data to
construct a frequency distribution table. Then, use the frequency distribution to table to
construct a histogram.

Average Gas Mileage: 24, 17, 14, 22, 25, 26, 38, 42, 24, 12, 28, 19, 32, 21, 35, 28, 21, 31,
18, 19

Gas Mileage
Tally Frequency
(Interval)
Insert tally Insert frequency
10 – 14
Insert tally Insert frequency
15 – 19
Insert tally Insert frequency
20 – 24
Insert tally Insert frequency
25 – 29
Insert tally Insert frequency
30 – 34
Insert tally Insert frequency
35 – 39
Insert tally Insert frequency
40 – 44

387
 3. The histogram below displays the heights of black cherry trees. Identify or circle the bin
that would contain a data value for a black cherry tree that is 65 feet tall.

Section 10.5.3 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. The histogram below summarizes data collected from 40 randomly selected trees
growing in the median strip of a busy freeway. The height of each tree (in inches) was
recorded. Data was recorded to the nearest whole inch. Based on this histogram,
determine the minimum and maximum tree heights for the recorded data.

388
This page has been intentionally left blank.

389
 Unit 11: Describing Data
Unit 11 Outline
11.1: The Shape of a Distribution
• Section 11.1.1: Classifying the Shape of Distributions
• Section 11.1.2: Histograms Using Technology (Desmos and TI-84 Calculator)

11.2: Measures of Central Tendency for a Data Set – The Mean, Median, and Mode
• Section 11.2.1: The Mean, Median, and Mode
• Section 11.2.2: How to Determine the Mean and Median with Technology (Desmos and
TI-84 Calculator)

11.3: Measures of Variation – The Range and Standard Deviation

• Section 11.3.1: The Range and Standard Deviation
• Section 11.3.2: Interpreting the Mean and Standard Deviation
• Section 11.3.3: How to Determine the Range and Standard Deviation Using Technology
(Desmos and TI-84 Calculator)

11.4: Measures of Variation – The Five Number Summary and Boxplots

• Section 11.4.1: The Five Number Summary & Boxplots
• Section 11.4.2: How to Determine the Five Number Summary with Technology (Desmos
and TI-84 Calculator)
• Section 11.4.3: Comparing Two Boxplots

11.5: Introduction to Percentiles

• Section 11.5.1: Introduction to Percentiles

390
This page has been intentionally left blank.

391
 11.1 The Shape of a Distribution
Section 11.1.1: Introduction to Histograms
Definitions13
Distribution
A distribution of a variable tells you all possible values the variable can take on and the
frequency that each of the possible values occurs.

Symmetric Distribution
A symmetric distribution is a distribution shape in which the left and right sides of the
distribution are roughly mirror images of one another. Symmetric distribution shapes include
the bell-shaped (or mounded) curve and the uniform (or rectangular) distribution.

Skewed Distribution
A skewed distribution is a distribution shape in which the data is asymmetrical and tends to
cluster toward one side while having a longer “tail” on the other side. Right-skewed
distributions have a tail extending toward the right side. Left-skewed distributions have a tail
extending to the left side.

Bimodal Distribution
A bimodal distribution is a distribution shape in which there are two (or more) areas where
data tend to cluster (or mound). Bimodal distributions can be symmetric or skewed.

Examples
Classify each distribution below as symmetric, uniform, skewed-right, skewed-left, or bimodal.

1. The graph below displays the lengths of a random sample of houseflies (in centimeters).

13This section includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 3 rd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, and the video Classifying
Shapes of Distributions by the Khan Academy under a Creative Commons 4.0 CC-By-SA license.

392
2. The graph below displays the date (in years) when a penny was produced.

3. The graph below displays the number of representatives from each state.

4. The graph below displays the results of a survey from a local office. Each participant
was asked “How many cups of coffee did you drink today?”

393
 5. The graph below displays the daily high temperature for a town in New England.
Temperatures are recorded in degrees Celsius.

6. The graph below displays the results from rolling a six-sided die.

Section 11.1.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Consider each of the following scenarios listed below. Assume that we would collect data for
each scenario, then use the data to create a histogram. Determine the most-likely shape for the
resulting distribution from each data set. Classify each distribution below as symmetric,
uniform, skewed-right, skewed-left, or bimodal.

a. Test scores for students on an easy test.

b. The number of hours of television watched by a large, typical group of Americans.

c. The heights of a large, typical group of adults in the United States.

394
 Section 11.1.2: How to Create a Histogram Using Technology (Desmos
& TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator & TI-84 Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged to use their preferred technology to
complete this section.

Definitions
Histogram
A histogram is a bar graph that represents a frequency distribution. The widths represent the
interval, and the heights represent the corresponding frequency. There are no spaces between
the bars.

Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Create a Dot Plot, Histogram, and Box Plot Using Desmos

Examples

1. Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to construct a dotplot, histogram and boxplot using
the data set below. For convenience, the data is also provided in a Google Sheet linked
below. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the examples.)

Data Set for Histogram Example

96 75 62 66 95 81 82 90 78 98 78 68
79 68 85 57 66 75 77 82 84 86 66 91
74 75 71 92 61 87 93 66 83 80 78 68
79 93 66 65 80 75 77 83 84 91 65 82

395
How to Enter a Data Set as a List Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Name the list. Click in a cell on the left side. Use the keyboard or the Desmos keypad to
name your list followed by the equal sign. Common names are L= or d=.
2. Enter the data values.
a. Data values, or lists, must be entered inside square brackets [ , ]. Separate
individual data values using commas.
b. Data values may also be copied and pasted from a spreadsheet program such as
Excel or Google Sheets into the list in Desmos.
3. Press the ENTER key when the list is complete.

Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to enter the list of data values available on the Google
Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Histogram Example

Open this example in Desmos

396
How to Construct a Dotplot Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. Select the dotplot function from the visualization menu in Desmos.
a. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under visualizations (or
distributions) select dotplot.
b. Enter the name of list and the bin width separated by a common. (Note: The
default bin width is 1).
i. The entry should look like: dotplot(list name, bin width).
c. Press the ENTER key to add the dotplot to the graph window.
3. Click on the Zoom Fit magnifying glass to the left of the cell with the dotplot
command to fit the graphing window to your data set. (See the image below.)

Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to construct a boxplot using the list of data values
available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Histogram Example

Open this example in Desmos

397
How to Construct a Histogram Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. Select the histogram function from the visualization menu in Desmos.
a. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under visualizations (or
distributions) select histogram.
b. Enter the name of list and the bin width separated by a common. (Note: The
default bin width is 1).
i. The entry should look like: histogram(list name, bin width)
c. Press the ENTER key to add the histogram to the graph window.
3. Click on the Zoom Fit magnifying glass to the left of the cell with the histogram
command to fit the graphing window to your data set.
4. Explore the histogram by changing the bar height and bin alignment.
a. Count (default) will display the frequency of each class.
b. Relative will display relative frequency of each class.

Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to construct a histogram with bin width 10 using the list
of data values available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Histogram Example

Open this example in Desmos

398
How to Construct a Boxplot Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. Select the boxplot function from the visualization menu in Desmos.
a. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under visualizations (or
distributions) select boxplot.
b. Enter the name of list.
i. The entry should look like: boxplot(list name)
c. Press the ENTER key to add the histogram to the graph window.
3. Click on the Zoom Fit magnifying glass to the left of the cell with the histogram
command to fit the graphing window to your data set.
4. Use the display properties to adjust the position of the boxplot
a. Offset will raise the graph above the dotplot and/or histogram.
b. Height will increase the width of the boxplot.
c. Exclude Outliers will mark any outliers with an open dot.

Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to construct a boxplot using the list of data values
available on the Google Sheet linked below. Offset the data by 24 with a height of 2.

Data Set for Histogram Example

Open this example in Desmos

399
Option 2: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by Cincinnati State
Statistics Department. We recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Construct a Histogram Using the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
1. Use the TI-84 Calculator to construct a histogram using the data set below. (Step-by-
step instructions are provided on the next page.)

The data below are the ten tallest buildings (in feet) in Cincinnati.

665 574 495 468 423

418 410 372 368 354

400
How to Construct a Histogram with the TI-84 Calculator.
1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to L1,
then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row).

Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1:

2. Turn the Stat Plot On.

a. Press 2nd, then Y=, to access the STAT PLOT Menu.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Plot1
i. Press ENTER to turn Plot1 On. The word “On” will be highlighted when
Plot 1 is turned on.) (All other plots should be turned off.)
ii. Under Type: Press ENTER to select the image of a histogram &.
iii. Under Xlist: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
iv. Under Freq:1. Ensure the frequency is set to 1.

Stat Plot Menu (2nd Y=) 1: Plot1

3. Graph the data in an appropriate viewing window.

You can choose to set the window by pressing the WINDOW button or using the ZOOM
menu. We recommend using the ZOOM menu.
a. Press the ZOOM key located under the graphing window.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll down to Option 9: ZoomStat.
c. Press ENTER to view the graph.

401
 Zoom Menu: Graphing Window:

4. Trace the graph to determine the class limits and frequencies.

You can view frequencies of each class by pressing the TRACE button with the arrow
keys.
a. Press the TRACE key located under the graphing window.
i. The min and max display the class limits.
ii. N = frequency of the class
b. Use the left and right arrow keys to scroll between classes.

Using the trace feature we learn that the first class represents there are six (6)
buildings in Cincinnati with heights between 354 feet and 431.75 feet.

5. Adjusting the histogram display.

The TI-84 will automatically scale the histogram to fit the data set. Sometimes we may
want to adjust the scale (bar width) of histogram. To adjust the histogram display, use
the WINDOW menu to change the x-min and x-scale (class width).
a. Press the WINDOW key located under the graphing window.
i. Edit the xmin to change the starting point for the first bar in the
histogram.
ii. Edit the xscl (x-scale) to change the class width of each bar.
iii. Press GRAPH to view the adjust histogram (see the images on the next
page).

