Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Coulomb's law, electric field intensity, the several possible charge distributions
and corresponding electric field intensities are discussed in the previous chapter. The
electric flux and electric flux density are other important concepts in electrostatic
fields. If a unit test charge is placed near a point charge, it experiences a force. The
direction of this force can be represented by the lines joined between them, radially
coming outward from a positive point charge. These lines are called streamlines or
flux lines. Thus the electric field due to a charge can be imagined to be present
around it in terms of a quantity called electric flux. The flux lines give the pictorial
representation of distribution of electric flux around a charge. This chapter will
explain the concept of electric flux, electric flux density, Gauss’s law, applications of
Gauss's law and the divergence theorem [4].

3.2 NET CHARGE IN A REGION

With charge density defined as in chapter two, it is possible to obtain the net charge
contained in a specified volume by integration. From

It follows that

will not be constant throughout the volume, but it is a function of variable

corresponding to the specific coordinate system.

Example 2.1: Find the charge in the volume in the spherical coordinate
system, if ⁄
Solution:

∫ ∫ ∫∫( )

3.2 ELECTRIC FLUX AND ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

The electric flux is defined as the total number of lines of force in any particular
electric field. It is represented by the symbol ( ). The unit of electric flux is similar
to the unit of charge, is also Coulomb .
The net flux passing through the unit surface area normally is called the electric flux
density. It is denoted as . It has a specific direction which is normal to the surface
area under consideration hence it is a vector field [4].

44
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

 The electric flux ( ) due to the electric field originates (emanates) from
positive charge and terminates on negative charge.
 In the absence of negative charge, the flux line ( ) terminates at infinity. While in
the absence of positive charge, the electric flux terminates on the negative charge
from infinity.
 These flux lines are parallel and never cross each other.
 The lines are independent of the medium in which charges are placed.
 The lines always enter or leave the charged surface, normally.
 If the charge on a body is coulombs, then the total number of lines originating
or terminating on it is also , But the total number of lines is nothing but a flux.
 By definition, one coulomb of electric charge gives rise to one coulomb of
electric flux. Hence

In Figure (3.1) the flux lines leave ( ) and terminate on (– ). This assumes that the
two charges are of equal magnitude. The case of positive charge with no negative
charge in the region is illustrated in Figure (3.2). Here the flux lines are equally
spaced throughout the solid angle, and reach out toward infinity.

+Q Q +Q

Fig. (3.1) Fig. (3.2)

Notes:
 The electric flux ( ) is also called displacement or displacement flux.
 The electric flux density is also called displacement flux density or
displacement density.

The electric flux ( ) is a scalar quantity, while the electric flux density ( ) is a vector
field which takes its direction from the lines of flux. If in the neighborhood of point P
the lines of flux have the direction of the unit vector (a) Figure (3.3) and if an amount
of flux ( ) crosses the differential area ( ), which is normal to (a). then the
electric flux density ( ) at is:

( ⁄ )

45
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

an D

θ
a D
dS
P dS

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

A volume charge distribution of density is shown enclosed by surface in
Figure (3.4). Since each coulomb of charge (Q) has, by definition, one coulomb of
flux ( ). It follows that the net flux crossing the closed surface ( ) is an exact
measure of the net charge enclosed. However, the electric flux density ( ) may vary
in magnitude and direction from point to point of ( ); in general, electric flux density
( ) will not be along the normal to ( ). If at the surface element ( ), makes an
angle with the normal, then the differential flux crossing ( ) is given by

Where, is the vector surface element of magnitude and direction . The unit
vector always taken to point out of , so that is the amount of flux passing
from the interior of to the exterior of through .

3.3 GAUSS'S LAW- MAXWELL'S EQUATION

Gauss's law constitutes one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism.
Gauss's law states that the total electric flux ( ) through any closed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed ( ) by that surface. Thus

Integration of the above expression for ( ) over the closed surface ( ) gives, since

∮ ∮ ∫

∮ ∫

It will be seen that a great deal of valuable information can be obtained the
application of Gauss's law without actually carrying out the integration.

46
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

3.4. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY ( ) AND ELECTRIC

FIELD INTENSITY ( ).
Consider a point charge (assumed positive, for simplicity) at the origin Figure
(3.5). If this is enclosed by a spherical surface of radius ( ), then, by symmetry ( )
due to ( ) is of constant magnitude over the surface and is everywhere normal to the
surface. Gauss's law then gives

∮ ∮

Fig. 3.5
From which

Therefore

But, the electric field intensity due to is

It follows that

More generally, for any electric field in an isotropic medium of permittivity ( ).

