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Drainage network and lineament analysis: An approach for Potwar Plateau (Northern
Pakistan)
Article in Journal of Mountain Science · February 2009
DOI: 10.1007/s11629-009-0206-4

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J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24
DOI 10.1007/s11629-009-0206-4

Drainage Network and Lineament Analysis: An Approach for Potwar

Plateau (Northern Pakistan)

Faisal SHAHZAD*, Syed Amer MAHMOOD and Richard GLOAGUEN

Remote Sensing Group, Institute of Geology, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Freiberg, 09599,
Germany. lineaments from DEM is strongly positive in
the area within 1 km of radius.
*Corresponding Author:
[email protected]
Keywords: Drainage network; lineaments;
stream profile analysis; uplift rate; local
correlation

Abstract: Drainage responds rapidly to

tectonic changes and thus it is a potential Received: 10 July 2008
parameter for tectonogeomorphological Accepted: 8 October 2008
analysis. Drainage network of Potwar is a Introduction
good geological record of movement,
displacements, regional uplifts and erosion The Potwar Plateau is a part of North
of the tectonic units. This study focuses on Western Himalayan Fold and thrust belt,
utilizing drainage network extracted from
and it lies on the western flank of India-
Shuttle Radar Digital Elevation Data (SRTM-
Eurasia collision zone. The tectonic
DEM) in order to constrain the structure of
settings of the Potwar Plateau are
the Potwar Plateau. SWAN syncline divides
Potwar into northern Potwar deformed zone
influenced by the northward subduction of
(NPDZ) and southern Potwar platform zone the Indian plate beneath Eurasian plate as
(SPPZ). We extracted the drainage network shown in Figure 1. We used the Digital
from DEM and analyzed 112 streams using Elevation Models from SRTM (90 m
stream power law. Spatial distribution of resolution version 3.0). The drainage
concavity and steepness indices were used networks in active regions are strongly
to prepare uplift rate map for the area. DEM and rapidly influenced due to tectonic and
was further utilized to extract lineaments to erosion changes, and thus they are
study the mutual relationship between potential instruments for
lineaments and drainage patterns. We tectonogeomorphological analysis. The
compared the local correlation between the drainage network of Potwar has preserved
extracted lineaments and drainage network good geological record of the movement,
of the area that gives us quantitative displacement, regional uplifts and erosion
information and shows promising prospects.
of tectonic units. The Swan River bisects
The streams in the NPDZ indicate high
the Potwar Plateau diagonally and controls
steepness values as compared to the streams
its drainage pattern. It divides the Potwar
in the SPPZ. The spatial distribution of
Plateau into northern Potwar deformed
geomorphic parameters and uplift rates
suggest the distinctive deformation among zone (NPDZ) and southern Potwar
eastern, central and western parts. The local platform zone (SPPZ) on the basis of
correlation between drainage network and crustal deformation.

14
 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

We prepared MATLAB script files to steepness and concavity indices as

extract drainage network and lineaments compared to the streams in SPPZ. Spatial
from DEM. These scripts took elevation distribution of geomorphic indices and
information from DEM and applied D8 uplift rates differentiated among eastern,
Algorithm which calculates flow direction central and western parts. The eastern
at each cell to the lowest neighboring cells part showed more deformation and high
(O'Callaghan and Mark 1984). The uplift rates.
vectorization of the flow directions The orientation of lineaments and
allowed us to calculate stream paths. The drainage patterns were helpful to
extracted drainage network consisted of calculate the amount of deformation
112 streams with elevation and upstream mathematically. We calculated the local

Figure 1 Generalized tectonic map of India-Eurasia collision zone (Pivnik and Wells
1996). The study area is represented by red rectangle and shown in Figure2. PP: the
Potwar Plateau; KP: Kohat Plateau; MMT: Main Mantle Thrust; HKS: Hazara Kashmir
Syntaxis. Green dashed line represents geographical boundary of Pakistan with China
and
area information as a function of spatial correlation between drainage network and
locations. We analyzed these individually lineaments for this propose. This local
extracted stream profiles and thus the correlation showed the influence of
whole drainage network by using stream lineaments on nearby streams and is
power law of scaling relation. The stream strongly positive in the area within 1 km
profile analysis helped us to calculate radius, i.e., the lineaments within 1 km
geomorphic indices and uplift rates of radius of any stream strongly influence
each stream under certain assumptions. their presence.
The streams in NPDZ indicated high

Afghanistan.