402
 For this example, we will change the window settings to have a starting point of 350
with a class width of 100.

Window Menu: New Graphing Window:

Section 11.1.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. A random sample of 30 male college students was selected and their heights were
measured. The heights (in inches) are given below and linked in the Google Sheet. Use
technology to construct a histogram of the data set. Describe the shape of the
histogram as symmetric, skewed-left, skewed-right, or uniform.

Heights: 74 70 73 67 71 69 74 67 74 66
71 66 69 66 69 70 68 67 72 73
70 69 69 72 73 66 66 67 72 69

403
 11.2: Measures of Central Tendency for a Data Set – The
Mean, Median, and Mode
Section 11.2.1: The Mean, Median, and Mode
Definitions
Measures of Center
When we consider the differences between distributions, we consider the distribution’s shape,
center, spread, and outliers. The center is a way to describe a “typical” or representative value
of from a data set. The mean, median, and mode are three statistics that help describe the
center of a data set.

Mean
The mean is the average, or typical value. To determine the mean, add the numbers and then
divide them by the sample size (or number of data values). For data from a sample, the mean is
usually represented by the symbol (read “x-bar”). For data from a population, the mean is
represented using the symbol (read “mu”).

Median
The median is the number in the middle when the data is ordered from least to greatest. If
there are two middle values, find the average of the two numbers.

Mode
The mode is the value (or values) that occur the most.

Examples

1. Determine the mean, median, and mode of the test scores given below.

98 74 83 88 89 74 83 91 90

404
 2. Determine the mean, median, and mode of the test scores given below.

98 74 83 88 23 83 89 74 83 91 90 92

Section 11.2.1 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Determine the mean, median, and mode of the data set given below.

6 9 1 4 9 1 4 3 9 7

a. Mean

b. Median

c. Mode

405
 Section 11.2.2: How to Find the Mean, Median, and Other Common
One Variable Statistics Using Technology (Desmos, One-Variable
Statistics Calculator & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator, One-Variable Statistics Calculator & TI-84
Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos, the free online one-variable statistics calculator, and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are
encouraged to use their preferred technology to complete this section.

Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate the Mean, Median, and Other One-Variable Statistics Using Desmos

Examples

1. Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to find the mean and median for the data set
below. For convenience, the data set is also linked in the Google Sheet below. (Step-by-
step instructions are provided after the examples.)

Data Set for Desmos Mean and Median Example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

406
How to Calculate the Mean and Median Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. Select the mean or median functions from the statistics menu in Desmos.
a. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under statistics select mean,
median, or another statistical function.
b. Enter the name of list.
i. The entry should look like: mean(list name) or median(list name).
ii. Note: Unfortunately, Desmos will not calculate the mode for a data set.
c. Press the ENTER key.

Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to calculate the mean and median using the list of data
values available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for the Mean and Median Example

Open this example in Desmos

The results from Desmos show that the mean of the data set is 81.8947 and the mean is 82.

407
Option 2: Free Online One-Variable Statistics Calculator Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the free, online One-Variable Statistics
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Find the One Variable Statistics Using the Free Online One Variable Statistics
Calculator

One-Variable Statistics Calculator

The free one-variable statistics calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under
a Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
One Variable Statistics Calculator

Examples

1. Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to find the mean and median for the data set
below. For convenience, the data set is also linked in the Google Sheet below. (Step-by-
step instructions are provided after the examples.)

Data Set for the Mean and Median Example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

408
How to Calculate the Mean and Median Using the free One-Variable Statistics Calculator
1. Enter the data into the Data List (L1).
a. Use commas to separate values.
2. Press Solve.

One-Variable Statistics Notation

Below is a brief description for each quantity in the One-Variable Statistics Calculator menu.
• = mean or average data values
• = sum of the data values
• = sum of the squares of the data values
• = sample standard deviation
• = population standard deviation
• minx = minimum value of the data set
• Q1 = first quartile
• Med = median
• Q3 = third quartile
• maxX = maximum value of the data set

Step-by-Step Example
Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to calculate the mean and median using the list of
data values available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Mean and Median Example

The results show that the mean of the data set is 81.8947 and the mean is 82.

409
Option 3: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate the Mean and Median Using One Variable Statistics on the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
1. Use the TI-84 Calculator to calculate the mean and median using the data set below.
(Step-by-step instructions are provided on the next page.)

7 8 2 2 2 3 7 3 9

410
How to Calculate the Mean and Median and Other One-Variable Statistics with the TI-84
Calculator.
1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to L1,
then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row).
Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1:

2. Use 1-Variable Statistics to calculate the mean and median.

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll over to the RIGHT to select the CALC menu.
c. Press ENTER to access 1: 1-Var Stats under the Calc menu.
i. Under List: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
ii. Under FreqList:___. Ensure the frequency is left blank. (The default is set
to blank. If another list, such as L2, is entered into FreqList, be sure to
delete it.)
iii. Use the arrow keys to move down to Calculate. Press ENTER to view the
one-variable statistics.
1. Notation: is used to represent the mean while med is used to
represent the median.
d. For older versions of the calculator enter the appropriate list (e.g., L1, L2, L3) by
pressing 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc. Then press ENTER.
i. Your entry should look like: 1-VarStats(L1).
Statistics Calc Menu (Stat >) One-Variable Statistics

411
 Results:

Use the arrow keys to scroll down to see all the one-variable statistics.

The mean is approximately 4.778. The median (med) is 3.

One-Variable Statistics Notation for the TI-84 Calculator

Below is a brief description for each quantity in the One-Variable Statistics menu from the TI-84
calculator.
• = mean or average data values
• = sum of the data values
• = sum of the squares of the data values
• = sample standard deviation
• = population standard deviation
• minx = minimum value of the data set
• Q1 = first quartile
• Med = median
• Q3 = third quartile
• maxX = maximum value of the data set

412
 Section 11.2.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use technology to find the mean, median, and mode of the data set given below. For
convenience, you can also view the data set in a google sheet.

82.4 97.6 114.6 114.6 84.9

75.5 114.6 95.2 101.4 91.6

a. Mean

b. Median

c. Mode

413
 11.3: Measures of Variation – The Range and Standard
Deviation
Section 11.3.1: The Range and Standard Deviation
Definitions
Measures of Variation (or spread)
When we consider the differences between distributions, we consider the distribution’s shape,
center, spread, and outliers. The spread is a way to describe how the data vary from one
another. The most common ways to measure the “spread” of a data set are the range, standard
deviation, and quartiles. In this section we will focus on the range and standard deviation.

Range
The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum value in a data set. The range
describes the spread between the “extremes” of the data set.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variation base on measuring how far each data value
deviates (or is different) from the mean. For data from a sample, the standard deviation is
usually represented by the symbol s. For data from a population, the standard deviation is
represented using the symbol (read “sigma”).

Characteristics of Standard Deviation

• The standard deviation is always positive. The standard deviation will be zero if all the data
values are equal and will get larger as the data spreads out.
• The standard deviation has the same units as the original data set.
• The standard deviation, like the mean, can be highly influenced by outliers.

How to Compute the Standard Deviation

Since the standard deviation measures the variation of data from the mean, start by calculating
the mean, , of the data set.
1. Find the deviation of each data from the mean. In other words, subtract the mean from
each data value. Symbolically:
2. Square each deviation. Symbolically:
3. Add the squared deviations. Symbolically:
4. Does the data represent a population or a sample?
a. Divide by n, the number of data values (or sample size) if the data represents a whole
population.
b. Divide by n-1 if the data is from a sample.
5. Compute the square root of the result.

414
 Definitions (Continued)
Formulas for the Standard Deviation
Following the steps above will calculate the standard deviation using the formulas listed below.

Examples

1. The average gas mileage of a random sample of 10 vehicles is given below. Find the
range of the data.
12 14 19 21 21 22 24 27 32 38

2. The average gas mileage of a random sample of 10 vehicles is given below. Use the table
below and the steps on the previous page to calculate the standard deviation of the
data set. Do not round any of the results except the final standard deviation.

12 14 19 21 21 22 24 27 32 38

Data Value Deviation Square of Deviation

Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation

12
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
14
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
19
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
21
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
21
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
22
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
24
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
27
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
32
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
38

415
 3. Briefly describe how we can interpret the standard deviation of a data set. What does a
low standard deviation indicate? What does a high standard deviation indicate?

4. Consider the ratings of two auto repair centers.

Company A and Company B both have a mean rating of 3.0 stars.

Company A’s rating have a standard deviation of 0.5.
Company B’s ratings have a standard deviation of 1.5.

What does this tell us?

416
 Section 11.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Complete the steps below to calculate the standard deviation by using the formula. Assume
that this data represents a population. Do not round any of your results except the final
standard deviation.

A student in a nutrition class wrote down the number of calories he ate for lunch for 5 days.

Calories: 200 600 425 400 475

a. Find the mean number of calories for the data set.

b. Complete the table below. Find the individual deviations for each data value. Then,
square the difference from the mean. (Note: Since this data is from a population, we
replaced with to represent the mean from a population.)

Data Value Deviation Square of Deviation

Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation

200
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
600
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
425
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
400
Insert the deviation Insert square of the deviation
475

c. Find the sum of the squared differences for the data values. (Do not round this answer.)

d. Divide the sum by the total number of data values, n. (Do not round this answer.)

e. Find the square root of the previous answer to compute the standard deviation. (Round
this answer to two decimal places.)

417
 Section 11.3.2: Interpreting the Standard Deviation
Definitions
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variation base on measuring how far each data value
deviates (or is different) from the mean. For data from a sample, the standard deviation is
usually represented by the symbol s. For data from a population, the standard deviation is
represented using the symbol (read “sigma”).

Characteristics of Standard Deviation

• The standard deviation is always positive. The standard deviation will be zero if all the data
values are equal and will get larger as the data spreads out.
• The standard deviation has the same units as the original data set.
• The standard deviation, like the mean, can be highly influenced by outliers.

Interpreting the Standard Deviation

• A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean.
• A high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range of
values.

Examples

1. Two classes were given identical quizzes.

Class A had a mean score of 8.6 and a standard deviation of 0.9.

Class B had a mean score of 8.4 and a standard deviation of 0.4.

a. Which class scored better on average?

b. Which class had more consistent scores?

