Question 1
Explain the subgrade soil properties
The subgrade soil plays a foundational role in supporting the overlying pavement layers and is integral to
the long-term performance of roadways, runways and other infrastructure. To effectively design and
construct these structures, the subgrade must be evaluated in terms of various physical, mechanical and
environmental Understanding the subgrade soil properties is essential for ensuring durability, strength
and resistance to deformation or failure.
Soil Classification and Types
Before any construction begins, it is essential to classify the subgrade soil to understand its behavior
under different conditions. Two commonly used classification systems are:Unified Soil Classification
System:this system divides soils into coarse-grained (sands and gravels) and fine-grained (silts and clays),
based on particle size distribution. Coarse grained soils are further classified based on gradation (well-
graded vs. poorly graded), while fine-grained soils are categorized by plasticity characteristics.AASHTO
Classification System: AASHTO focuses on soil suitability for highway construction and divides soils into
groups based on grain size, liquid limit and plasticity index. For instance, group A1 represents excellent
subgrade materials like gravel, while group A7 represents poorer soils like clay.The classification of soil
provides critical insights into its load-bearing capacity, drainage characteristics, and response to
environmental factors such as moisture or freezing.
Compaction and Density
Compaction is the process of increasing the soil’s density by reducing air voids, which enhances its
strength and stability. Properly compacted soil resists deformation under loads and prevents settlement
that could lead to cracks and other pavement failures.Standard and Modified Proctor Tests: These tests
determine the optimal moisture content (OMC) and the maximum dry density that the soil can achieve
under standard or modified compaction efforts. Achieving maximum dry density at the right moisture
level ensures the best possible performance.Field Compaction Control: During construction, field tests
like the nuclear density test or the sand cone test are used to measure in-situ soil density and verify
whether the required compaction has been achieved.Insufficient compaction can result in pavement
failure due to settlement or loss of support, while over-compaction can make the soil brittle and prone
to cracking.
Moisture Content and Plasticity
Moisture content affects the strength, compressibility and swelling potential of subgrade soils,
particularly in clayey soils. Too much moisture can lead to reduced soil strength and bearing capacity,
whereas too little moisture may make the soil difficult to compact.Atterberg Limits: these limits are key
indicators of a soil’s plasticity (its ability to deform without breaking) and include:Liquid Limit:the
moisture content at which soil changes from a plastic state to a liquid state.Plastic Limit: the moisture
content at which soil changes from a solid state to a plastic state.Plasticity Index: the range of moisture
content over which the soil remains plastic (PI = LL - PL). High plasticity index soils tend to swell and
shrink with changes in moisture content.Swelling Potential: Soils with high plasticity, like expansive
clays, swell when they absorb water and shrink when they dry out. This shrink-swell behavior can lead to
structural issues, such as uneven settlement and cracking in pavements and foundations.Knowing the
plasticity and moisture content of subgrade soils is crucial for predicting and mitigating issues like
settlement, cracking, and pavement distress, especially in areas prone to high seasonal moisture
variations.
Permeability and Drainage
The permeability of subgrade soil refers to its ability to transmit water.Soils with high permeability such
as sands and gravels allow water to drain quickly reducing the likelihood of water accumulation beneath
the pavement. Low permeability soils, like clays, retain water which can weaken the subgrade and lead
to deformation under loads.Drainage Design,proper drainage systems, such as sub-surface drains, are
often installed to manage water levels in low permeability soils, preventing water from accumulating
and weakening the pavement structure.Poor drainage can lead to saturation of the subgrade, which
weakens its support and can result in excessive deformation or even pavement failure. Managing
permeability and installing proper drainage systems are essential for maintaining long-term pavement
integrity.
Soil Strength – California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
CBR is a widely used test to evaluate the strength of subgrade soils and their ability to withstand traffic
loads. It compares the bearing capacity of the soil to that of a standard crushed stone. CBR values
provide a basis for determining the required thickness of pavement layers.CBR Testing,the test involves
applying a load to a soil sample and measuring the penetration resistance. A higher CBR value indicates
stronger soil, which requires thinner pavement layers, while lower CBR values necessitate thicker layers
to distribute loads adequately.Typical CBR Values:Well-compacted granular materials: 20-30% or
higher,weak poorly compacted clay soils: 2-5%.CBR values guide engineers in determining the necessary
pavement thickness and ensuring that the subgrade can support anticipated traffic loads without
excessive deformation.
Resilient Modulus (MR)
The resilient modulus (MR) is a measure of the subgrade’s ability to recover its shape after being
subjected to repeated loading, such as traffic. It is an important property for flexible pavement design,
as it indicates the elastic behavior of the soil under cyclic loads.Testing MR,resilient modulus is typically
determined through repeated load triaxial tests, where a cyclic load is applied to a soil specimen, and
the resulting deformation is measured.Impact of Soil Type: Granular soils generally exhibit higher MR
values, indicating better resilience under repeated loads, while fine-grained soils like clay may have
lower MR values and can be more prone to permanent deformation.Resilient modulus helps in
designing pavements that can withstand long-term traffic loading without experiencing excessive
settlement or fatigue cracking.
Shear Strength and Stability
Shear strength represents the maximum stress that soil can withstand before failing in shear. This
property is critical for determining the stability of the subgrade, especially in sloped or hilly terrain
where there is a risk of soil slippage.Cohesion and Internal Friction,shear strength depends on two key
parameters which are cohesion,the internal bonding of soil particles, which is stronger in cohesive soils
like clay.Internal Friction Angle (φ),the resistance to sliding along internal planes, higher in granular soils
like sand and gravel.Direct Shear and Triaxial Tests: These tests measure the shear strength of soils
under controlled loading conditions.Sufficient 8shear strength ensures that the subgrade remains stable
under traffic loads and prevents issues like landslides or pavement displacement, especially in areas with
slopes or embankments.
Frost Heave and Frost Susceptibility
In cold climates, frost heave can occur when subgrade soils freeze, causing the water in the soil to
expand. When the soil thaws, it contracts, leading to uneven settlement and potential pavement
damage.Frost-Susceptible Soils,fine-grained soils like silts and clays are more prone to frost heave due to
their ability to retain moisture.Mitigation Strategies,to prevent frost heave, designers can use non-frost-
susceptible materials, increase pavement thickness, or improve drainage to prevent water accumulation
in the subgrade.Understanding frost susceptibility is essential in cold regions to prevent the cyclical
freezing and thawing that can lead to significant pavement damage, cracking and uneven surfaces.
Factors Affecting Subgrade Performance:
Climate,in wet climates, water infiltration can weaken the subgrade while freeze-thaw cycles in colder
climates can cause frost heave and pavement cracking. Drainage,proper drainage is crucial to maintain
the stability of the subgrade. Poor drainage can lead to water accumulation, weakening the soil and
causing deformation.Load Conditions,the type and intensity of traffic loads (e.g., heavy trucks) play a
role in determining how the subgrade should be designed. Soils that are subject to repeated heavy loads
need to be more resilient and well-compacted.
In conclusion,the properties of subgrade soil, including strength, compaction, moisture content,
permeability, plasticity, and shear strength, are all critical to the performance and durability of roadways
and pavements. Proper evaluation and treatment of the subgrade are necessary to ensure that the
pavement structure can withstand traffic loads, environmental conditions and time without excessive
maintenance or failure. Soil testing, classification and careful design adjustments based on subgrade
properties are essential steps in any successful construction project.