15
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

1 Tectonic Settings of the Area (Jadoon et al. 1997, Moghal et al. 2003,
Monalisa et al. 2002).
The collisional zones are important for
the formation of fold and thrust belts. The
Himalayan fold and thrust belt was
produced due to the thrusting of the
Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate
during Himalayan orogeny. This orogeny
consists of Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT),
i.e., Shyok Suture zone, Main Mantle
Thrust (MMT),
i.e., Indus Suture zone, Main Central
Thrust (MCT),
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Salt
Range Thrust (SRT) as major tectonic
boundaries. Due to this continuous
orogenic process the stress started
shifting towards the Main Central Thrust
(MCT) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT),
respectively. The northwestern part of this
mountain belt refers as northwestern
Himalayan fold and thrust belt (NWHFTB),
and is shown in Figure 2. The NWHFTB
consists of the terrain from MMT to SRT,
while Hazara Kashmir Syntaxes and
Nanga Parbat Haramosh Massif mark its
eastern boundary. The western limit of this
fold and thrust belt is marked by some
thrust faults in the eastern Afghanistan.
This area consists of thin skinned tectonic
features of Eocene time (Baker et al. 1988,
Jadoon and Frisch 1997, Jadoon et al.
1997, Jan et al. 2005, Kazmi and Jan.
1997, Khan et al. 1986, Monalisa et al.
2002, Monalisa et al. 2007).
The Potwar Plateau is structurally
complex and seismically less active part of
NWHFTB. It extends from the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the north to the
Salt Range Thrust in the south, while the
Jehlum Fault and Kalabagh Fault mark
their eastern and western boundaries,
respectively. This plateau contains surface
representation of most of the subsurface
structures which help us to study them
with remote sensing technology. But in
most of the cases, the surface features do
not reflect the subsurface structure due to
structural complexity. The structural
complexity of the area is well distributed
in eastern, middle and western section

16
 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

Active features like Mangla and Maira

faults of approximately 10 km long each
are present in eastern section. They are
WNW-ESE or ENE-WSW trending faults
with only dip slip movement recorded
along the traces. The short irregular
active fault traces of the Jehlum Fault
trending NESW are also present along the
eastern margin of Salt Range. Khairi
Murat Fault is another prominent feature
in this region. These faults are easily
identified with fault scarp. The presence
of dislocated Pleistocene river terraces
and fan surfaces forms distinctive fault
scarplets (Nakata et al. 1991). This area
consists of steeply dipping active faults
which produce straight traces that clearly
offset geomorphic features. The tectonic

Figure 2 Tectonic map of the study area. The major tectonic subdivisions are clearly
marked,

i.e., the Northern Potwar Deformed Zone (NPDZ) and Southern Potwar Platform Zone
(SPPZ).

map of the Potwar Plateau is shown in

Figure 2 and different localized faults are
also mentioned here.

17
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

2 Methodology downstream distance and Strahler order.

Stream longitudinal profiles are identified
and selected based on least cost path
Remote sensing data is available in
analysis that computes the paths of least
variety of formats and resolutions, and
resistance down slope (i.e. the
affects the quality of extracted
downstream flow path). Individual streams
geomorphic features. We used the SRTM
are prepared in ASCII format for further
DEM of 90 m resolution to extract
processes. As the extracted streams
drainage network and lineaments. The
contain some error, so some smoothening
drainage network is extracted from digital
algorithms are applied depending upon
elevation model of the area by calculating
number of node, i.e., smoothing factor.
flow directions at all points using D8
This algorithm was implemented in
algorithm. Flow direction is dependent on
MATLAB and calculated all the required
upslope area and specific catchment area,
parameters. Stream profile analysis was
so both are calculated efficiently. The
applied on each stream to obtain valuable
choice of stream delineation algorithms
information based on bedrock incision
can influence the stream parameters like
model which states that detachment
contributing area, slope, elevation,