418
 Section 11.3.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Suppose that we are studying the amount of time customers wait in line at the checkout at CVS
and Walgreens. The average wait time at both stores is five minutes. At CVS the standard
deviation for wait time is two minutes. At Walgreens the standard deviation for wait times is
five minutes.

a. Which store has more variation in wait times?

b. Which store wait times are more consistent?

c. If you were in a hurry, would it be better to wait in line at CVS or Walgreens? Explain
your answer using the statistics included in this problem.

419
 Section 11.3.3: How to Find the Range, Standard Deviation, and Other
Common One Variable Statistics Using Technology (Desmos, One-
Variable Statistics Calculator, & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator, One-Variable Statistics Calculator, & TI-84
Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos, the One-Variable Statistics Calculator, and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are
encouraged to use their preferred technology to complete this section.

Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate One-Variable Statistics Using Desmos

Examples

1. Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to find the range, sample standard deviation, and
population standard deviation for the data set below. For convenience, the data set is
also linked in the Google Sheet. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the
examples.)

Data Set for Desmos Example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

420
How to Calculate the Range and Standard Deviation Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. To find the range, start by finding the maximum and minimum data value.
a. Select the max or min functions from the statistics menu in Desmos.
i. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under statistics select
max, min, or another statistical function.
ii. Enter the name of list.
iii. The entry should look like: max(list name) or min(list name).
iv. Press the ENTER key.
b. Once you calculate the maximum and minimum value, subtract the two to find
the range. Alternatively, you can simply enter the difference between the
maximum and minimum to find the range.
3. To find the standard deviation, start by determining if the data represents a sample or a
population.
a. Select the stdev or stdevp functions from the statistics menu in Desmos.
i. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under statistics select
stdev or stdevp or another statistical function.
1. Stdev will calculate the standard deviation for a sample.
2. Stdevp will calculate the standard deviation for a population.
ii. Enter the name of list.
iii. The entry should look like: stdev(list name) or stdevp(list name).
iv. Press the ENTER key.

421
Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to calculate the range and standard deviation using the list
of data values available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Desmos Example

Open this example in Desmos

The images below show the range is 33, the sample standard deviation is 9.36 and the
population standard deviation would be 9.11.

422
Option 2: Free Online One-Variable Statistics Calculator Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the free, online One-Variable Statistics
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Find the One Variable Statistics Using the Free Online One Variable Statistics
Calculator

Free One-Variable Statistics Calculator

The free one-variable statistics calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under
a Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
One Variable Statistics Calculator

Examples

1. Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to find the range, sample standard deviation,
and population standard deviation for the data set below. For convenience, the data set
is also linked in the Google Sheet. (Step-by-step instructions are provided after the
examples.)

Data Set for this example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

423
How to Calculate the Range and Standard Deviation Using the free One-Variable Statistics
Calculator
1. Enter the data into the Data List (L1).
a. Use commas to separate values.
2. Press Solve.
One-Variable Statistics Notation
Below is a brief description for each quantity in the One-Variable Statistics Calculator menu.
• = mean or average data values
• = sum of the data values
• = sum of the squares of the data values
• = sample standard deviation
• = population standard deviation
• minx = minimum value of the data set
• Q1 = first quartile
• Med = median
• Q3 = third quartile
• maxX = maximum value of the data set

Step-by-Step Example
Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to calculate the range, standard deviation and
population standard deviation using the list of data values available on the Google Sheet linked
below.
Data Set for this example
The image below shows the maximum is 98 and the minimum is 65. We need to use a
calculator to find the range is 33. The sample standard deviation is 9.36 and the population
standard deviation would be 9.11.

424
Option 3: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate the Standard Deviation Using One Variable Statistics on the TI-84
Calculator

Examples
1. Use the TI-84 Calculator to calculate the sample standard deviation and population
standard deviation using the data set below. (Step-by-step instructions are provided
after the examples.)

23 16 26 15 13 24 20 30

425
How to Calculate the Standard Deviation and Other One-Variable Statistics with the TI-84
Calculator.
1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to L1,
then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row).
Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1:

2. Use 1-Variable Statistics to calculate the mean and median.

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll over to the RIGHT to select the CALC menu.
c. Press ENTER to access 1: 1-Var Stats under the Calc menu.
i. Under List: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
ii. Under FreqList:___. Ensure the frequency is left blank. (The default is set
to blank. If another list, such as L2, is entered into FreqList, be sure to
delete it.)
iii. Use the arrow keys to move down to Calculate. Press ENTER to view the
one-variable statistics.
1. Notation: = sample standard deviation; = population
standard deviation
d. For older versions of the calculator enter the appropriate list (e.g., L1, L2, L3) by
pressing 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc. Then press ENTER.
i. Your entry will look like 1-VarStats(L1)
Statistics Calc Menu (Stat >) One-Variable Statistics

426
 Results:

Use the arrow keys to scroll down to see all the one-variable statistics.

The sample standard deviation is approximately .

The population standard deviation is approximately .

One-Variable Statistics Notation for the TI-84 Calculator

Below is a brief description for each quantity in the One-Variable Statistics menu from the TI-84
calculator.
• = mean or average data values
• = sum of the data values
• = sum of the squares of the data values
• = sample standard deviation
• = population standard deviation
• minx = minimum value of the data set
• Q1 = first quartile
• Med = median
• Q3 = third quartile
• maxX = maximum value of the data set

427
 Section 11.3.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use technology to find the mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation of the data set
given below. Assume this data set is from a sample. For convenience, you can also open the
data set in a google sheet. If necessary, round the answers to two decimal places.

106 138 114 120 103 119 91 138 126 138

a. Mean

b. Median

c. Mode

d. Range

e. Standard Deviation

428
 11.4: Measures of Variation – The Five Number Summary and
Boxplots
Section 11.4.1: The Five Number Summary and Boxplots
Definitions14
Measures of Variation (or spread)
When we consider the differences between distributions, we consider the distribution’s shape,
center, spread, and outliers. The spread is a way to describe how the data vary from one
another. The most common ways to measure the “spread” of a data set are the range, standard
deviation, and quartiles. In this section we will focus on quartiles.

The Standard Deviation versus Quartiles

While the standard deviation is a way to measure the spread (or variation) from the mean,
quartiles measure the spread around the median.

Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide the data into quarters (or 25% increments).
• The first quartile (Q1) is the value so that 25% of the data values are below it.
• The second quartile (Q2) is the value so that 50% of the data are below it. The second
quartile (Q2) is also known as the median.
• The third quartile (Q3) is the value so that 75% of the data values are below it.

The Five Number Summary

The five number summary refers to five numbers that describe a data set. The values in the five
number summary are:
1. Minimum: The smallest data value.
2. Quartile 1 (Q1): The median of the lower half of the data not including the median.
3. Median (Q2): The value in the middle when the data is in order from smallest to largest. (If
two values are in the middle, then the two values are averaged to find the median.)
4. Quartile 3 (Q3): The median of the upper half of the data not including the median.
5. Maximum: The largest data value.

Range
The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum value in a data set. The range
describes the spread between the “extremes” of the data set.

14This section includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, under a Creative
Commons 4.0 CC-By-SA license.

429
 Definitions Continued
Interquartile Range (IQR)
The interquartile range is the difference between the third and first quartile. The interquartile
range measures the spread between the 50% of data that is closest to the median.

Outliers
Outliers are data values that are significantly different than most of the data. There are several
ways to identify outliers. We will use Tukey’s Method to determine the outliers.

Tukey’s Method for Identifying Outliers.

• Values that are less than are considered outliers.
• Values that are greater than are considered outliers.

Boxplot (Box and Whisker Plot)

A boxplot is a graphical representation of the five-number summary. To create a boxplot, start
by drawing a box (above a number line) from the first quartile to the third quartile. A line is
drawn through the box at the median. The “Whiskers” are extended from the edges of the box
to the minimum and maximum values. Often, outliers are marked with an x or an open dot on
the whiskers.

Boxplots with and without Outliers

The image below displays two different boxplots for the same set of data. The first graph
displays the traditional boxplot (or box and whisker plot). The box connects the first and third
quartiles, while the whiskers connect the minimum and maximum to the box. The second graph
displays the boxplot with outliers (calculated via Tukey’s Method). Instead of connecting the
whiskers to the maximum, which is an outlier, an open dot is used to denote the maximum is
also an outlier. The whiskers connect the largest data value that is not an outlier to the box.

430
Examples

Notice the subtle differences for these two example problems. The first data set has an odd
sample size, while the second example has an even sample size. The data for these examples is
also available as a google sheet.

1. Odd Sample Size. Determine the five-number summary, range, interquartile range, and
outliers. Then make a boxplot for the data.

The number of text messages sent per day.

25 65 41 30 20 34 18 28 24

a. Five-Number Summary: Min, Q1, Median, Q3, Max

b. Range:

c. Interquartile Range:

d. Outliers:

e. Boxplot:

431
 2. Even Sample Size. Determine the five-number summary, range, interquartile range, and
outliers. Then make a boxplot for the data.

The number of text messages sent per day.

25 26 41 30 20 34 18 28 24 65

a. Five-Number Summary: Min, Q1, Median, Q3, Max

b. Range:

c. Interquartile Range:

d. Outliers:

e. Boxplot:

432
 Section 11.4.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Determine the five-number summary, range, interquartile range, and outliers. Then make a
boxplot for the data.

72 4 15 56 82 54 91 46 84 41

a. Five-Number Summary: Min, Q1, Median, Q2, Max

b. Range:

c. Interquartile Range:

d. Outliers:

e. Boxplot:

433
 Section 11.4.2: Comparing Two Boxplots
Definitions
Boxplot
A boxplot is a graphical representation of the five-number summary (min, Q1, median, Q3,
max). Quartiles are values that divide the data into quarters (or 25% increments). Boxplots may
or may not display outliers. The image below displays a generic relationship between the five
number summary and the boxplot.

Examples

1. The boxplots below shows salaries for actuaries and CPA measured in thousands of
dollars. Use the graph to answer the following questions.