47
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

Thus, electric flux density ( ) and electric field intensity ( ) will have exactly the same
form, since they differ only by a factor which is a constant of the medium. While the
electric field intensity ( ) due to a charge configuration is a function of permittivity, ,
while the electric flux density ( ) is not.[3]

3.5 SPECIAL GAUSSIAN SURFACES

The spherical surface used in the derivation of Section 3.4 was a special Gaussian
surface in that satisfied the following defining conditions:
1. the surface is closed
2. at each point of the surface is either normal or tangential to the surface
3. has the some value at all points of the surface where is normal

Example 3.2: Use special Gaussian surface to find due to a uniform line change,
( ).
Solution: Take the line charge as the z-axis of cylindrical coordinates Figure (3.6). By
cylindrical symmetry, can only have an ( ) component, and this component can
only depend on ( ). Thus, the special Gaussian surface for this problem is a closed
right circular cylinder whose axis is the z-axis Figure (3.7). Applying Gauss's law.

∮ ∮ ∮

Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7

Over surfaces (1) and (3), D and are orthogonal and so the integrals vanish. Over
surface 2, D and are parallel or antiparallel if is negative and D is constant
because is constant Thus,

∮ ∫∫

Where, is the length of the cylinder. But the enclosed charge is,

∫ ∫

Hence,[3]

48
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

3.6 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS'S LAW

The procedure for applying Gauss's law to calculate the electric field involves first
knowing whether symmetry exists. Once symmetric charge distribution exists, we
construct a mathematical closed surface (known as a Gaussian surface).
The surface is chosen such that D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian surface.
 When, D is normal to the surface, because D is constant on the
surface.
 When D is tangential to the surface, .
Thus we must choose a surface that has some of the symmetry exhibited by the
charge distribution. We shall now apply these basic ideas to the following cases.

A. Point Charge
Suppose a point charge is located at the origin. To determine at a point , it is
easy to see that choosing a spherical surface containing will satisfy symmetry
conditions. Thus, a spherical surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface in
this case and is shown in Figure (3.8).
Since is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is,
By applying Gauss's law gives,

∮ ∮

Fig. 3.8 Gaussian surface about a point charge.

∮ ∫ ∫

( ) is the surface area of the Gaussian surface. Thus

B. Infinite Line Charge

Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge lies along the z-axis. To
determine D at a point P, we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy

49
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

symmetry condition as shown in Figure (3.9). D is constant on and normal to the

cylindrical Gaussian surface; that is, .
Apply Gauss's law to an arbitrary length of the line.

Fig. 3.9. Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge.

∮ ∮

Where,

∮ ∫ ∫

( ) is the surface area of the Gaussian surface. Note that ∫ evaluated on the
top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder is zero since has no -component; that
means that is tangential to those surfaces. Thus

C. Infinite Sheet of Charge

Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge lying on the plane (in
the -plane). To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as
shown in Figure (3.10). As D is normal to the sheet, .
Applying Gauss's law gives

Fig. 3.10. Gaussian surface about an infinite line sheet of charge.

50
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

∫ ∮ ∮ *∫ ∫ +

Note that evaluated on the sides of the box is zero because has no
components along and . If the top and bottom area of the box each has area ,
equation above becomes

and thus

or

D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge . To determine D
everywhere, we construct Gaussian surfaces for eases and separately.
Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface is an
appropriate Gaussian surface.
For , the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius , as shown in
Figure (3.11a), is

Fig. 3.11 Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged sphere: (a) and (b) .

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

and

51
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

∮ ∮ ∮

∫ ∫

Hence, gives,

or

For , the Gaussian surface is shown in Figure (3.11b). The charge enclosed by
the surface is the entire charge in this case, that is,

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

While,

∮ ∮

Hence, gives,

or

Thus from equations (3.23) and (3.26), everywhere is given by

{
and |D| is as sketched in Figure (3.12).

52
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

Figure 3.12 Sketch of |D| against for a uniformly charged sphere.

Notice from equations (3.23), (3.15), (3.17) and (3.21) that the ability to take out of
the integral sign is the key to finding using Gauss's law. In other words, must be
constant on the Gaussian surface.
3.7 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM
We have noticed that the net outflow of the flux of a vector field from a closed
surface S is obtained from the integral

We now define the divergence of as the net outward flow of flux per unit volume
over a closed incremental surface.
The divergence of a vector at a given point is the net outward flux per unit
volume as the volume shrinks about . Hence,
∮

Where, is the volume enclosed by the closed surface in which is located.

Fig. 3.13 illustration of the divergence of a vector field at ; (a) positive divergence,
(b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.

The divergence of a vector field the limit of the field's source strength per unit
volume (or source density); it is positive at a source point in the field, and negative at
a sink point, or zero where there is neither sink nor source.