Figure 3 Transient-state profile between initial low-uplift and final high-uplift zones. The
knick zone which is represented by knickpoints migrates upstream as the channel responds
to the uplift-rate change. This migration is dependent upon the lithology of both units
and/or fault activity. The inset

shows the slope vs. drainage area data for the longitudinal profiles in which the channel
concavity θ is the same for both the initial and final profiles, while the steepness, ks, is
considerably higher for the final profile. This figure is modified from that of Snyder et al.
(2000).

The contrasts in lithologies or presence of

faults help the streams to reach a new dz mn

equilibrium condition. Mathematically, this =U − E =U − KA S
can be written in following form:
(1) dt
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 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

limited channels did not observe a

continuous cover of alluvial sediments,
even at low flow because of equal stream
gradient for erosion and uplift as shown in
Figure 3. .

19
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

where U and E represent uplift and using the concavity index of upper
erosion rates, respectively. K represents segment of each stream. Normalized
erosion efficiency factor which is directly steepness index is calculated using this
related to sediments and rock strength, A mean concavity or a regionally estimated
is upstream drainage area and S is concavity index. The uplift rate as shown
channel slope. The constants m and n are in equation 4 is a function of normalized
dependent on basin hydrology, hydraulic steepness index ksn, constants n and K. We
geometry and erosion process. dz/dt can calculate the uplift rates in the area
represents the changing rate of elevation by assuming constant values of n and K
with respect to time and if landscape is in which can be obtained from already
steady-state condition, then it is equal to available studies (Anderson et al. 1994,
0. Thus for a steady state landscape, Seidl and Dietrich 1992, Tucker and
equation 1 can be written as: Slingerland 1996, Wobus et al. 2006).
1/ n
Knickpoints are important tool to
understand the landscape response to a
⎛U ⎞ m/ n
base level fall and the corresponding
S =⎜ ⎟ A sediment fluxes from rejuvenated
(2) ⎝ K ⎠ catchments. We identified those points on
individual stream profiles and hence their
where m/n shows the concavity of the spatial distribution is available in map
profile and coefficient ( )
U /K 1/ n is view to see the tectonic behavior (Bishop
steepness of the profile. Power function et al. 2005).
for stream gradients is represented by We prepared the lineament database
of the area using Hough transformation to
study this relationship (Gloaguen et al.
S =ksA−θ (3)
2007). We calculated
the attitude of these extracted lineaments
where θ and ks are concavity and
and streams of the drainage network. We
steepness indices, respectively. They can
prepared the rose diagrams of the
be measured directly by regression
lineaments and drainage network to
analysis of data as shown in equation 3,
observe their inter-relationship. In order
i.e., area and slope (Howard 1994,
to perform the detailed analysis we
Montgomery et al. 1996, Schoenbohm et
calculated the correlation between the
al. 2004, Snyder et al. 2000, Whipple
drainage network and lineaments because
2004, Wobus et al. 2006). By combining
we still did not know the quantitative
equations 2 and 3 we can get a useful
relationship between flow directions of
relationship for calculating uplift rates.
rivers and fault alignment. This
correlation could help us understand the
U =ksnnK (4) influence of lineaments on the drainage or
vice versa. For this reason we compared
where ksn is normalized steepness index. the local correlation between DEM
This equation gives us uplift rate for the extracted lineaments and drainage
area with steady state landscape by network of the area respectively. To
choosing appropriate values of m, n and K. calculate these parameter two different
Stream profile analysis is implemented on line systems A1 and A2 are to be
the selected trends of each stream for considered:
calculating channel parameters.
Geomorphic parameters, i.e., concavity A1 = Drainage system
and steepness values are calculated after A2 = Lineaments system
logarithmic regression analysis of area
and slope values of a selected trend. The
mean concavity index is calculated by