Mark makes the minimum salary for an actuary. Russell makes the third quartile salary
for a CPA. Who makes more money? How much more?

434
 Section 11.4.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The boxplots below shows salaries for construction workers and teachers measured in
thousands of dollars. Use the graph to answer the following questions.

a. Jennie makes the median salary for a construction worker. Markos makes the median
salary for a teacher. Who makes more money?

b. How much more?

435
 Section 11.4.3: How to Find the Five Number Summary and Other
Common One Variable Statistics Using Technology (Desmos, One-
Variable Statistics Calculator, & TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator, One-Variable Statistics Calculator, & TI-84
Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos, the One-Variable Statistics Calculator and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are
encouraged to use their preferred technology to complete this section.

Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources

The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate One-Variable Statistics Using Desmos

Examples

1. Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to find the five number summary for the data set
below. For convenience, the data set is also linked in the Google Sheet. (Step-by-step
instructions are provided after the examples.)

Data Set for Desmos Example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

436
How to Calculate the Five Number Summary Using the Desmos Graphing Calculator
1. Enter the data into a list. (See the directions on how to enter a list into Desmos.)
2. To find the five number summary, start by finding the minimum, median, and
maximum data values.
a. Select the min, median, or max functions from the statistics menu in Desmos.
i. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under statistics select
min, median, max, or another statistical function.
b. Enter the name of list.
i. The entry should look like: min(list name), median(list name), or min(list
name).
c. Press the ENTER key.
3. To find quartile 1 and quartile 3 use the quartile function from the statistics menu in
Desmos.
a. Select the quartile function from the statistics menu in Desmos.
i. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under statistics select
quartile or another statistical function.
b. Enter the name of list and the number for the quartile you wish to find,
separated by a comma.
i. The entry should look like: quartile(list name, 1) or quartile(list name, 3).
c. Press the ENTER key.
4. To add the boxplot to the display window, enter boxplot(list name) in a cell on the left
side. (Review how to draw a boxplot using Desmos.)

437
Step-by-Step Example
Use the Desmos Graphing Calculator to calculate the range and standard deviation using the list
of data values available on the Google Sheet linked below.

Data Set for Desmos Example

Open this example in Desmos

The images below show the minimum is 65, the median is 82, the maximum is 98, the first
quartile is 74, and the third quartile is 74.

To add the graph of the boxplot to the display window, enter boxplot(L).

438
Option 2: Free Online One-Variable Statistics Calculator Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the free, online One-Variable Statistics
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Find the One Variable Statistics Using the Free Online One Variable Statistics
Calculator

Free One-Variable Statistics Calculator

The free one-variable statistics calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under
a Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
One Variable Statistics Calculator

Examples

1. Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to find the five number summary for the data
set below. For convenience, the data set is also linked in the Google Sheet. (Step-by-step
instructions are provided after the examples.)

Data Set for this example

65 68 70 74 74 76 77 79 81 82
85 85 85 88 91 91 92 95 98

439
How to Calculate the Five Number Summary Using the free One-Variable Statistics Calculator
1. Enter the data into the Data List (L1).
a. Use commas to separate values.
2. Press Solve.

One-Variable Statistics Notation

Below is a brief description for each quantity in the One-Variable Statistics Calculator menu.
• = mean or average data values
• = sum of the data values
• = sum of the squares of the data values
• = sample standard deviation
• = population standard deviation
• minx = minimum value of the data set
• Q1 = first quartile
• Med = median
• Q3 = third quartile
• maxX = maximum value of the data set

Step-by-Step Example
Use the One-Variable Statistics Calculator to calculate the five number summary using the list of
data values available on the Google Sheet linked below.
Data Set for this example
The images below show the minimum is 65, quartile 1 is 74, the median is 82, quartile 3 is 91,
and the maximum is 98.

440
Option 3: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
How to Calculate the Five Number Summary and Draw a Boxplot Using the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
1. Use the TI-84 calculator to determine the five-number summary, range, interquartile
range, and outliers. Then make a boxplot for the data.

The number of text messages sent per day.

25 26 41 30 20 34 18 28 24 65

a. Five-Number Summary: Min, Q1, Median, Q3, Max

b. Range:

c. Interquartile Range:

d. Outliers:

e. Boxplot:

441
How to Calculate the Five Number Summary with the TI-84 Calculator.
1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to L1,
then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row).

Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1:

2. Use 1-Variable Statistics to calculate the five number summary.

a. Press the STAT key.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll over to the RIGHT to select the CALC menu.
c. Press ENTER to access 1: 1-Var Stats under the Calc menu.
i. Under List: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)
ii. Under FreqList:___. Ensure the frequency is left blank. (The default is set
to blank. If another list, such as L2, is entered into FreqList, be sure to
delete it.)
iii. Use the arrow keys to move down to Calculate. Press ENTER to view the
one-variable statistics.
d. For older versions of the calculator enter the appropriate list (e.g., L1, L2, L3) by
pressing 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc. Then press ENTER.
i. Your entry should look like: 1-Var Stats (L1)

Statistics Calc Menu (Stat >) One-Variable Statistics

442
 Results:

Use the arrow keys to scroll down to see all the one-variable statistics, including
the five number summary.

Toward the bottom of the list, we see the minimum value is 18, Q1 is 24, the
median is 27, Q3 is 34, and the maximum is 65

How to Draw a Boxplot with the TI-84 Calculator.

1. Enter the data into the calculator.
a. Press the STAT key.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Edit under the Edit menu.
c. If necessary, clear the data from L1. Use the ARROW KEYS to scroll up to L1,
then click CLEAR. (DO NOT CLICK DELETE!)
d. Enter the data into L1 (press ENTER after each data value to get to the next row).

Stat Edit Menu: Enter Data into L1:

2. Turn the Stat Plot On.

a. Press 2nd, then Y=, to access the STAT PLOT Menu.
b. Press ENTER to access 1:Plot1
i. Press ENTER to turn Plot1 On. The word “On” will be highlighted when
Plot 1 is turned on.) (All other plots should be turned off.)
ii. Under Type: Press ENTER to select the image of a boxplot (with * or
without + outliers).
iii. Under Xlist: L1. Confirm location of input values is correct. (Default is set
to L1. To select a different list, L1, L2, Press 2nd, then 1, 2, 3 etc.)

443
 iv. Under Freq:1. Ensure the frequency is set to 1.

Stat Plot Menu (2nd Y=)

There are two options for the boxplot graph – with and without outliers.

1: Plot1: * Boxplot with Outliers 1: Plot1: + Boxplot without Outliers

3. Graph the data in an appropriate viewing window.

You can choose to set the window by pressing the WINDOW button or using the ZOOM
menu. We recommend using the ZOOM menu.
a. Press the ZOOM key located under the graphing window.
b. Use the arrow keys to scroll down to Option 9: ZoomStat.
c. Press ENTER to view the graph.

Zoom Menu: Graphing Window:

444
4. Trace the graph to determine the outliers.
You can view outliers of the data set by pressing the TRACE button with the arrow keys.
a. Press the TRACE key located under the graphing window.
b. Use the left and right arrow keys to scroll between values on the boxplot.
c. Use the left and right arrow keys to navigate to the outlier. The value(s) of the
outlier(s) will be displayed in the lower left corner.

Using the trace feature we learn that the first class represents there is one
outlier according to Tukey’s Method: 65.

445
 Section 11.4.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use technology to determine the five-number summary, range, interquartile range, and
outliers. Then make a boxplot for the data.

6 1 2 1 3 8 6 1 7 4 0

a. Five-Number Summary: Min, Q1, Median, Q2, Max

b. Range:

c. Interquartile Range:

d. Outliers:

e. Boxplot:

446
 11.5: Introduction to Percentiles
Section 11.5.1: Percentiles
Definitions
Percentiles
Percentiles are used in statistics to indicate a value at, or below, a certain percentage of data
values. For example, if a baby is in the 90th percentile for height, then they are taller than 90%
of all babies. This also implies that 10% of babies are taller than them.

Quartiles as Percentiles
Quartiles are also percentiles.
• Q1 is the 25th percentile, since 25% of the data value are at or below Q1.
• The median (Q2) is also the 50th percentile, since 50% of the data value are at or below the
median, or Q2.
• Q3 is the 75th percentile, since 75% of the data value are at or below Q3.

Examples

1. What percentage of values in the data set lie at or below the 28th percentile?

2. What percentage of values in the data set lie at or above the 28th percentile?

3. What percentage of values in the data set lie at or above the 70th percentile?

4. What percentage of values in the data set lie at or below the 70th percentile?

5. If a sample consists of 800 test scores, how many of them would be at or below the 32 nd
percentile?

6. If a sample consists of 800 test scores, how many of them would be at or above the 56 th
percentile?

447
 Section 11.5.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

a. What percentage of values in a data set lie at or below the median?

b. What percentage of values in a data set lie at or above the third quartile?

c. What percentage of values in the data set lie at or below the 48th percentile?

d. What percentage of values in a data set lie at or above the 65th percentile?

e. If a sample consists of 700 test scores, how many of them would be at or below the 34th
percentile?

f. If a sample consists of 700 test scores, how many of them would be at or above the 18 th
percentile?

448
This page has been intentionally left blank.

449
 Unit 12: Describing Data
Unit 12 Outline
12.1: The Normal Distribution and the Empirical Rule
• Section 12.1.1: Introduction to the Normal Curve and the Empirical Rule
• Section 12.1.2: How to Use the Empirical Rule
• Section 12.1.3: Applications of the Empirical Rule

12.2: Introduction to Z-Scores

• Section 12.2.1: Introduction to Z-Scores
• Section 12.2.2: Introduction to the Standard Normal Curve
• Section 12.2.3: Applications of Z-Scores

12.3: Using the Normal Distribution to Calculate Probabilities

• Section 12.3.1: Using Z-Scores and the Normal Distribution to Determine Probabilities
with Technology (Desmos, Normal Distribution Calculator, and TI-84 Calculator)
• Section 12.3.2: Applications of the Normal Distribution Using Technology (Desmos,
Normal Distribution Calculator, TI-84 Calculator)

450
This page has been intentionally left blank.

451
 12.1: The Normal Distribution and the Empirical Rule
Section 12.1.1: Introduction to the Normal Curve and the Empirical Rule
Definitions15
Previously, we learned about sampling data from a population. We learned that if we collect
quantitative data from a sample, we can graph the data using a histogram to create a
distribution. One of the most common distributions is the symmetric distribution shown below.
The symmetric, bell-shaped distribution is more formally called the normal distribution and is
approximated with a normal curve. The image below shows a normal curve approximated the
shape of the histogram for the lengths of houseflies data set from a previous section.