53
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

3.7.1 Divergence In Cartesian Coordinates

We can obtain an expression for Divergence ( ) in Cartesian coordinates from the
definition in equation (3.28). Suppose we wish to evaluate the divergence of a vector
field at point, ; we let the point be enclosed by a differential volume as
in Fig. 3.14. The surface integral in equation (3.28) is obtained from

∮ ( ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ )

A three-dimensional Taylor series expansion of about is:

| | |

For the front side, and . Then,

∫ [ | ]

For the back side, and . Then,

∫ [ | ]

Figure 3.14 Evaluation of at point P( ).

∫ ∫ |

By taking similar steps, we obtain

∫ ∫ |

and

54
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

∫ ∫ |

Substituting equations (3.31) to (3.33) into eq. (3.29) and noting that
we get
∮

Because the higher-order terms will vanish as . Thus, the divergence of A at

point P in a Cartesian system is given by

3.7.2 Divergence In Other Coordinates System

Similar expressions for in other coordinate systems can be obtained directly
from eq. (3.28) or by transforming eq. (3.35) into the appropriate coordinate system.

1. In Cylindrical Coordinate System:

( )
2. In Spherical Coordinate System:

Note the following properties of the divergence of a vector field:

1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar , , makes no sense.
3.
4.

Example 3.3: If find at

Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
|
Example 3.4: If the vector field by cylindrical coordinates
, find at ⁄ ⁄

Solution:

55
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

⁄ ⁄
H.w 3.1: If the field vector in spherical coordinate
, find

3.8 DIVERGENCE OF D (first Maxwell equation for electrostatic field)

From Gauss's law
∮

In the limit,
∮

This important result is one of Maxwell’s equations for static fields:

Example 3.5:
In spherical coordinates the region contains a uniform charge density ρ, while
for the charge density is zero. Since where ) for and
for .
Solution: Then, for .
( ) ( )

( )

3.9 THE DEL OPERATOR

We define the del operator as a vector operator

( ) ( )

The del operator is defined only in Cartesian coordinate system. When is writing
as the divergence of in other coordinate systems, it does not mean that a del
operator defined for these systems. For example, the divergence in cylindrical
coordinate written as
( )

56
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

3.10 THE DIVERGANCE THEOREM

From the definition of the divergence of D in eq. (3.28), the divergence of D

∮ ∮

But,

∮ ∮

For any vector field

∮ ∮

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss-Ostrogradsky

theorem.
The divergence theorem: states that the total outward flux of a vector field through
the closed surface is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of .

Example 3.6: The region in spherical coordinate system has an electric field
intensity
Examine both sides of the divergence theorem, for this vector field. For choose the
spherical surface

∮ ∮

Solution: For the left side

∮ ∫ ∫( ) ∫ ∫

For the right side

( )

∮ ∫ ∫ ∫

The right side the left side

57
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

Example 3.7: The finite sheet , on the plane has a charge

density . Find
(a) The total charge on the sheet (b) The electric field at
(c) The force experienced by a charge located at
Solution: ∫ ∫ ∫
Since, , we now integrate with respect to (or change variables:
so that ).

∫∫ ∫ |

[ ]

[ ]

∫ ∫
| |
where . Hence
( )
∫∫

* ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ +

[ ]

( )
( )

Problems
3.1.[2] Determine the charge density due to each of the following electric flux
densities:
(a)
(b)
(b) *( ) ( ) +
3.2.[2] Let , find
(a) Electric flux density D.
(b) The volume charge density .

58
Electromagnetic Fields Chapter 3: Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law and Divergence

3.3.[2] In free space, . Find the total charge

stored in the region , , .
3.4.[2] In a certain region, the electric field is given by

(a) Find the charge density.

(b) Calculate the total charge enclosed by the volume ; ;
.
(c) Confirm Gauss's law by finding the net flux through the surface of the volume in
(b).
3.5.[2] Given that
{
Determine D everywhere.
3.6.[2] Let

(a) Find the net flux crossing surface m and m.

(b) Determine D at m and m.
3.7.[1] The cylindrical surface cm contains the surface charge deasity,
| |
. (a) What is the total amount of charge present? (b) How much
electric flux leaves the surface cm, , ?
3.8.[1] Let and evaluate surface
integrals to find the total charge enclosed in the rectangular parallelepiped
, , m.
3.9.[1] A uniform volume charge density of is present throughout the
region . Let for . (a) Find the total charge
inside the spherical surface . (b) Find at mm. (c) If there is no
charge for mm, find at mm.
3.10.[1] A cube is defined by . If :
(a) apply Gauss’s law to find the total flux leaving the closed surface of the cube; (b)
evaluate at the center of the cube, (c) Estimate the total charge
enclosed within the cube by using Equation below.

3.11.[1] Let a vector field be given by . Evaluate both sides of Eq.

For this G field and the volume defined by and , and , and
and . Evaluate the partial derivatives at the center of the volume.

59