20
 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

The line densities (intensities) λ 1 and These stream profiles show the difference
λ2 of these two systems are measured between initial low-uplift and final high-
first: uplift zone as shown in Figure 3. By using
stream power law the data obtained for
⎡length(A1)⎤ steepness and concavity indices mostly
=⎢ ⎥ give similar information, because a
λ1 ⎣ Area ⎦ downstream transition between two
(5) different steepness values is normally
bridged by a zone of very high or low
where length (A1) is the total line length of
concavity. However the channel concavity
the drainage system and line density is
θ remains the same for both the initial and
measured in inverse of distance, i.e., [Km] -
1
final profiles, while the steepness, ks,
. The reduced covariance C12 gives the
becomes considerably higher for the final
expected total line length of A2 measured
profile (Snyder et al. 2000). In other
in a circle with radius r. The circle is
words, the general low concavities of
placed at any point belonging to A1. The
streams indicate downstream increases in
C12 is well approximated by moving the
either incision rate or change in rock
circle at regular intervals along A2,
strength. The sharpness of the knickpoints
measuring total fault lengths inside, and
gives relative information that how the
calculating the expected value over all
more recent tectonics or river capture
measuring points. C12 completely
events had occurred. In general, the
describes the correlation between faults
sharper the knickpoints, the more recently
and streams (Clark and Wilson 1994,
it developed (Wobus et al. 2006).
Grassberger and Procaccia 1983, Stoyan
We have studied the Swan River which
and Stoyan 1983).
bisects the Potwar Plateau into two parts.
The extracted streams and lineaments are
located on both sides of the river as shown
G12(r) =⎡⎢ drd
C12(r)⎤−1 (6) in Figure 8. We have studied all the
streams and main channel by stream
⎥
power law. The analysis of three
⎣ 2πrλ2 ⎦ prominent streams, i.e., Main Swan River,
Stream A in NPDZ and Stream B in SPPZ
G12 is a local correlation coefficient
is discussed here in details. Figure 4
and is a function of radius r. We plotted
shows the stream profile analysis of the
these computed values of G12 vs. r and
Swan River. This is a three segment
connected the points. This graph shows us
channel and represents relict landscape.
the influence of drainage system over the
The presence of active tectonic features is
lineaments and vice versa.
observed with the help of two knickpoints.
The
3 Results and Discussions first knickpoint shows the presence of
Main Boundary thrust while the second
point is right after the end of the Rawal
The principle goal of Lake which is another import geomorphic
tectonogeomorphology is to extract feature in the vicinity of Islamabad along
tectonic information from the longitudinal Murree Road. This profile observes three
profiles. These profiles contain tectonic trends based on the morphological
information in the form of knickpoints and observation, i.e., an upper segment,
their Strahler order as well. In any profile middle segment and lower segment. The
the knickpoints migrates upstream or upper segment travels over relict
downstream as the channel responds to landscape with low steepness index 70.1
the tectonic changes or the change of the and uniform concavity index 0.31, which
lithology along the path of the stream. mean that they have been less eroded

21
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

during the recent erosion processes. The respectively to understand the lineament
middle segment shows intermediate behavior, shown in Figure 5 and 6. The
concavity 1.75 and steepness 56.63, which morphology of both streams consists of
shows that the area has undergone two segments with identified knickpoints.
intermediate erosion process or uplift. The The first segment of Stream A shows relict
lower segment suggests higher concavity landscape with no or very little erosion,
and lower steepness indices, i.e., 2.71 and but after crossing the Khairi Murat Fault it
36.2. Along the downstream of the river, shows high concavity and steepness
the sudden change in the geomorphic indices. Stream B is flowing in SPPZ and
indices shows gradual change in lithology has higher concavity values from 0.99 to
and tectonic activity. The eastern section 1.08. But both segments have almost
of the river has high steepness values and equal values of steepness index of 9.8 and
because steepness is directly proportional 9.5 which are generally very low. As the
to uplift rate it means that we have more values of steepness are directly related to
deformation processes working on eastern uplift, thus comparing these values to
section as compared to central or western those of Stream A we can conclude that
section. Previous studies also suggest that NPDZ is more deformed and is uplifting,
the eastern section is more deformed and while SPPZ is more stable. The detailed
this deformation decreases towards concavity and steepness values are shown
central and western section of the plateau in Table. This table shows increasing
(Moghal et al. 2003). We studied streams normalized steepness and concavity from
A and B from NPDZ and SPPZ, the upper, middle to lower
segments, and high variability of concavity indices steepness index is calculated with a
fixed mean in the middle segments and normalized steepness concavity value of 0.45.
indices in the upper segment. The normalized