Characteristics of The Normal Distribution

While not all normal distributions are identical, the following are characteristics all normal
distributions have in common:
• The distribution is symmetric about the mean, with a single peak
• The mean = median = mode of the distribution. (When using real data, the mean, mean and
mode should be approximately equal.)
• Because the distribution is symmetric, 50% of the data values are below the mean, and 50%
of the data values are above the mean (for a total of 100% under the entire distribution
curve)
• Data values farther from the mean become increasingly rare.
• The graph of the Normal Distribution is bell-shaped, with tapering tails that approach, but
never actually touch the horizontal axis.
• Almost all the area under a Normal Distribution curve is within 3 standard deviations of the
mean.

15This section includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, under a Creative
Commons 4.0 CC-By-SA license.

452
 Definitions Continued
Factors that Affect the Shape of a Normal Curve
1. The mean affects the location of the center of the normal curve. The larger the mean, the
further the center will be from zero.
2. The standard deviation affects with width of the normal curve. The larger the standard
deviation, the wider the normal curve.

The images below illustrate how the shapes of normal curves are affected by the mean and
standard deviation. The curves in the image on the left have the same mean, but different
standard deviations. The curves in the image on the right have the same standard deviation
but different means. Explore how the mean and standard deviation affect the shape of the
normal curve using this application from Desmos.

Same mean, different standard deviations Same standard deviation, different means

The Normal Curve and the Empirical Rule (or 68-95-99.7 Rule)
For data that follows a normal distribution with mean, , and standard deviation, :
• Approximately 68% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
View the graph below using Desmos.

453
Examples

1. In a call center, the distribution of the number of phone calls answered each day by
each of the 12 receptionists in bell-shaped and has a mean of 63 calls and a standard
deviation of 3 calls. Using the Empirical Rule, what is the approximate percentage of
daily phone calls numbering between 60 and 66?

2. The scores of a midterm are normally distributed with a mean of 85% and a standard
deviation of 6%. Find the percentage of the class that scored above and below the given
scores. Use the 68-95-99.7 Rule.

a. Score: 91%

b. Score: 73%

454
 Section 12.1.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Identify the following statements about the normal distribution as true or false.

a. Data values farther from the mean are less common than data values closer to the
mean.

b. Data values are spread evenly around the mean.

c. The mean, median, and mode are all equal (or approximately equal) and occur at the
center of the distribution.

d. Only the standard deviation affects the shape of the normal distribution.

e. The distribution is symmetric with a single peak.

f. The graph of the normal distribution is bell-shaped, with tapering tails that never
actually touch the horizontal axis.

g. Normal distributions with a smaller standard deviation tend to be narrower than normal
distributions with a larger standard deviation.

h. Fifty percent of data values lie at or above the mean.

i. About 95 percent of data values lie within one standard deviation of the mean.

455
 Section 12.1.2: How to Use the Empirical Rule
Definitions
The Normal Curve and the Empirical Rule (or 68-95-99.7 Rule)
For data that follows a normal distribution with mean, , and standard deviation, :
• Approximately 68% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

View the graph below using Desmos.

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

456
Examples

1. The time to complete an exam is approximately normal with a mean minutes and
a standard deviation minutes.

The bell curve below represents the distribution for testing times. The scale on the
horizontal axis is equal to the standard deviation. Use the information above to label to
the markers on the horizontal axis with numeric values.

457
 2. A set of 1300 exam scores is normally distributed with a mean = 78 and standard
deviation = 6. Use the Empirical Rule to answer the following questions.

The bell curve below represents the distribution for exam scores. The scale on the
horizontal axis is equal to the standard deviation. Use the information above to label to
the markers on the horizontal axis with numeric values.

a. How many students scored higher than 78?

b. How many students scored between 72 and 84?

c. How many students scored between 66 and 90?

d. How many students scored between 78 and 84?

e. How many students scored lower than 72?

f. How many students scored lower than 84?

458
 Section 12.1.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The bell curve below represents the distribution for exam scores. The scale on the horizontal
axis is equal to the standard deviation. Use the Empirical Rule and the normal curve provided
below to answer the following questions. View the normal curve using Desmos.

a. What is the mean of the exam scores?

b. What is the standard deviation of the exam scores?

c. What percentage of exam scores are between 69 and 81?

d. What percentage of exam scores are between 63 and 87?

e. What percentage of exam scores are between 57 and 93?

f. What percentage of exam scores are between 75 and 81?

g. What percentage of exam scores are less than 75?

h. What percentage of exam scores are less than 81?

459
 Section 12.1.3: Applications of the Empirical Rule
Definitions
The Empirical Rule (or 68-95-99.7 Rule)
For data that follows a normal distribution with mean, , and standard deviation, :
• Approximately 68% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Examples

1. A company has a policy of retiring company cars. This policy looks at the number of
miles driven, purpose of trips, style of car, and other features. The distribution of the
number of months in service for the fleet of cars is bell-shaped and has a mean of 51
months with a standard deviation of 9 months.

Using the 68-95-99.7 rule, what is the approximate percentage of cars that remain in
service between 60 and 69 months?

2. The Acme Company manufactures widgets. The distribution of widgets is bell-shaped.

The widget weights have a mean of 55 ounces and a standard deviation of 4 ounces. Use
the Empirical Rule to answer the following questions.

a. 68% of the widgets lie between what weights?

b. What percentage of the widget’s weights lie between 47 and 59?

c. What percentage of the widget’s weights lie below 67?

460
 Section 12.1.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The testing times for a group of college students were normally distributed with a mean of 34
minutes and a standard deviation of 3.9 minutes. Use the Empirical Rule to answer the
following questions.

a. 68% of testing times were between what two values?

b. 95% of testing times were between what two values?

c. 99.7% of testing times were between what two values?

d. 50% of testing times were below what value?

461
 12.2: Introduction to Z-Scores
Section 12.2.1: Introduction to Z-Scores
Definitions16
In the previous section we learned how to use the Empirical Rule to determine the percentage
of data that lie within 1, 2, or 3 standard deviations of the mean. While the Empirical Rule is
useful in certain circumstances, it only applies to data are exactly 1, 2, or 3 standard deviations
from the mean. This is not usually the case. In this section, we will begin to generalize the
concepts to all data values using standard scores known as a z-scores.

Standard Scores or Z-Scores

A standard score (also called a z-score) is the number of standard deviations a specific data
value is from the mean of the distribution. Standard scores (often abbreviated by the letter z)
have the following characteristics.
• Z = 0 corresponds to the mean of the distribution since the mean is 0 standard deviations
from itself.
• If z is positive, then the data value is above the mean.
• If z is negative, then the data value is below the mean.

To calculate the z-score for any data value, x, use the following formula:

To calculate the data value, x, for any z-score use the following formula:

where: x = data value,  = mean,  = standard deviation

Examples

1. The results of a common standardized test used in psychology research is designed so

that the population mean is 130 and the standard deviation is 20. A subject earns a
score of 152. What is the z-score for this raw score?

16This section includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, under a Creative
Commons 4.0 CC-By-SA license.

462
2. The results of a common standardized test used in psychology research is designed so
that the population mean is 125 and the standard deviation is 40. A subject earns a
score of 29. What is the z-score for this raw score?

3. The results of a common standardized test used in psychology research is designed so

that the population mean is 100 and the standard deviation is 40. Determine the score
that corresponds to the z-score. Then determine what percent of the data is above and
below this score.

Note: To determine the percentage of the data that is above the z-score, students may
use the Normal Table provided by Data Desk. We will cover this concept in greater detail
in the next section.

a.

b.

463
 Section 12.2.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

A variable x is normally distributed with a mean 18 and standard deviation 4. Calculate the
following z or x values. Round the answer to the nearest hundredth as needed.

a. Determine the z-score for a data value x = 23.

b. Determine the z-score for the data value x = 14.

c. What data value, x, has a z-score of 2.5?

d. What data value, x, has a z-score of -0.5?

e. What data value, x, has a z-score of 0?

464
 Section 12.2.2: Introduction to the Standard Normal Distribution
Definitions17
Standard Scores or Z-Scores
A standard score (also called a z-score) is the number of standard deviations a specific data
value is from the mean of the distribution. To calculate the z-score for any data value, x, use the
following formula:

where: x = data value,  = mean,  = standard deviation

Standard Normal Distribution

When we plot the z-scores on a normal distribution it is called the standard normal
distribution. The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a population mean
and a population standard deviation .

The image below displays the standard normal distribution. Notice that that the distribution is
centered at 0. View the standard normal distribution using Desmos.

The Empirical Rule (or 68-95-99.7 Rule) for the Standard Normal Distribution
For data that follows a normal distribution with mean, and standard deviation :
• Approximately 68% of the data falls within 1 z-score of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data falls within 2 z-scores of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the data falls within 3 z-scores of the mean.

17This section includes material remixed and shared from College Mathematics, 2nd ed., © Tracey Haynie, et al., 2020, under a Creative
Commons 4.0 CC-By-SA license.

465
Examples

1. Scores on a standardized test were normally distributed with a mean of 550 and a
standard deviation of 80.

a. A student scores 500 points on the test. What is the corresponding z-score?

b. What test score corresponds to a z-score of 1.2?

Section 12.2.2 You Try

Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Identify the following statements about the standard normal distribution as true or false.

a. The mean of the standard normal distribution is always 1.

b. The mean of the standard normal distribution is always 0.

c. The mean of the standard normal distribution is always changing.

d. The standard deviation of the standard normal distribution is always 1.

e. The standard deviation of the standard normal distribution is always 0.

f. The standard deviation of the standard normal distribution is always changing.

466
 Section 12.2.3: Applications of Z-Scores
Definitions
Standard Scores or Z-Scores
A standard score (also called a z-score) is the number of standard deviations a specific data
value is from the mean of the distribution.

To calculate the z-score for any data value, x, use the following formula:

To calculate the data value, x, for any z-score use the following formula:

where: x = data value,  = mean,  = standard deviation

Use this space to take additional notes. The examples are on the next page.

467
Examples

1. The weights of a certain dog breed are approximately normally distributed with a mean
of pounds and a standard deviation of pounds.

The bell curve on the left represents the normal distribution for the dog weights. The
scale on the horizontal axis is equal to the standard deviation. Use the information
above to label to the markers on the horizontal axis with numeric values.

The bell curve on the right represents the standard normal distribution with a mean of 0
and a standard deviation of 1.

a. A dog of this breed weighs 56 pounds. What is the dog’s z-score? Round the
answer to the nearest hundredth as needed.

b. A dog’s weight has a z-score of 0.65. What is the dog’s actual weight? Round the
answer to the nearest tenth as needed.

c. A dog’s weight has a z-score of -1.4. What is the dog’s actual weight? Round the
answer to the nearest tenth as needed.

468
 Section 12.2.3 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The lengths of mature trout in a local lake are approximately normally distributed with a mean
of inches and a standard deviation of inches.

The bell curve below represents the normal distribution for the lengths of fish. The scale on the
horizontal axis is equal to the standard deviation. Use the information above to label to the
markers on the horizontal axis with numeric values.

a. Find the z-score corresponding to a fish that is 12.5 inches long. Round the answer to
the nearest hundredth as needed.

b. How long is a fish that has a z-score of -0.4? Round the answer to the nearest hundredth
as needed.

469
 12.3: Using the Normal Distribution to Calculate Probabilities
Section 12.3.1: Using Z-Scores and the Normal Distribution to
Determine Probabilities with Technology (Desmos, Normal Distribution
Calculator, and TI-84 Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator, Normal Distribution Calculator, & TI-84
Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos, the Normal Distribution Calculator, and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged
to use their preferred technology to complete this section.

Definitions
Previously, we learned how to use the Empirical Rule to determine the percentage of data that
lie within 1, 2, or 3 standard deviations of the mean. Then, we learned how to standardize a
data value by calculating its z-score. In this section, we will use z-scores to predict the
percentage of data values (or observations) that would be likely to fall with a certain range on
the normal distribution.

How the Normal Distribution is Related to Probability

When a variable is normally distributed, the area under a normal distribution represents the
percentage of data values that lie within a specified region. When written as a decimal, we
interpret this percentage as a probability.

Suppose we wanted to find the probability that a data value, with a normal distribution, has a z-
score that is less than -1.5. The image below illustrates that to find this probability, we will need
to find the area (or percentage) under the normal curve to the left of z = -1.5.

470
Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Z-scores with Desmos

Examples

1. Given a data set is normally distributed, determine that a randomly selected data value
has a z-score in the given intervals below. Give the answer as a decimal rounded to 3
decimal places and as a percent rounded to 1 decimal place. (Step-by-step instructions
are provided on the next page.)

a. Find:

b. Find:

c. Find:

471
How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution on the Desmos Graphing
Calculator
1. Select the normal distribution function from the visualization (or distribution) menu in
Desmos.
a. Click on the Desmos keypad, then select functions. Under visualizations (or
distributions) select normaldist.
b. Edit the Mean and Standard Deviation for the normaldist function.
i. The default is set to the standard normal distribution with the Mean = 0
and Standard Deviation = 1.
c. Press the ENTER key.
2. Click on the Zoom Fit magnifying glass to the left of the cell with the normaldist
command to fit the graphing window to your normal distribution.
3. Click on the box labeled “Find Cumulative Probability (CDF).”
4. Edit the Minimum and Maximum values to the appropriate lower and upper bounds.
a. Set the Min: to be the lower bound or left bound.
b. Set the Max: to be the upper bound or right bound.
c. The default maximum and minimum are set to positive and negative infinity,
respectively. (You can enter infinity by simply typing the word “infinity.”)
5. Press the ENTER key.
a. The probability will be displayed in the box on the right side of the cell.

Default Settings for the Normal Distribution Function

The image below displays the default settings for the normaldist function on the Desmos
graphing Calculator. In this case, the cumulative probability distribution function (CDF) shows
that the probability a z-score is between negative and positive infinity is 1, or 100%.

Symbolically, this would be written:

472
Step-by-Step Example
Use the normal distribution function on the Desmos graphing calculator to determine the
following probabilities. For these examples, we will use the Standard Normal Distribution,
which has a Mean of 0 and a Standard Deviation of 1.

Find the area above the z-score.

When finding the area above a z-score, the area is unbounded on the right side. Set the
minimum value to the z-score and the maximum to . (Note: if you need to enter , simply
type the word “infinity.”

Using Desmos, we find

Open this image using Desmos.

Find the area below the z-score.

When finding the area below a z-score, the area is unbounded on the left side. Set the
minimum value to and the maximum to the z-score. (Note: if you need to enter ,
simply type the word “infinity.”

Using Desmos, we find

Open this image using Desmos.

473
Find the area between z-scores.

When finding the area between two z-scores, the area is bounded on both the left and right
sides. Set the minimum value to lower z-score and the maximum to the higher z-score.

Using Desmos, we find

Open this image using Desmos.

474
Option 2: Free Online Normal Distribution Calculator Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the free, online One-Variable Statistics
calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Z-scores with the Normal
Distribution Calculator

Free Normal Distribution Calculator

The free normal distribution calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under a
Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
Normal Distribution Calculator

Examples

1. Given a data set is normally distributed, determine that a randomly selected data value
has a z-score in the given intervals below. Give the answer as a decimal rounded to 3
decimal places and as a percent rounded to 1 decimal place. (Step-by-step instructions
are provided on the next page.)

a. Find:

b. Find:

c. Find:

475
How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution Using the free Normal
Distribution Calculator
1. Under Test Distribution select Normal Distribution.
2. Enter the Mean and Standard Deviation.
a. The default is set to the standard normal distribution with the Mean = 0 and
Standard Deviation = 1.
3. Choose the appropriate probability scenario.
a. Select to find the probability below a data value.
b. Select to find the probability above a data value.
c. Select to find the probability between data values.
4. Enter the appropriate upper or lower bounds.
5. Press Calculate.

Step-by-Step Example
Use the normal distribution function on the Normal Distribution Calculator determine the
following probabilities. For these examples, we will use the Standard Normal Distribution,
which has a Mean of 0 and a Standard Deviation of 1.

Find the area above the z-score.

When finding the area above a z-score, select and enter the z-score in the box.

Using the Normal Distribution Calculator, we find .

476
Find the area below the z-score.

When finding the area below a z-score, select and enter the z-score in the box.

Using the Normal Distribution Calculator, we find .

477
Find the area between z-scores.

When finding the area between two z-scores, select .

Using the Normal Distribution Calculator, we find .

478
Option 3: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Z-scores with the TI-84 Calculator

Examples
1. Given a data set is normally distributed, determine that a randomly selected data value
has a z-score in the given intervals below. Give the answer as a decimal rounded to 3
decimal places and as a percent rounded to 1 decimal place. (Step-by-step instructions
are provided on the next page.)

a. Find:

b. Find:

c. Find:

479
How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution with the TI-84 Calculator.
1. Select the Normal Cumulative Distribution Function (normalcdf) from the distributions
menu.
a. Press the 2nd key, followed by the VARS key to locate the distributions menu.
b. Use the arrow keys to move down to the second option, or Press the number 2
to access 2:normalcdf.

Distribution Menu (2nd > Vars) Normal Cumulative Distributions Function

2. Enter the lower bound, upper bound, mean, and standard deviation.
a. Lower: Enter the lower bound of the interval.
i. If the lower bound is negative infinity, , enter a large negative
number such as -10,000 or -1,000,000 .
b. Upper: Enter the upper bound of the interval.
i. If the upper bound is infinity, , enter a large positive number such as
10,000 or 1,000,000.
c. : Enter the mean of the distribution.
i. If you are using z-scores, for the mean of the standard normal
distribution.
d. : Enter the standard deviation of the distribution.
i. If you are using z-scores, for the standard deviation of the standard
normal distribution.
e. Select Paste.
f. For older versions of the calculator enter the lower bound, upper bound, mean,
and standard deviation separate by commas. Your entry should look like:
normalcdf(lower bound, upper bound, mean, standard deviation).
3. Press ENTER.

480
Step-by-Step Example
Use the normal cumulative distribution function on the TI-84 calculator to determine the
following probabilities. For these examples, we will use the Standard Normal Distribution,
which has a Mean of 0 and a Standard Deviation of 1.

Find the area below the z-score.

When finding the area below a z-score, the area is unbounded on the left side. Set the lower
bound to a large negative number such as -10,000. Set the upper bound to the z-score.

Using the Normal Cumulative Distribution Function, we find .

Find the area above the z-score.

When finding the area above a z-score, the area is unbounded on the right side. Set the lower
bound to the z-score. Set the upper bound to a large postive number such as 10,000.

Using the Normal Cumulative Distribution Function, we find .

481
Find the area between z-scores.

When finding the area between two z-scores, the area is bounded on both the left and right
sides. Set the lower bound to lower z-score and the upper bound to the higher z-score.

Using the Normal Cumulative Distribution Function, we find

.

482
 Section 12.3.1 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

Use technology to find the probabilities listed below. Write the answers as decimals rounded to
four places.

a. Find .

b. Find .

c. Find .

483
 Section 12.3.2: Applications of the Normal Distribution - Determining
Probabilities with Technology (Desmos and Normal Distribution
Calculator)
Technology Options: Desmos Graphing Calculator, Normal Distribution Calculator, & TI-84
Calculator
This lesson will demonstrate how to perform this task using free online graphing calculator,
Desmos, the Normal Distribution Calculator, and the TI-84 Calculator. Students are encouraged
to use their preferred technology to complete this section.