Figure 4 Stream profile analysis of the Swan River. It clearly shows that the two main
knickpoints and three clear segments are identified. This helps us separate the Eastern,
Western and Central Potwar.

22
 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

Figure 5 Stream profile analysis of Stream A from NPDZ. It clearly shows that the
location of Khairi Murat Fault is identified by the two main knickpoints.

Figure 6 Stream profile analysis of Stream B from SPPZ. It is a two segment profile
showing very less variation in steepness.

Table 1 Normalized steepness and concavity values

23
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

Total stream No. Concavity Normalized steepness

Upper segment 79 0.82212 ± 16.2807 ± 9.9173

0.62575

Middle Segment 18 2.0587 ± 20.2293 ± 11.3447

1.0809

Lower Segment 2 2.8607 ± 28.3245 ± 11.1383

0.21998
section from 0.016 to 0.025 cm/yr and in
the western section from 0.004 to 0.01
We apply stream profile analysis on all cm/yr. This suggests that the eastern
the 112 streams of the extracted drainage section has been experiencing more uplift
network, and calculate the concavity and compared to the rest of the plateau.
steepness values. By using these concavity We then compare lineaments and
and steepness values we calculate the drainage network and try to figure out
uplift rates in different areas of the their influence on each other, but the
plateau and try to correlate them to the visual interpretation is not enough to
ongoing deformation processes. The provide sufficient information due to
determination of uplift rates with stream structural complexity of the Potwar
profile analysis is based on assumptions, Plateau. The local correlation provides the
mainly with regard to the steadystate interrelationship between streams and
incision process. The uplift rate map of the faults. It is especially a means of
area is shown in Figure 7. The uplift rate preliminary graphical exploratory
map shows the amount of uplift per year in investigation that enables the user to
different parts of the plateau. In the quickly estimate in how far streams are
eastern section the uplift rate ranges from affected by active tectonic processes. The
0.0041 cm/yr to 0.070 cm/yr, in the central extracted drainage network and
lineaments are

24
 J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

Figure 7 Uplift rate map of the area showing uplift values (cm/yr). Distribution of the uplift
rates and knickpoints helps us not only quantify the amount of deformation, but also separate
eastern, central and western sections.

Figure 8 Lineaments and drainage network map. These are extracted from DEM.

also shown in Figure 8. We calculate the

local correlation between drainage and
lineaments using equations 5 and 6. The
local correlation is shown in Figure 9.
These results show that the flow of
streams and their orientation are affected
by lineaments within the range of 1 km. So
in more deformed area they are very much
close to each other and drainage pattern is
more dendrite as it is in the case of the
eastern section of this plateau. The
localized lineaments have their play in
developing the shape of the local drainage Figure 9 Local correlation based upon
though they are also controlled by major drainage network and lineaments extracted
from DEM
tectonic elements as shown in Figure 8.

River profile analysis uses assumption

of steady state condition but in spite of
this drawback it remains a powerful
qualitative tool. This analysis gives
important indications on the undergoing
tectonic processes even though the fluvial
incision processes are not fully
understood. This holds true, especially if

25
J. Mt. Sci. (2009) 6: 14–24

the slope-area data are assessed in the source of this influence is thin skinned
context with other geological information tectonics of the area.
at hand. In the case of the Potwar Plateau,
the eastern section of strong deformation
could be identified. Acknowledgements

Authors wish to thank Prof. YU Dafu

for careful comments which improve the
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