Definitions
In the previous section, we learned how to calculate probabilities using the standard normal
distribution and z-scores. In this section, we will generalize those concepts to be able to
calculate probabilities using any normal distribution.

Probability as the Area Under the Normal Distribution

As we learned in the previous section, when a variable is normally distributed the area under a
normal distribution represents the percentage of data values that lie within a specified region.
When written as a decimal, we interpret this percentage as a probability.

Instead of limiting our discussion to z-scores, in this lesson we will generalize to all data values.
Suppose we know that a variable, x, follows a normal distribution. We wanted to find the
probability that a data value is less than a certain value, call it a. In other words, we want to find
.The image below illustrates that to find this probability, we will need to find the area
(or percentage) under the normal curve to the left of x = a.

This graph should look similar to the image from the previous section. However, since we are
not using the standard normal curve (or z-curve), the mean and standard deviation will no
longer be 0 and 1, respectively. Instead, we will use the mean and standard deviation of the
variable x.

484
Option 1: Desmos Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the Desmos calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Data Values with Desmos

Technology Instructions: How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution on the
Desmos Graphing Calculator

Examples

1. A data set of test scores is normally distributed with a mean of 72 and a standard
deviation of 8.2. Determine the probability that a randomly selected test score is in the
given interval. Give the answer as a decimal to 3 decimal places and as a percent to 1
decimal place.

a. Find:

b. Find:

c. Find:

485
Option 2: Free Online Normal Distribution Calculator Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the free, online Normal Distribution
Calculator as you watch the videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Data Values with the Normal
Distribution Calculator

Free Normal Distribution Calculator

The free normal distribution calculator was created by William Meacham and is shared under a
Creative Commons CC-BY-SA-NC license.
Normal Distribution Calculator

Technology Instructions: How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution on the
Normal Distribution Calculator

Examples

1. A data set of test scores is normally distributed with a mean of 78 and a standard
deviation of 64. Determine the probability that a randomly selected test score is in the
given interval. Give the answer as a decimal to 3 decimal places and as a percent to 1
decimal place.

a. Find:

b. Find:

c. Find:

486
Option 3: TI-84 Calculator Video Resources
The example problems in this section coordinate with videos shared by James Sousa. We
recommend that you work the example problems using the TI-84 calculator as you watch the
videos. Click on the link(s) below to watch the video(s).
Finding Probabilities Using the Normal Distribution and Data Values with the TI-84
Calculator

Technology Instructions: How to Calculate Probabilities with the Normal Distribution on the TI-
84 Calculator

Examples
1. A variable is normally distributed with mean 20 and standard deviation 4. Use a
graphing calculator to determine the following areas (e.g., probabilities). Give the
answer as a decimal rounded to 3 decimal places and as a percent rounded to 1 decimal
place.

a. Find the area to the left of 19. In other words, find .

b. Find the area to the left of 13. In other words, find .

c. Find the area to the right of 17. In other words, find .

d. Find the area to the right of 122. In other words, find .

e. Find the area to the between 13 and 26. In other words, find .

487
 Section 12.3.2 You Try
Complete the following problems. Show all steps as in the examples.

The annual rainfall in a certain region is approximately normally distributed with a mean of 41.2
inches and a standard deviation of 5.9 inches.

Use technology to find the percentages (e.g. probabilities) listed below. Write the answers as
percentages rounded to the nearest tenth of a percent.

a. What percentage of years will have an annual rainfall of less than 43 inches?

b. What percentage of years will have an annual rainfall of more than 39 inches?

c. What percentage of years will have an annual rainfall between 37 inches and 42 inches?

488
This page has been intentionally left blank.

489
 Appendix A - Answers to You Try Problems
Unit P – Answers to You-Try Problems
Section P.1.1
a. Natural, Whole, Integers, Rational, Real
b. Rational, Real
c. Irrational, Real
d. Integers, Rational, Real
e. Rational, Real
Section P.1.2
a. 0.08
b. 0.497
c. 0.5
d. 0.06
e. 0.2
Section P.1.3
a. 36
b. 3
Section P.2.1
a.

b.

c.

d.
Section P.2.2
a.
b.
Section P.2.3
a.
b.
c.
d.
Section P.3.1
a. No
b. Yes
c. Yes
d. Yes
Section P.3.2
a.

490
 b.
c.
d.
e.
Section P.3.3
a.
b.
Section P.3.4
a.
b.
c.
d.
Section P.4.1
There are no You Try Questions in this section.
Section P.4.2
a. 24%, 0.24

b. 23%,

c. 0.0031,
d. 33.33%, 0.33

e. 0.078,
Section P.4.3
a. -6
b.
Section P.4.4
a. 13.27
b. -9.43
c. 3.78
d. 2.28
Section P.4.5
a. Open this graph in Desmos

491
Section P.5.1
There are no You Try Questions in this section.
Section P.5.2
a.
b.
Section P.5.3
a.
b. 4
c. -3
d. –5
e. –2

Unit 1 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 1.1.1
a. 84 inches
b. 8.2 feet
Section 1.1.2
a. 14,400 seconds
b. 14,400 minutes
Section 1.1.3
a. 576 square inches
b. 3 square feet
Section 1.2.1
a. 5.858 centimeters
b. 1,450 milliliters
c. 1.316 kilograms
d. 81,200 centimeters
Section 1.2.2
a. 1.52 m or 1.53 m

492
 b. 11.43 in. or 11.42 in.
c. 145.53 lb. or 145.37 lb.
d. 15.14 L or 15.15 L
e. 113.4 g or 113.31 g
Section 1.3.1
a. 4.5 cents per minute
b. $5.37 per gallon
Section 1.3.2
a. 144 square feet of fabric
Section 1.3.3
a. Volume is 13,824 cubic inches or 8 cubic feet.

Unit 2 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 2.1.1
a. Function
b. Not a function
c. Function
d. Not a function
e. Increasing: ; Decreasing
Section 2.1.2
a. 8
b.
Section 2.1.3
a. 16
b. 4
Section 2.1.4
a. 29
b. 9
c. 1
d. 5
e. 21
Section 2.1.5
a. It costs $179 to produce 676 gallons of chocolate chunk ice cream.
Section 2.2.1
a. or
b. or
Section 2.2.2
a.
b.
c.
d.

493
Section 2.2.3
a. Constant, identity, absolute value, quadratic, cubic, cube root
b. Identity, cubic, cube root
c. Square root,
d. Absolute value, quadratic, square root,
Section 2.2.4
a.
b.
Section 2.2.5
a.
b.
Section 2.3.1
a.
b. 40,200
Section 2.2.4
a. 30, B-intercept
b. 600, n-intercept
c. -0.05, Dollars per minute
Section 2.2.5
a. Slope: -10, Direction: Decreasing, Vertical Intercept: , Horizontal Intercept:

b. Slope: 10, Direction: Increasing, Vertical Intercept: , Horizontal Intercept:

c. Slope: 0, Direction: Horizontal, Vertical Intercept: , Horizontal Intercept: None.
Section 2.3.4
a.
b.
Section 2.3.5
a.
b. C = $14,600.
c. 4,800 toys
Section 2.4.1
Ordered Pair
x y
(x, y)
-2 -10 (-2, -10)
-1 -8 (-1, -8)
0 -6 (0, -6)
1 -4 (1,-4)
2 -2 (2,-2)
Open Graph in Desmos

494
Section 2.4.2
a. X-intercept: ; y-intercept: .
Open the graph in Desmos

Section 2.4.3
a. Slope: ; y-intercept:
Open the graph in Desmos

Section 2.4.4
a. Open this graph in Desmos

495
Section 2.4.5
a. The slope is undefined.
Open this graph in Desmos

b. The slope is zero.

Open this graph in Desmos

c. ; Slope is undefined
d.

Unit 3 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 3.1.1
a. , where C(x) is the cost, in dollars, and x is the number of miles
driven.
b. $88.75
Section 3.1.2
a.

496
 b. $41.15 for a 28-minute cab ride; base cost: $4.75; each additional minute: $1.30
Section 3.1.3
a. Cost:
b. Revenue:
c. Profit:
d. ACME must sell more than 250 widgets each month to make a profit.
Section 3.1.4
a. Open the graph in Desmos.

a.
Section 3.1.5
a. Open the graph in Desmos.

Section 3.1.6
a. Cost:
b. Revenue:
c. Profit:
d. 86
e. In order to make a profit, I have to sell am minimum of 86 bags of peanuts
Section 3.1.7
a.
b. Equilibrium price: $31
c. Equilibrium Quantity: 725 items
Section 3.2.1
a. First graph: Weak positive linear association. Second graph: Strong, negative linear
association.
Section 3.2.2
a. r = -0.92 corresponds to image 3 in the lower left corner

497
 b. r = 0.29 corresponds to image 1 in the upper left corner
c. r = 0.88 corresponds to image 2 in the upper right corner
d. r = -0.42 corresponds to image 4 in the lower right corner.
Section 3.2.3
a.
b. ; There is a strong positive correlation between calories and sodium level
in Beef Hotdogs.
Section 3.2.4
a.
b. 5.988 murders per 100,000 residents
c. 5.214 murders per 100,000 residents

Unit 4 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 4.1.1
a. 0.15
b. 0.06
c. 0.065
d. 48%
e. 13.5%
f. 111%
g. 24%
h.
Section 4.1.2
a. 20%
b. 71.2%
Section 4.1.3
a. Sales tax: $282.00
b. Maximum Home Value: $125,000
Section 4.2.1
a. Absolute change: The car’s value decreased by $2400; Relative Change: The car’s value
decreased by 8.3%.
b. Absolute change: The politician’s support has increased by 16 percentage points.
Relative Change: The politician’s support has increased by 43.2%.
Section 4.2.2
a. 19.2% decrease in price.
b. 3.1% increase in salary per week.
Section 4.3.1
a.
b.
c.

498
 d.
Section 4.3.2
a. The function values are multiplied by 5 each time x is increase by 1. See the table of
values below.
x y (x,y)
-2 or 0.4

-1 or 0.2
0 1 (0,1)
1 5 (1,5)
2 25 (2,25)

b. The graph is increasing. Domain: ; Range: . Open the graph using

Desmos.

c. The function values are multiplied by 1/5 (or divided by 5) each time x is increase by 1.
See the table of values below.
x y (x,y)
-2 25 (-2, 25)
-1 5 (-1, 5)
0 1 (0,1)
1 or 0.2

2 or 0.4

d. The graph is decreasing. Domain: ; Range: . Open the graph using

Desmos.

499
Section 4.3.3
a. Growth; Initial value: 4407; Growth Rate: 26%.
b. Decay; Initial Value: 1; Decay Rate: 9%
Section 4.3.4
a. 5.86 billion
b. $19,812
Section 4.4.1
a.
b.
Section 4.4.2
a. (Domain: ; Range: ; Asymptote: )
x y
0 1

1 or 0.33

2 or 0.11

3 or 0.04

-1 3

-2 9

b. , is equivalent to ; (Domain: ; Range: ; Asymptote:

500
 x y
1 0

or 0.33 1

or 0.11 2

or 0.04 3

3 -1

9 -2

c. Open this graph in Desmos.

Section 4.4.3
a. 3.07
b. 4.37
c. 1.66
Section 4.5.1
a. 3.07
b. 4.37
c. 1.66
Section 4.5.2
a.
b. 438 rabbits
c. 33.5 years

501
Section 4.5.4
a.
b. 114.54 million fish
c. 2037

Unit 5 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 5.1.1
a. $20,090.00
b. $27,090.00
Section 5.1.2
a. See the simple interest table below.
Year Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance
1 $3500 $210 $3710
2 $3710 $210 $3920
3 $3920 $210 $4130
4 $4130 $210 $4340
5 $4340 $210 $4550
Section 5.1.3
a. $4,160.00
b. $4,387.50
Section 5.2.1
a. See the compound interest table below.
Month Starting Balance Interest Ending Balance
1 $3800 $38 $3838
2 $3838 $38.38 $3876.38
3 $3876.38 $38.76 $3915.14
4 $3915.14 $39.15 $3954.29
5 $3954.29 $39.54 $3993.83
Section 5.2.2
a. $2636.02
b. $2657.04
c. $2667.92
d. $2675.32
e. $2678.93
Section 5.2.3
a. There will be $2,559.97 in the account after 6 years. See the table below for the values
of the TVM solver.

502
 Variable Value in this problem
N 24
I% 5
PV -1900
PMT 0
FV ?
P/Y 4
C/Y 4
PMT END
Section 5.2.4
a. Deposit: $2,583.57
Section 5.3.1
a. APY = 5.116%
Section 5.3.2
a. $5,219.29
b. APY = 4.39%
Section 5.3.3
a. APY = 2.52%

Unit 6 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 6.1.1
a. See the savings annuity table below.
Month Prior Balance 0.5% Interest on Monthly Ending Balance
Prior Balance Deposit
0 n/a n/a n/a $2400
1 $2400 $12 $150 $2562
2 $2562 $12.81 $150 $2724.81
3 $2724.81 $13.62 $150 $2888.43
4 $2888.43 $14.44 $150 $3052.87
Section 6.1.2
a. $36,677.46
b. $24,000.00
c. $12,677.46
Section 6.1.3
a. $102,416.55
Section 6.1.4
a. $575.90 each month
b. $161,784.00 in interest
Section 6.2.1
There are no you try problems in this section.

503
Section 6.2.2
a. $1,583.51
b. $2,639.82
Section 6.2.3
a. $575,251.03
b. $1,125,000.00
c. $549,748.97
Section 6.2.4
a. Deposit: $435.82 each month

504
Section 6.3.1
a. See the savings annuity table below.
Month Prior Balance 1% Interest on Monthly Ending Balance
Prior Balance Deposit
0 n/a n/a n/a $1000
1 $1000 $10 $100 $910
2 $910 $9.10 $100 $918.10
3 $819.10 $8.19 $100 $729.29
4 $729.29 $7.27 $100 $634.56
5 $634.56 $6.35 $100 $540.91
Section 6.3.2
a. Maximum car loan: $23,845.82
Section 6.3.3
a. Monthly payment: $368.08
Section 6.3.4
a. Remaining balance: $13,935.06
Section 6.4.1
a. Maximum loan: $149,911.84
b. Total paid to loan company: $396,000.00
c. Interest paid: $246,088.16
Section 6.4.2
a. Loan amount: $231,300.00
b. Monthly payments at 6% interest: $1,386.76
c. Monthly payments at 7% interest: $1,538.84
Section 6.4.3
a. Remaining balance: $201,517.00

Unit 7 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 7.1.1
a.
b.
c. Neither. Sets A and B are not equivalent since then contain a different number of
elements. Sets A and B are not equal since they do not contain the same elements.
Section 7.1.2
a. Infinite
b. Finite
c. Finite
d. Finite
Section 7.1.3
a. False, False
b. , ,AD

505
Section 7.2.1
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Section 7.2.2
a. 34 owners responded that they owned neither a cat or dog.
b. 18% of respondents did not use Twitter or Facebook.

Unit 8 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 8.1.1
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

Section 8.1.2
a.

b.

c.

d.

Section 8.1.3
a.

b.

c.

506
 d.

Section 8.2.1
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Section 8.2.2
a.

b.
Section 8.3.1
a. Expected value: -$4.46
Section 8.3.2
a. Expected value: -$13. (The average woman that purchases this life insurance policy will
lose $13. Conversely, the insurance company will gain an average of $13 for each policy
sold.)

Unit 9 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 9.1.1
a.

b.

Section 9.1.2
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

507
Section 9.2.1
a.

b.

Section 9.2.2
a.

b.

c.

d.

Section 9.3.1
a.

b.

Section 9.3.2
a. Dependent events

b.

c. Independent events

d.

Section 9.4.1
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Section 9.4.2
a.

b.

508
Section 9.4.3
a.
b.

Unit 10 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 10.1.1
a. Individual: Heart patients two days after they had a heart attack.
b. Variable: Cholesterol level.
c. Population: Set of cholesterol levels of all heart patients two days after have a heart
attack.
d. Sample: Set of cholesterol levels of 28 heart patients two days after having a heart
attack.
e. Parameter: Mean cholesterol level for heart patients two days after having a heart
attack.
f. Statistic: Mean cholesterol level of 28 heart patients two days after have a heart attack.
Section 10.2.1
a. Stratified
b. Systematic
c. Convenient
d. Simple Random
Section 10.2.2
a. Loaded or Leading Question
b. Voluntary response bias
c. Self-Interest Study
Section 10.3.1
a. Experiment; Treatment: cinnamon
b. Observational study
c. Observational study
Section 10.3.2
a. Double-blind study
b. Neither
c. Blind study
Section 10.4.1
a. Qualitative
b. Qualitative
c. Quantitative
d. Qualitative
e. Quantitative
f. Qualitative

509
Section 10.4.2
a. 16
b. 31.25%
Section 10.5.1
a. See the table below
Goals Frequency
0 5
1 7
2 6
3 2
4 3
5 2
Section 10.5.2
a. See table below
Number of Relative
Score
Students Frequency
15 – 18 10 27%
19 – 22 9 24.3%
23 – 26 2 5.4%
27 – 30 2 5.4%
31 – 34 10 27%
35 – 38 4 10.8%
Section 10.5.3
a. Minimum tree height: 10 inches; Maximum tree height: 49 inches

Unit 11 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 11.1.1
a. Left Skewed
b. Right Skewed
c. Approximately Symmetric
Section 11.1.2
a. The distribution of mens heights would best be described as slightly skewed right. Open
the graph using Desmos.

510
Section 11.2.1
a. Mean = 5.3
b. Median = 5
c. Mode = 9
Section 11.2.2
a. Mean: 97.24
b. Median: 96.4
c. Mode: 114.6
Section 11.3.1
a. Mean:
b. See the results in the able below.
Data Value Deviation Square of Deviation

200 -220 48,400

600 180 32,400
425 5 25
400 -20 400
475 55 3,025
c. Sum of squared differences: 84,250
d. Sum of squared differences divided by 5: 16,850
e. Standard Deviation:
Section 11.3.2
a. Walgreens
b. CVS
c. Answers may vary
Section 11.3.3
View the results using Desmos
a. Mean = 119.3

511
 b. Median = 119.5
c. Mode = 138
d. Range = 47
e. Sample Standard Deviation = 16.21
Section 11.4.1
View the results using Desmos
a. Min = 4; Q1 = 41; Median = 55; Q3 = 82; Max = 91
b. Range = 87
c. Interquartile Range: 41
d. Outliers: None
e. Boxplot: View the boxplot using Desmos.

Section 11.4.2
a. Jennie
b. $5,000
Section 11.4.3
View the results using Desmos
a. Min = 0; Q1 = 1; Median = 3; Q3 = 6; Max = 8
b. Range = 8
c. Interquartile Range = 5
d. Outliers: None
e. Boxplot: View the boxplot using Desmos

Section 11.5.1
a. 50%
b. 25%

512
 c. 48%
d. 35%
e. 238
f. 574

Unit 12 – Answers to You-Try Problems

Section 12.1.1
a. True
b. True
c. True
d. False
e. True
f. True
g. True
h. True
i. False
Section 12.1.2
a. 75
b. 6
c. 68%
d. 95%
e. 99.7%
f. 34%
g. 50%
h. 84%
Section 12.1.3
a. 30.1 minutes and 37.9 minutes
b. 26.2 minutes and 41.8 minutes
c. 22.3 minutes and 45.7 minutes
d. 34 minutes
Section 12.2.1
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Section 12.2.2
a. False
b. True
c. False
d. True
e. False

513
 f. False
Section 12.2.3
a.
b. 12.94 inches
Section 12.3.1
View the results using Desmos
a.
b.
c.
Section 12.3.2
View the results using Desmos
a.
b.
c.

514